PM_(2.5)-bound polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons(PAHs) in Beijing:Seasonal variations,sources,and risk assessment
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摘要
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons(PAHs) have been of health concern due to its carcinogenesis and mutagenesis. In this study, we aimed to assess the variations, sources, and lifetime excessive cancer risk(ECR) attributable to PAHs bound to ambient particulate matters with aerodynamic diameter less than 2.5 μm(PM_(2.5)) in metropolitan Beijing, China. We collected24-hour integrated PM_(2.5) samples on daily basis between November 2014 and June 2015 across both central heating(cold months) and non-heating(warm months) seasons, and further analyzed the PAH components in these daily PM_(2.5) samples. Our results showed that total concentrations of PM_(2.5)-bound PAHs varied between(88.6 ± 75.4) ng/m~3 in the cold months and(11.0 ± 5.9) ng/m~3 in the warm months. Benzo[a]pyrene(Ba P), the carcinogenic marker of PAHs,averaged at 5.7 and 0.4 ng/m~3 in the cold and warm months, respectively. Source apportionment analyses illustrated that gasoline, biomass burning, diesel, coal combustion and cooking were the major contributors, accounting for 12.9%, 17.8%, 24.7%, 24.3% and 6.4% of PM_(2.5)-bound PAHs, respectively. The BaP equivalent lifetime ECR from inhalation of PM_(2.5)-bound PAHs was 16.2 cases per million habitants. Our results suggested that ambient particulate reduction from energy reconstruction and adaption of clean fuels would result in reductions PM_(2.5)-bound PAHs and its associated cancer risks. However, as only particulate phased PAHs was analyzed in the present study, the concentration of ambient PAHs could be underestimated.
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons(PAHs) have been of health concern due to its carcinogenesis and mutagenesis. In this study, we aimed to assess the variations, sources, and lifetime excessive cancer risk(ECR) attributable to PAHs bound to ambient particulate matters with aerodynamic diameter less than 2.5 μm(PM_(2.5)) in metropolitan Beijing, China. We collected24-hour integrated PM_(2.5) samples on daily basis between November 2014 and June 2015 across both central heating(cold months) and non-heating(warm months) seasons, and further analyzed the PAH components in these daily PM_(2.5) samples. Our results showed that total concentrations of PM_(2.5)-bound PAHs varied between(88.6 ± 75.4) ng/m~3 in the cold months and(11.0 ± 5.9) ng/m~3 in the warm months. Benzo[a]pyrene(Ba P), the carcinogenic marker of PAHs,averaged at 5.7 and 0.4 ng/m~3 in the cold and warm months, respectively. Source apportionment analyses illustrated that gasoline, biomass burning, diesel, coal combustion and cooking were the major contributors, accounting for 12.9%, 17.8%, 24.7%, 24.3% and 6.4% of PM_(2.5)-bound PAHs, respectively. The BaP equivalent lifetime ECR from inhalation of PM_(2.5)-bound PAHs was 16.2 cases per million habitants. Our results suggested that ambient particulate reduction from energy reconstruction and adaption of clean fuels would result in reductions PM_(2.5)-bound PAHs and its associated cancer risks. However, as only particulate phased PAHs was analyzed in the present study, the concentration of ambient PAHs could be underestimated.
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons(PAHs) have been of health concern due to its carcinogenesis and mutagenesis. In this study, we aimed to assess the variations, sources, and lifetime excessive cancer risk(ECR) attributable to PAHs bound to ambient particulate matters with aerodynamic diameter less than 2.5 μm(PM_(2.5)) in metropolitan Beijing, China. We collected24-hour integrated PM_(2.5) samples on daily basis between November 2014 and June 2015 across both central heating(cold months) and non-heating(warm months) seasons, and further analyzed the PAH components in these daily PM_(2.5) samples. Our results showed that total concentrations of PM_(2.5)-bound PAHs varied between(88.6 ± 75.4) ng/m~3 in the cold months and(11.0 ± 5.9) ng/m~3 in the warm months. Benzo[a]pyrene(Ba P), the carcinogenic marker of PAHs,averaged at 5.7 and 0.4 ng/m~3 in the cold and warm months, respectively. Source apportionment analyses illustrated that gasoline, biomass burning, diesel, coal combustion and cooking were the major contributors, accounting for 12.9%, 17.8%, 24.7%, 24.3% and 6.4% of PM_(2.5)-bound PAHs, respectively. The BaP equivalent lifetime ECR from inhalation of PM_(2.5)-bound PAHs was 16.2 cases per million habitants. Our results suggested that ambient particulate reduction from energy reconstruction and adaption of clean fuels would result in reductions PM_(2.5)-bound PAHs and its associated cancer risks. However, as only particulate phased PAHs was analyzed in the present study, the concentration of ambient PAHs could be underestimated.
