Conserving and restoring the Caicos pine forests: The first decade
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摘要
The severe and rapid attack on the Caicos pine Pinus caribaea var. bahamensis(Pinaceae) by the nonnative invasive pine tortoise scale, Toumeyella parvicornis, has resulted in the death of most of the trees in the Turks and Caicos Islands(TCI) in just over a decade. Local and international conservation efforts have enabled the necessary multi-disciplinary research, data gathering, and monitoring to develop and implement a restoration strategy for this endemic tree from the Bahaman archipelago. The native plant nursery established on North Caicos and horticultural expertise acquired throughout the years were crucial to the successful rescue of Caicos pine saplings from the wild populations and cultivation of new saplings grown from locally sourced seeds. These saplings have been used to establish six Restoration Trial Plots on Pine Cay and a seed orchard on North Caicos in TCI. Core Conservation Areas(CCAs) for the Caicos pine forests have been identified and mapped. To date, forest within the Pine Cay CCA has been supplemented by planting more than 450 pine trees, which have survived at a high(>80%)rate.
The severe and rapid attack on the Caicos pine Pinus caribaea var. bahamensis(Pinaceae) by the nonnative invasive pine tortoise scale, Toumeyella parvicornis, has resulted in the death of most of the trees in the Turks and Caicos Islands(TCI) in just over a decade. Local and international conservation efforts have enabled the necessary multi-disciplinary research, data gathering, and monitoring to develop and implement a restoration strategy for this endemic tree from the Bahaman archipelago. The native plant nursery established on North Caicos and horticultural expertise acquired throughout the years were crucial to the successful rescue of Caicos pine saplings from the wild populations and cultivation of new saplings grown from locally sourced seeds. These saplings have been used to establish six Restoration Trial Plots on Pine Cay and a seed orchard on North Caicos in TCI. Core Conservation Areas(CCAs) for the Caicos pine forests have been identified and mapped. To date, forest within the Pine Cay CCA has been supplemented by planting more than 450 pine trees, which have survived at a high(>80%)rate.
The severe and rapid attack on the Caicos pine Pinus caribaea var. bahamensis(Pinaceae) by the nonnative invasive pine tortoise scale, Toumeyella parvicornis, has resulted in the death of most of the trees in the Turks and Caicos Islands(TCI) in just over a decade. Local and international conservation efforts have enabled the necessary multi-disciplinary research, data gathering, and monitoring to develop and implement a restoration strategy for this endemic tree from the Bahaman archipelago. The native plant nursery established on North Caicos and horticultural expertise acquired throughout the years were crucial to the successful rescue of Caicos pine saplings from the wild populations and cultivation of new saplings grown from locally sourced seeds. These saplings have been used to establish six Restoration Trial Plots on Pine Cay and a seed orchard on North Caicos in TCI. Core Conservation Areas(CCAs) for the Caicos pine forests have been identified and mapped. To date, forest within the Pine Cay CCA has been supplemented by planting more than 450 pine trees, which have survived at a high(>80%)rate.
引文
Ayres,M.P.,Lombardero,M.J.,2017.Forest pests and their management in the Anthropocene.Can.J.For.Res.1e10.https://doi.org/10.1139/cjfr-2017-0033.
Bell,G.,Sena,K.L.,Barton,C.D.,French,M.,2017.Establishing pine monocultures and mixed pine-hardwood stands on reclaimed surface mined land in Eastern Kentucky:implications for forest resilience in a changing climate.Forests 8,1e11.https://doi.org/10.3390/f8100375.
Earle-Mundil,H.,2010.Permanent Monitoring Plots for the National Tree Pinus Caribaea Var.Bahamensis and Assessment of the Distribution and Conservation Status of an Associated Endemic Species Stenandrium Carolinae in the Turks and Caicos Islands.MSc.Thesis.Imperial College London,U.K.