引文
Agudelo-Casta?eda,D.M.,Teixeira,E.C.,2014.Seasonal changes,identification and source apportionment of PAH in PM1.0.Atmos.Environ.96(7),186-200.
Bandowe,B.A.M.,Meusel,H.,Huang,R.,Ho,K.,Cao,J.,Hoffmann,T.,et al.,2014.PM2.5-bound oxygenated PAHs,nitro-PAHs and parent-PAHs from the atmosphere of a Chinese megacity:seasonal variation,sources and cancer risk assessment.Sci.Total Environ.473-474(3),77-87.
Brook,R.D.,Rajagopalan,S.,2012.Chronic air pollution exposure and endothelial dysfunction:what you can't see-can harm you.J.Am.Coll.Cardiol.60(21),2167-2169.
Bulejko,P.,Adamec,V.,Schüllerová,B.,Ske?il,R.,2016.Levels,sources,and health risk assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in Brno,Czech Republic:a 5-year study.Environ.Sci.Pol.23(20),20462-20473.
Cerná,M.,Pastorková,A.,Vrbíková,V.,Smíd,J.,R?ssner,P.,1999.Mutagenicity monitoring of airborne particulate matter(PM10)in the Czech Republic.Mutat.Res.Genet.Toxicol.Environ.Mutagen.444(2),373-386.
Chen,Y.,Li,X.,Zhu,T.,Han,Y.,Lv,D.,2017.PM2.5-bound PAHs in three indoor and one outdoor air in Beijing:concentration,source and health risk assessment.Sci.Total Environ.586,255-264.
Duan,J.,Tan,J.,Wang,S.,Chai,F.,He,K.,Hao,J.,2012.Roadside,urban,and rural comparison of size distribution characteristics of PAHs and carbonaceous components of Beijing,China.J.Atmos.Chem.69(4),337-349.
Galarneau,E.,2008.Source specificity and atmospheric processing of airborne PAHs:implications for source apportionment.Atmos.Environ.42(35),8139-8149.
Gao,Y.,Guo,X.,Ji,H.,Li,C.,Ding,H.,Briki,M.,et al.,2016.Potential threat of heavy metals and PAHs in PM2.5in different urban functional areas of Beijing.Atmos.Res.178-179,6-16.
Guo,X.,Li,C.,Gao,Y.,Tang,L.,Briki,M.,Ding,H.,et al.,2016.Sources of organic matter(PAHs and n-alkanes)in PM2.5of Beijing in haze weather analyzed by combining the C-N isotopic and PCA-MLRanalyses.Environ.Sci.Processes Impacts 18(3),314-322.
Ho,S.S.H.,Yu,J.Z.,Chow,J.C.,Zielinska,B.,Watson,J.G.,Sit,E.H.L.,et al.,2008.Evaluation of an in-injection port thermal desorption-gas chromatography/mass spectrometry method for analysis of non-polar organic compounds in ambient aerosol samples.J.Chromatogr.A 1200(2),217-227.
Ho,S.S.H.,Chow,J.C.,Watson,J.G.,Ting Ng,L.P.,Kwok,Y.,Ho,K.F.,et al.,2011.Precautions for in-injection port thermal desorption-gas chromatography/mass spectrometry(TD-GC/MS)as applied to aerosol filter samples.Atmos.Environ.45(7),1491-1496.
Huang,X.F.,He,L.Y.,Hu,M.,Zhang,Y.H.,2006.Annual variation of particulate organic compounds in PM2.5in the urban atmosphere of Beijing.Atmos.Environ.40(14),2449-2458.
Huang,W.,Wang,G.,Lu,S.E.,Kipen,H.,Wang,Y.,Hu,M.,et al.,2012.Inflammatory and oxidative stress responses of healthy young adults to changes in air quality during the Beijing Olympics.Am.J.Respir.Crit.Care Med.186(11),1150-1159.
Huang,B.,Liu,M.,Bi,X.,Chaemfa,C.,Ren,Z.,Wang,X.,et al.,2014.Phase distribution,sources and risk assessment of PAHs,NPAHs and OPAHs in a rural site of Pearl River Delta region,China.Atmos.Pollut.Res.5(2),210-218.
Jiang,Y.,Hou,X.,Zhuang,G.,Li,J.,Wang,Q.,Zhang,R.,et al.,2009.The sources and seasonal variations of organic compounds in PM2.5in Beijing and Shanghai.J.Atmos.Chem.62(3),175-192.
Jiang,B.,Liang,Y.,Xu,C.,Zhang,J.,Hu,M.,Shi,Q.,2014.Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons(PAHs)in ambient aerosols from Beijing:characterization of low volatile pahs by positive-ion atmospheric pressure photoionization(APPI)coupled with fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance.Environ.Sci.Technol.48(9),4716-4723.
Li,X.,Guo,X.,Liu,X.,Liu,C.,Mang,S.,Wang,Y.,2009.Distribution and sources of solvent extractable organic compounds in PM2.5during 2007 Chinese Spring Festival in Beijing.J.Environ.Sci.21(2),142-149.
Li,X.,Wang,Y.,Guo,X.,Wang,Y.,2013a.Seasonal variation and source apportionment of organic and inorganic compounds in PM2.5and PM10particulates in Beijing,China.J.Environ.Sci.25(4),741-750.
Li,Y.,Cao,J.,Li,J.,Zhou,J.,Xu,H.,Zhang,R.,et al.,2013b.Molecular distribution and seasonal variation of hydrocarbons in PM2.5from Beijing during 2006.Particuology 11(1),78-85.
Liang,X.,Zou,T.,Guo,B.,Li,S.,Zhang,H.,Zhang,S.,et al.,2015.Assessing Beijing's PM2.5pollution:severity,weather impact,APEC and winter heating.Proc.R.Soc.A Math.Phys.471,1-20.
Lim,S.S.,Vos,T.,Flaxman,A.D.,Danaei,G.,Shibuya,K.,Adairrohani,H.,et al.,2012.A comparative risk assessment of burden of disease and injury attributable to 67 risk factors and risk factor clusters in 21 regions,1990-2010:a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010.Lancet380(9859),2224-2260.
Lin,Y.,Ma,Y.,Qiu,X.,Li,R.,Fang,Y.,Wang,J.,et al.,2015a.Sources,transformation,and health implications of PAHs and their nitrated,hydroxylated,and oxygenated derivatives in PM2.5in Beijing.J.Geophys.Res.Atmos.120(14),7219-7228.
Lin,Y.,Qiu,X.,Ma,Y.,Ma,J.,Zheng,M.,Shao,M.,2015b.Concentrations and spatial distribution of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons(PAHs)and nitrated PAHs(NPAHs)in the atmosphere of North China,and the transformation from PAHs to NPAHs.Environ.Pollut.196,164-170.
Liu,B.,Xue,Z.,Zhu,X.,Jia,C.,2017.Long-term trends(1990-2014),health risks,and sources of atmospheric polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons(PAHs)in the U.S.Environ.Pollut.220,1171-1179.
Loomis,D.,Grosse,Y.,Lauby-Secretan,B.,El Ghissassi,F.,Bouvard,V.,Benbrahim-Tallaa,L.,et al.,2013.The carcinogenicity of outdoor air pollution.Lancet Oncol.14(13),1262-1263.
Loomis,D.,Huang,W.,Chen,G.,2014.The International Agency for Research on Cancer(IARC)evaluation of the carcinogenicity of outdoor air pollution:focus on China.Chin.J.Cancer 33(4),189-196.
Ministry of Environmental Protection of the People's Republic of China,2012.Ambient Air Quality Standards(GB-3095-2012,in Chinese).
Mirante,F.,Alves,C.,Pio,C.,Pindado,O.,Perez,R.,Revuelta,M.A.,et al.,2013.Organic composition of size segregated atmospheric particulate matter,during summer and winter sampling campaigns at representative sites in Madrid,Spain.Atmos.Res.132(10),345-361.