Elsner,J.B.,Jagger,T.H.,2010.On the increasing intensity of the strongest Atlantic hurricanes.In:Elsner,J.B.,Hodges,R.E.E.,Malmstadt,J.C.C.,Scheitlin,K.N.N.(Eds.),Hurricanes and Climate Change.Springer,Netherlands,pp.175e190.https://doi.org/10.1007/978-90-481-9510-7_10.
Farjon,A.,Styles,B.T.,1997.Monograph 75.Pinus(Pinaceae).Flora Neotrop.75,1e291.http://www.jstor.org/stable/4393881.ISSN 0071-5794.
Gardiner,B.,Marshall,B.,Achim,A.,Belcher,R.,Wood,C.,2005.The stability of different silvicultural systems:a wind-tunnel investigation.Forestry 78,471e484.https://doi.org/10.1093/forestry/cpi053.
Green,P.W.C.,Hamilton,M.A.,Sanchez,M.D.,Fang,R.,2017.Phenotypic plasticity in the emission of terpenes by a threatened pine species(Pinus caribaea var.bahamensis):effects of scale infestation and environment.For.An Int.J.For.Res.90,553e560.https://doi.org/10.1093/forestry/cpx013.
Green,S.J.C.E.,2011.The Caribbean Pine(Pinus Caribaea Var.Bahamensis):Monitoring and Ecology,in the Turks and Caicos Islands.MSc.Thesis.Imperial College London,U.K.
Hamilton,M.A.,Baena,S.,Sanchez,M.D.,Moat,J.,McMeekin,B.,Jones,M.,Manco,B.N.,Salamanca,E.F.,2010.Mapping the pine rocklands of the Turks and Caicos Islands.In:Pine Rockland Working Group Conference 2010d Consequences of Fragmentation;10-13 Feb 2010,p.1.Miami,USA.
Hamilton,M.A.,Pavlik,B.M.,Barlow,S.E.,Manco,B.N.,Blaise,J.,Avenant,A.,Hornsby,B.,Hiers,K.,O'Brien,J.,Sanchez,M.D.,2016.Caicos Pine Recovery Project National Tree Restoration Strategy:2016-2036 Restoration Strategy to Secure the Caicos Pine for Future Generations.Royal Botanic Gardens,Kew,Richmond,Surrey,UK.https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.1.1995.5602.
Hamilton,M.A.,Sanchez,M.D.,2015.Turks&Caicos Islands,Field Visit Report,OFC417e10,May 2015.Royal Botanic Gardens,Kew,Richmond,Surrey,U.K.
Hamilton,M.A.,Sanchez,M.D.,2014.Turks&Caicos Islands,Field Visit Report,OFC417e418,November 2014.Royal Botanic Gardens,Kew,Richmond,Surrey,U.K.
Hudson,A.,2012.Recovery of the Endemic Caicos Pine:Invasive Pest Management and Restoration.MSc.Thesis.Imperial College London,U.K.
IPCC,2012.Summary for policymakers.In:Field,C.B.,Barros,V.,Stocker,T.F.,Qin,D.,Dokken,D.J.,Ebi,K.L.,Mastrandrea,M.D.,Mach,K.J.,Plattner,G.-K.,Allen,S.K.,Tignor,M.,Midgley,P.M.(Eds.),Managing the Risks of Extreme Events and Disasters to Advance Climate Change Adaptation.A Special Report of Working Groups I and II of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.Cambridge University Press,Cambridge,UK,and New York,NY,USA,pp.1e19.https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139177245.
Malumphy,C.,Hamilton,M.A.,Manco,B.N.,Green,P.W.C.,Sanchez,M.D.,Corcoran,M.,Salamanca,E.,2012.Toumeyella parvicornis(Hemiptera:Coccidae),causing severe decline of Pinus caribaea var.bahamensis in the Turks and Caicos Islands.Fla.Entomol.95,113e119.https://doi.org/10.1653/024.095.0118.