National Bureau of Statistics of China,2016.China Statistic Yearbook 2016.China Statistics Press,Beijing.
Okuda,T.,Okamoto,K.,Tanaka,S.,Shen,Z.,Han,Y.,Huo,Z.,2010.Measurement and source identification of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons(PAHs)in the aerosol in Xi'an,China,by using automated column chromatography and applying positive matrix factorization(PMF).Sci.Total Environ.408(8),1909-1914.
Pedersen,D.U.,Durant,J.L.,Penman,B.W.,Crespi,C.L.,Hemond,H.F.,Lafleur,A.L.,et al.,2004.Human-cell mutagens in respirable airborne particles in the northeastern United States.1.Mutagenicity of fractionated samples.Environ.Sci.Technol.38(3),682-689.
Ravindra,K.,Sokhi,R.,Grieken,S.R.V.,2008.Atmospheric polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons:source attribution,emission factors and regulation.Atmos.Environ.42(13),2895-2921.
Rich,D.Q.,Kipen,H.M.,Huang,W.,Wang,G.,Wang,Y.,Zhu,P.,et al.,2012.Association between changes in air pollution levels during the Beijing Olympics and biomarkers of inflammation and thrombosis in healthy young adults.JAMA 307(19),2068-2078.
Tobiszewski,M.,Namie?nik,J.,2012.PAH diagnostic ratios for the identification of pollution emission sources.Environ.Pollut.162(1),110-119.
USEPA(United States Environmental Protection Agency),2010.Development of A Relative Potency Factor(RPF)approach for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon(PAH)mixtures.
USEPA(United States Environmental Protection Agency),2014.EPA Positive Matrix Factorization(PMF)5.0 Fundamentals,User Guide.USEPA Office of Research and Development,Washington DC USA.
Valotto,G.,Rampazzo,G.,Gonella,F.,Formenton,G.,Ficotto,S.,Giraldo,G.,2017.Source apportionment of PAHs and n-alkanes bound to PM1collected near the Venice highway.J.Environ.Sci.54(4),77-89.
Vasconcellos,P.C.,Souza,D.Z.,Magalh?es,D.,Rocha,G.O.D.,2011.Seasonal variation of n-alkanes and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon concentrations in PM10samples collected at urban sites of S?o Paulo State,Brazil.Water Air Soil Pollut.222(1-4),325-336.
Viras,L.G.,Athanasiou,K.,Siskos,P.A.,1990.Determination of mutagenic activity of airborne particulates and of the benzo[α]pyrene concentrations in Athens atmosphere.Atmos.Environ.24(2),267-274.
Wang,X.,Cheng,H.,Xu,X.,Zhuang,G.,Zhao,C.,2008.Awintertime study of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in PM2.5and PM2.5-10in Beijing:assessment of energy structure conversion.J.Hazard.Mater.157(1),47-56.
Wang,W.,Jariyasopit,N.,Schrlau,J.,Jia,Y.,Tao,S.,Yu,T.W.,et al.,2011.Concentration and photochemistry of PAHs,NPAHs,and OPAHs and toxicity of PM2.5during the Beijing Olympic Games.Environ.Sci.Technol.45(16),6887-6895.
Wang,J.,Ho,S.S.H.,Cao,J.,Huang,R.,Zhou,J.,Zhao,Y.,et al.,2015.Characteristics and major sources of carbonaceous aerosols in PM2.5from Sanya,China.Sci.Total Environ.530-531C,110-119.
World Health Organization,1993.Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality.
Wu,Y.,Yang,L.,Zheng,X.,Zhang,S.,Song,S.,Li,J.,et al.,2014.Characterization and source apportionment of particulate PAHs in the roadside environment in Beijing.Sci.Total Environ.470-471(2),76-83.
Yao,Z.,Li,J.,Wu,B.,Hao,X.,Yin,Y.,Jiang,X.,2015.Characteristics of PAHs from deep-frying and frying cooking fumes.Environ.Sci.Pollut.Res.Int.22(20),16110-16120.
Zhang,S.,Zhang,W.,Wang,K.,Shen,Y.,Hu,L.,Wang,X.,2009.Concentration,distribution and source apportionment of atmospheric polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the southeast suburb of Beijing,China.Environ.Monit.Assess.151(1-4),197-207.
Zhang,T.,Peng,L.,Li,Y.,Liu,H.,Wang,Y.,Wang,Y.,2016.Chemical charateristics of PM2.5emitted from cooking fumes.Research of Environmental Sciences 29(2),183-191(Article in Chinese).
Bandowe,B.A.M.,Meusel,H.,Huang,R.,Ho,K.,Cao,J.,Hoffmann,T.,et al.,2014.PM2.5-bound oxygenated PAHs,nitro-PAHs and parent-PAHs from the atmosphere of a Chinese megacity:seasonal variation,sources and cancer risk assessment.Sci.Total Environ.473-474(3),77-87.
Brook,R.D.,Rajagopalan,S.,2012.Chronic air pollution exposure and endothelial dysfunction:what you can't see-can harm you.J.Am.Coll.Cardiol.60(21),2167-2169.
Bulejko,P.,Adamec,V.,Schüllerová,B.,Ske?il,R.,2016.Levels,sources,and health risk assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in Brno,Czech Republic:a 5-year study.Environ.Sci.Pol.23(20),20462-20473.
Cerná,M.,Pastorková,A.,Vrbíková,V.,Smíd,J.,R?ssner,P.,1999.Mutagenicity monitoring of airborne particulate matter(PM10)in the Czech Republic.Mutat.Res.Genet.Toxicol.Environ.Mutagen.444(2),373-386.
Chen,Y.,Li,X.,Zhu,T.,Han,Y.,Lv,D.,2017.PM2.5-bound PAHs in three indoor and one outdoor air in Beijing:concentration,source and health risk assessment.Sci.Total Environ.586,255-264.
Duan,J.,Tan,J.,Wang,S.,Chai,F.,He,K.,Hao,J.,2012.Roadside,urban,and rural comparison of size distribution characteristics of PAHs and carbonaceous components of Beijing,China.J.Atmos.Chem.69(4),337-349.
Galarneau,E.,2008.Source specificity and atmospheric processing of airborne PAHs:implications for source apportionment.Atmos.Environ.42(35),8139-8149.
Gao,Y.,Guo,X.,Ji,H.,Li,C.,Ding,H.,Briki,M.,et al.,2016.Potential threat of heavy metals and PAHs in PM2.5in different urban functional areas of Beijing.Atmos.Res.178-179,6-16.
Guo,X.,Li,C.,Gao,Y.,Tang,L.,Briki,M.,Ding,H.,et al.,2016.Sources of organic matter(PAHs and n-alkanes)in PM2.5of Beijing in haze weather analyzed by combining the C-N isotopic and PCA-MLRanalyses.Environ.Sci.Processes Impacts 18(3),314-322.
Ho,S.S.H.,Yu,J.Z.,Chow,J.C.,Zielinska,B.,Watson,J.G.,Sit,E.H.L.,et al.,2008.Evaluation of an in-injection port thermal desorption-gas chromatography/mass spectrometry method for analysis of non-polar organic compounds in ambient aerosol samples.J.Chromatogr.A 1200(2),217-227.
Ho,S.S.H.,Chow,J.C.,Watson,J.G.,Ting Ng,L.P.,Kwok,Y.,Ho,K.F.,et al.,2011.Precautions for in-injection port thermal desorption-gas chromatography/mass spectrometry(TD-GC/MS)as applied to aerosol filter samples.Atmos.Environ.45(7),1491-1496.
Huang,X.F.,He,L.Y.,Hu,M.,Zhang,Y.H.,2006.Annual variation of particulate organic compounds in PM2.5in the urban atmosphere of Beijing.Atmos.Environ.40(14),2449-2458.
Huang,W.,Wang,G.,Lu,S.E.,Kipen,H.,Wang,Y.,Hu,M.,et al.,2012.Inflammatory and oxidative stress responses of healthy young adults to changes in air quality during the Beijing Olympics.Am.J.Respir.Crit.Care Med.186(11),1150-1159.
Huang,B.,Liu,M.,Bi,X.,Chaemfa,C.,Ren,Z.,Wang,X.,et al.,2014.Phase distribution,sources and risk assessment of PAHs,NPAHs and OPAHs in a rural site of Pearl River Delta region,China.Atmos.Pollut.Res.5(2),210-218.