Malumphy,C.,Hamilton,M.A.,Sanchez,M.D.,Green,P.W.C.,2016.Trapping confirms aerial recruitment of pine tortoise scale(Toumeyella parvicornis(Cockerell))(Hemiptera:Coccidae)in the Turks and Caicos Islands.Entomol.Mon.Mag.152,193e200.
Manco,B.N.,Sanchez,M.D.,Blaise,J.,Hamilton,M.A.,2016.Caicos Pine Recovery Project Socio-cultural History Report:Results and Findings of Pine Yard Interviews with Caicos Islanders.https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.1.3441.4489.Richmond,Surrey,UK.
Mark,J.,2012.Conservation and Management of the Carribbean Pine,Pinus Caribaea Var.Bahamensis in the Turks and Caicos:Treating Scale and Burning Broadleaf.MSc.Thesis.Imperial College London,U.K.
Myers,R.,Wade,D.,Bergh,C.,2004.Fire Management Assessment of the Caribbean Pine(Pinus Caribaea)Forest Ecosystems on Andros and Abaco Islands,Bahamas,the Global Fire Initiative.The Nature Conservancy,Arlington,Virginia.
Ross,M.S.,O'Brien,J.J.,Ford,R.G.,Zhang,K.,Morkill,A.,2009.Disturbance and the rising tide:the challenge of biodiversity management on low-island ecosystems.Front.Ecol.Environ.7,471e478.https://doi.org/10.1890/070221.
Sanchez,M.D.,2012.Conservation Genetics and Biogeography of the Caribbean Pine(Pinus Caribaea Var.Bahamensis)in the Bahaman Archipelago.PhD Thesis.Birkbeck,University of London,U.K.
Sanchez,M.D.,Green,P.W.C.,Martinez-Suz,L.,Dentinger,B.,Ainsworth,M.,Davies,R.,Balding,S.,Pavlik,B.M.,Barlow,S.E.,2016a.Caicos Pine Recovery Project Scientific Data and Results:Sampling and Analyses Undertaken.Royal Botanic Gardens,Kew,Richmond,Surrey,UK.https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.1.1557.2881.
Sanchez,M.D.,Hamilton,M.A.,Farjon,A.,2013.Pinus Caribaea Var.Bahamensis[WWWDocument].https://doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2013-1.RLTS.T20364362A20402659.en.IUCN Red List Threat.Species.Version 2014.2.
Sanchez,M.D.,Ingrouille,M.J.,Cowan,R.S.,Hamilton,M.A.,Fay,M.F.,2014.Spatial structure and genetic diversity of natural populations of the Caribbean pine,Pinus caribaea var.bahamensis(Pinaceae),in the Bahaman archipelago.Bot.J.Linn.Soc.174,359e383.https://doi.org/10.1111/boj.12146.
Sanchez,M.D.,Pavlik,B.M.,Barlow,S.E.,Corcoran,M.R.,Martinez-Suz,L.,Dentinger,B.T.M.,Manco,B.N.,Blaise,J.,Hamilton,M.A.,2016b.Caicos Pine Recovery Project Protocols:Standards and Methodologies to Conserve the TCINational Tree.Royal Botanic Gardens,Kew,Richmond,Surrey,UK.https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.1.3310.3764.
Whitaker,F.F.,Smart,P.L.,1997.Hydrogeology of the bahamian archipelago.In:Vacher,H.L.,Quinn,T.(Eds.),Geology and Hydrogeology of Carbonate Islands.Developments in Sedimentology No.54.Elsevier Science B.V.,pp.183e216
Bell,G.,Sena,K.L.,Barton,C.D.,French,M.,2017.Establishing pine monocultures and mixed pine-hardwood stands on reclaimed surface mined land in Eastern Kentucky:implications for forest resilience in a changing climate.Forests 8,1e11.https://doi.org/10.3390/f8100375.