Jiang,Y.,Hou,X.,Zhuang,G.,Li,J.,Wang,Q.,Zhang,R.,et al.,2009.The sources and seasonal variations of organic compounds in PM2.5in Beijing and Shanghai.J.Atmos.Chem.62(3),175-192.
Jiang,B.,Liang,Y.,Xu,C.,Zhang,J.,Hu,M.,Shi,Q.,2014.Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons(PAHs)in ambient aerosols from Beijing:characterization of low volatile pahs by positive-ion atmospheric pressure photoionization(APPI)coupled with fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance.Environ.Sci.Technol.48(9),4716-4723.
Li,X.,Guo,X.,Liu,X.,Liu,C.,Mang,S.,Wang,Y.,2009.Distribution and sources of solvent extractable organic compounds in PM2.5during 2007 Chinese Spring Festival in Beijing.J.Environ.Sci.21(2),142-149.
Li,X.,Wang,Y.,Guo,X.,Wang,Y.,2013a.Seasonal variation and source apportionment of organic and inorganic compounds in PM2.5and PM10particulates in Beijing,China.J.Environ.Sci.25(4),741-750.
Li,Y.,Cao,J.,Li,J.,Zhou,J.,Xu,H.,Zhang,R.,et al.,2013b.Molecular distribution and seasonal variation of hydrocarbons in PM2.5from Beijing during 2006.Particuology 11(1),78-85.
Liang,X.,Zou,T.,Guo,B.,Li,S.,Zhang,H.,Zhang,S.,et al.,2015.Assessing Beijing's PM2.5pollution:severity,weather impact,APEC and winter heating.Proc.R.Soc.A Math.Phys.471,1-20.
Lim,S.S.,Vos,T.,Flaxman,A.D.,Danaei,G.,Shibuya,K.,Adairrohani,H.,et al.,2012.A comparative risk assessment of burden of disease and injury attributable to 67 risk factors and risk factor clusters in 21 regions,1990-2010:a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010.Lancet380(9859),2224-2260.
Lin,Y.,Ma,Y.,Qiu,X.,Li,R.,Fang,Y.,Wang,J.,et al.,2015a.Sources,transformation,and health implications of PAHs and their nitrated,hydroxylated,and oxygenated derivatives in PM2.5in Beijing.J.Geophys.Res.Atmos.120(14),7219-7228.
Lin,Y.,Qiu,X.,Ma,Y.,Ma,J.,Zheng,M.,Shao,M.,2015b.Concentrations and spatial distribution of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons(PAHs)and nitrated PAHs(NPAHs)in the atmosphere of North China,and the transformation from PAHs to NPAHs.Environ.Pollut.196,164-170.
Liu,B.,Xue,Z.,Zhu,X.,Jia,C.,2017.Long-term trends(1990-2014),health risks,and sources of atmospheric polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons(PAHs)in the U.S.Environ.Pollut.220,1171-1179.
Loomis,D.,Grosse,Y.,Lauby-Secretan,B.,El Ghissassi,F.,Bouvard,V.,Benbrahim-Tallaa,L.,et al.,2013.The carcinogenicity of outdoor air pollution.Lancet Oncol.14(13),1262-1263.
Loomis,D.,Huang,W.,Chen,G.,2014.The International Agency for Research on Cancer(IARC)evaluation of the carcinogenicity of outdoor air pollution:focus on China.Chin.J.Cancer 33(4),189-196.
Ministry of Environmental Protection of the People's Republic of China,2012.Ambient Air Quality Standards(GB-3095-2012,in Chinese).
Mirante,F.,Alves,C.,Pio,C.,Pindado,O.,Perez,R.,Revuelta,M.A.,et al.,2013.Organic composition of size segregated atmospheric particulate matter,during summer and winter sampling campaigns at representative sites in Madrid,Spain.Atmos.Res.132(10),345-361.
National Bureau of Statistics of China,2016.China Statistic Yearbook 2016.China Statistics Press,Beijing.
Okuda,T.,Okamoto,K.,Tanaka,S.,Shen,Z.,Han,Y.,Huo,Z.,2010.Measurement and source identification of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons(PAHs)in the aerosol in Xi'an,China,by using automated column chromatography and applying positive matrix factorization(PMF).Sci.Total Environ.408(8),1909-1914.
Pedersen,D.U.,Durant,J.L.,Penman,B.W.,Crespi,C.L.,Hemond,H.F.,Lafleur,A.L.,et al.,2004.Human-cell mutagens in respirable airborne particles in the northeastern United States.1.Mutagenicity of fractionated samples.Environ.Sci.Technol.38(3),682-689.
Ravindra,K.,Sokhi,R.,Grieken,S.R.V.,2008.Atmospheric polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons:source attribution,emission factors and regulation.Atmos.Environ.42(13),2895-2921.
Rich,D.Q.,Kipen,H.M.,Huang,W.,Wang,G.,Wang,Y.,Zhu,P.,et al.,2012.Association between changes in air pollution levels during the Beijing Olympics and biomarkers of inflammation and thrombosis in healthy young adults.JAMA 307(19),2068-2078.
Tobiszewski,M.,Namie?nik,J.,2012.PAH diagnostic ratios for the identification of pollution emission sources.Environ.Pollut.162(1),110-119.
USEPA(United States Environmental Protection Agency),2010.Development of A Relative Potency Factor(RPF)approach for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon(PAH)mixtures.
USEPA(United States Environmental Protection Agency),2014.EPA Positive Matrix Factorization(PMF)5.0 Fundamentals,User Guide.USEPA Office of Research and Development,Washington DC USA.
Valotto,G.,Rampazzo,G.,Gonella,F.,Formenton,G.,Ficotto,S.,Giraldo,G.,2017.Source apportionment of PAHs and n-alkanes bound to PM1collected near the Venice highway.J.Environ.Sci.54(4),77-89.
Vasconcellos,P.C.,Souza,D.Z.,Magalh?es,D.,Rocha,G.O.D.,2011.Seasonal variation of n-alkanes and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon concentrations in PM10samples collected at urban sites of S?o Paulo State,Brazil.Water Air Soil Pollut.222(1-4),325-336.
Viras,L.G.,Athanasiou,K.,Siskos,P.A.,1990.Determination of mutagenic activity of airborne particulates and of the benzo[α]pyrene concentrations in Athens atmosphere.Atmos.Environ.24(2),267-274.
Wang,X.,Cheng,H.,Xu,X.,Zhuang,G.,Zhao,C.,2008.Awintertime study of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in PM2.5and PM2.5-10in Beijing:assessment of energy structure conversion.J.Hazard.Mater.157(1),47-56.
Wang,W.,Jariyasopit,N.,Schrlau,J.,Jia,Y.,Tao,S.,Yu,T.W.,et al.,2011.Concentration and photochemistry of PAHs,NPAHs,and OPAHs and toxicity of PM2.5during the Beijing Olympic Games.Environ.Sci.Technol.45(16),6887-6895.
Wang,J.,Ho,S.S.H.,Cao,J.,Huang,R.,Zhou,J.,Zhao,Y.,et al.,2015.Characteristics and major sources of carbonaceous aerosols in PM2.5from Sanya,China.Sci.Total Environ.530-531C,110-119.
World Health Organization,1993.Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality.
Wu,Y.,Yang,L.,Zheng,X.,Zhang,S.,Song,S.,Li,J.,et al.,2014.Characterization and source apportionment of particulate PAHs in the roadside environment in Beijing.Sci.Total Environ.470-471(2),76-83.
Yao,Z.,Li,J.,Wu,B.,Hao,X.,Yin,Y.,Jiang,X.,2015.Characteristics of PAHs from deep-frying and frying cooking fumes.Environ.Sci.Pollut.Res.Int.22(20),16110-16120.
Zhang,S.,Zhang,W.,Wang,K.,Shen,Y.,Hu,L.,Wang,X.,2009.Concentration,distribution and source apportionment of atmospheric polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the southeast suburb of Beijing,China.Environ.Monit.Assess.151(1-4),197-207.
Zhang,T.,Peng,L.,Li,Y.,Liu,H.,Wang,Y.,Wang,Y.,2016.Chemical charateristics of PM2.5emitted from cooking fumes.Research of Environmental Sciences 29(2),183-191(Article in Chinese).