Earle-Mundil,H.,2010.Permanent Monitoring Plots for the National Tree Pinus Caribaea Var.Bahamensis and Assessment of the Distribution and Conservation Status of an Associated Endemic Species Stenandrium Carolinae in the Turks and Caicos Islands.MSc.Thesis.Imperial College London,U.K.
Elsner,J.B.,Jagger,T.H.,2010.On the increasing intensity of the strongest Atlantic hurricanes.In:Elsner,J.B.,Hodges,R.E.E.,Malmstadt,J.C.C.,Scheitlin,K.N.N.(Eds.),Hurricanes and Climate Change.Springer,Netherlands,pp.175e190.https://doi.org/10.1007/978-90-481-9510-7_10.
Farjon,A.,Styles,B.T.,1997.Monograph 75.Pinus(Pinaceae).Flora Neotrop.75,1e291.http://www.jstor.org/stable/4393881.ISSN 0071-5794.
Gardiner,B.,Marshall,B.,Achim,A.,Belcher,R.,Wood,C.,2005.The stability of different silvicultural systems:a wind-tunnel investigation.Forestry 78,471e484.https://doi.org/10.1093/forestry/cpi053.
Green,P.W.C.,Hamilton,M.A.,Sanchez,M.D.,Fang,R.,2017.Phenotypic plasticity in the emission of terpenes by a threatened pine species(Pinus caribaea var.bahamensis):effects of scale infestation and environment.For.An Int.J.For.Res.90,553e560.https://doi.org/10.1093/forestry/cpx013.
Green,S.J.C.E.,2011.The Caribbean Pine(Pinus Caribaea Var.Bahamensis):Monitoring and Ecology,in the Turks and Caicos Islands.MSc.Thesis.Imperial College London,U.K.
Hamilton,M.A.,Baena,S.,Sanchez,M.D.,Moat,J.,McMeekin,B.,Jones,M.,Manco,B.N.,Salamanca,E.F.,2010.Mapping the pine rocklands of the Turks and Caicos Islands.In:Pine Rockland Working Group Conference 2010d Consequences of Fragmentation;10-13 Feb 2010,p.1.Miami,USA.
Hamilton,M.A.,Pavlik,B.M.,Barlow,S.E.,Manco,B.N.,Blaise,J.,Avenant,A.,Hornsby,B.,Hiers,K.,O'Brien,J.,Sanchez,M.D.,2016.Caicos Pine Recovery Project National Tree Restoration Strategy:2016-2036 Restoration Strategy to Secure the Caicos Pine for Future Generations.Royal Botanic Gardens,Kew,Richmond,Surrey,UK.https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.1.1995.5602.
Hamilton,M.A.,Sanchez,M.D.,2015.Turks&Caicos Islands,Field Visit Report,OFC417e10,May 2015.Royal Botanic Gardens,Kew,Richmond,Surrey,U.K.
Hamilton,M.A.,Sanchez,M.D.,2014.Turks&Caicos Islands,Field Visit Report,OFC417e418,November 2014.Royal Botanic Gardens,Kew,Richmond,Surrey,U.K.
Hudson,A.,2012.Recovery of the Endemic Caicos Pine:Invasive Pest Management and Restoration.MSc.Thesis.Imperial College London,U.K.
IPCC,2012.Summary for policymakers.In:Field,C.B.,Barros,V.,Stocker,T.F.,Qin,D.,Dokken,D.J.,Ebi,K.L.,Mastrandrea,M.D.,Mach,K.J.,Plattner,G.-K.,Allen,S.K.,Tignor,M.,Midgley,P.M.(Eds.),Managing the Risks of Extreme Events and Disasters to Advance Climate Change Adaptation.A Special Report of Working Groups I and II of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.Cambridge University Press,Cambridge,UK,and New York,NY,USA,pp.1e19.https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139177245.
Malumphy,C.,Hamilton,M.A.,Manco,B.N.,Green,P.W.C.,Sanchez,M.D.,Corcoran,M.,Salamanca,E.,2012.Toumeyella parvicornis(Hemiptera:Coccidae),causing severe decline of Pinus caribaea var.bahamensis in the Turks and Caicos Islands.Fla.Entomol.95,113e119.https://doi.org/10.1653/024.095.0118.
Malumphy,C.,Hamilton,M.A.,Sanchez,M.D.,Green,P.W.C.,2016.Trapping confirms aerial recruitment of pine tortoise scale(Toumeyella parvicornis(Cockerell))(Hemiptera:Coccidae)in the Turks and Caicos Islands.Entomol.Mon.Mag.152,193e200.
Manco,B.N.,Sanchez,M.D.,Blaise,J.,Hamilton,M.A.,2016.Caicos Pine Recovery Project Socio-cultural History Report:Results and Findings of Pine Yard Interviews with Caicos Islanders.https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.1.3441.4489.Richmond,Surrey,UK.
Mark,J.,2012.Conservation and Management of the Carribbean Pine,Pinus Caribaea Var.Bahamensis in the Turks and Caicos:Treating Scale and Burning Broadleaf.MSc.Thesis.Imperial College London,U.K.
Myers,R.,Wade,D.,Bergh,C.,2004.Fire Management Assessment of the Caribbean Pine(Pinus Caribaea)Forest Ecosystems on Andros and Abaco Islands,Bahamas,the Global Fire Initiative.The Nature Conservancy,Arlington,Virginia.
Ross,M.S.,O'Brien,J.J.,Ford,R.G.,Zhang,K.,Morkill,A.,2009.Disturbance and the rising tide:the challenge of biodiversity management on low-island ecosystems.Front.Ecol.Environ.7,471e478.https://doi.org/10.1890/070221.
Sanchez,M.D.,2012.Conservation Genetics and Biogeography of the Caribbean Pine(Pinus Caribaea Var.Bahamensis)in the Bahaman Archipelago.PhD Thesis.Birkbeck,University of London,U.K.
Sanchez,M.D.,Green,P.W.C.,Martinez-Suz,L.,Dentinger,B.,Ainsworth,M.,Davies,R.,Balding,S.,Pavlik,B.M.,Barlow,S.E.,2016a.Caicos Pine Recovery Project Scientific Data and Results:Sampling and Analyses Undertaken.Royal Botanic Gardens,Kew,Richmond,Surrey,UK.https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.1.1557.2881.
Sanchez,M.D.,Hamilton,M.A.,Farjon,A.,2013.Pinus Caribaea Var.Bahamensis[WWWDocument].https://doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2013-1.RLTS.T20364362A20402659.en.IUCN Red List Threat.Species.Version 2014.2.
Sanchez,M.D.,Ingrouille,M.J.,Cowan,R.S.,Hamilton,M.A.,Fay,M.F.,2014.Spatial structure and genetic diversity of natural populations of the Caribbean pine,Pinus caribaea var.bahamensis(Pinaceae),in the Bahaman archipelago.Bot.J.Linn.Soc.174,359e383.https://doi.org/10.1111/boj.12146.
Sanchez,M.D.,Pavlik,B.M.,Barlow,S.E.,Corcoran,M.R.,Martinez-Suz,L.,Dentinger,B.T.M.,Manco,B.N.,Blaise,J.,Hamilton,M.A.,2016b.Caicos Pine Recovery Project Protocols:Standards and Methodologies to Conserve the TCINational Tree.Royal Botanic Gardens,Kew,Richmond,Surrey,UK.https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.1.3310.3764.
Whitaker,F.F.,Smart,P.L.,1997.Hydrogeology of the bahamian archipelago.In:Vacher,H.L.,Quinn,T.(Eds.),Geology and Hydrogeology of Carbonate Islands.Developments in Sedimentology No.54.Elsevier Science B.V.,pp.183e216