核弹头探测技术数值模拟研究
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摘要
在核裁军过程中，核弹头探测是对核裁军条约执行情况进行核查的重要内容，它涉及到国家重大安全利益。当前核裁军虽然主要还是在美俄之间进行，但随着核裁军的进一步深入，中国参加未来深度核裁军也是可能的。由于核裁军的核查技术复杂，特别是核弹头的探测技术复杂，难度大，涉及国家的安全和国际核不扩散等敏感问题，因此在中国参加核裁军之前开展核查技术中的核弹头探测技术研究是一项非常重要的技术储备。
本论文从核弹头的中子探测和γ射线探测两个方面对几种典型结构的核弹头探测的方法进行了理论研究和数值模拟，论证其探测方法的可行性，讨论了其适用范围和限制条件。在被动中子探测数值模拟中，提出在确定了核弹头的泄漏中子计数后，采用迭代方法计算中子在核弹头模型中的增殖，由此在一定条件下可实施核弹头质量属性的反演。对几种主动探测核弹头方法进行的研究中，首先对不同能量各向同性外源中子照射核弹头的中子增殖行为进行了数值模拟，检验了用外源中子照射核弹头后，通过测量瞬发中子在核弹头中的增殖量，来证明核弹头中高浓铀存在的可行性；研究了用能量低于1MeV的外中子源照射核弹头，用测量核弹头中裂变产生的高于源中子能量中子数的方法探测核弹头，通过数值模拟分析了可行性。计算结果表明，核弹头裂变产生的较高能的中子数很少，需要较长的时间或较强的低能中子源才能探测到可靠的信号。
本文研究了用外中子源照射核弹头，诱发其裂变材料裂变，探测缓发中子的方法，以此判断高浓铀与低浓铀，从而为核查核弹头的真伪提供依据。在计算程序中实现了基于两步输运算法对缓发中子的数值模拟，物理图像清晰，计算简单。数值模拟表明，这种方法比计数瞬发中子总数有较大的优点，可用来探测铀为弹芯的核弹头。计算表明用天然铀替代高浓铀作的假弹头，它们的出壳缓发中子数相差约3倍，需在一定条件下，才可对真伪核弹头做出判断。
本文研究了用中子符合探测方式测量能量低于1MeV的外中子源在核弹头中诱发的裂变数，以判别模型中是否含有高浓铀，从而作为判断核弹头的真伪的可行性。推导并提出用中子输运计算与概率方法结合计算符合中子计数，对能量低于1MeV的外源中子照射核弹头诱发裂变的符合中子测量作了数值模拟。计算表明用探测符合中子的方法探测核弹头对区分真假核弹头有明显的优点，对于同一核弹头模型，裂变弹芯是高浓铀和用天然铀替代高浓铀时，符合中子计数相差1个量级，如通过其他途径了解核弹头的大致结构，符合测量的方法就可以有较高的置信度分辨真假核弹头。
我们研究了γ射线谱作弹头指纹以判别弹头类型的可行性、适用范围以及对探测时间、距离的要求。通过γ射线谱指纹测量，可以认定是否是同类弹头。
中国工程物理研究院博士论文
对由特征Y射线谱反演核弹头信息的方法，分析了反演的可行性;提出为了保守核
武器设计的秘密，对能谱测量应施加的限制。分析中考虑了由于核弹头结构未知对材料
成分测量可能造成的误差。
Nuclear warheads detection is an important verification technology for nuclear disarmament treaty in nuclear disarmament process, and this technology is also concerned to the national security interests. Although the current nuclear reduction process is proceeding mainly between the US and Russia, as the deep cut process goes further, it is possible that China would be involved in the nuclear disarmament process. Because the nuclear disarmament verification technologies are quite complex, particularly the technology for nuclear warhead detection is very difficult, and it concerns to the sensitive issues such as national security and nonproliferation of nuclear weapons, it would be benefitial for China to explore the technology of nuclear warhead detection before participating in the nuclear disarmament process. The study on this is the most important technological preparation for our participating in the further deep nuclear disarmament.
In this thesis, the numeral simulation studies are performed on the measurement of neutrons and Gamma rays of some typical hypothetical nuclear warhead models. The feasibility of the measurements is studied, the situations that these measurements possibly can be applied are discussed, and the application conditions of these measurements are explored. In numeral simulation of passive neutron detection, it is proposed to use the iterative calculation in analyzing the neutron multiplication in nuclear warhead. On this basis, the mass of the plutonium pit could be obtained under some conditions. In analyzing the neutron active detection, the neutron multiplication in the nuclear warheads induced by outer neutron source with different neutron energys is studied with numeral simulation, and the feasibility of through counting neutrons to determine the presence of high enrichment uranium(HEU) in nuclear warhead has been proved. The method of detecting the warhead which contains HEU pit by counting the released neut
rons whose energy is higher than that of source neutron is studied. The feasibility of this method has been studied. The results of numeral simulation show that the higher-energy neutrons counting rate is quite low, it requires more counting time or much stronger low energy neutron source to detect the reliable signals.
Detecting nuclear warhead by counting delayed neutrons induced by neutron source is studied. The 2-step calculation method is proposed to resolve the delayed neutron transportation issue. This method can save computer's calculation time, and is easy to operate. The results show that the method is better than the method of counting prompt neutrons in
distinguishing real and fake nuclear warheads. If using the natural uranium to replace the HEU pit in warhead, the delayed neutron counting rate would be about 3 times lower.
The coincidence neutron detection is proposed to be used in nuclear warhead detection. With the outer neutron source which can only induce 235U fission, it could possibly prove the presence of HEU in a warhead by counting the coincidence neutrons. This method possibly provides one of necessary attributions in identifying the real nuclear warheads. The method of numeral simulating the coincidence neutron detection is proposed with combining the neutron transportation and probabilistic calculation. The method is introduced and used to simulate the nuclear warhead induced fission by source neutrons with energy below 1 MeV. The results show that coincidence detection method has obvious benefit in detecting nuclear warheads. For the same type warhead, the coincidence counts rates of the model of warhead of HEU pit is 10 times as big as that of fake warhead of natural uranium pit. If we know the nuclear warheads configuration by other methods, the method of coincidence neutron detection could be used to distinguis
h the fake nuclear warheads from the reals.
The feasibility of taking the Gamma ray spectrum as a fingerprint of nuclear warhead is studied. The range of the Gamma ray fingerprint could be applied to and the conditions under
本论文从核弹头的中子探测和γ射线探测两个方面对几种典型结构的核弹头探测的方法进行了理论研究和数值模拟，论证其探测方法的可行性，讨论了其适用范围和限制条件。在被动中子探测数值模拟中，提出在确定了核弹头的泄漏中子计数后，采用迭代方法计算中子在核弹头模型中的增殖，由此在一定条件下可实施核弹头质量属性的反演。对几种主动探测核弹头方法进行的研究中，首先对不同能量各向同性外源中子照射核弹头的中子增殖行为进行了数值模拟，检验了用外源中子照射核弹头后，通过测量瞬发中子在核弹头中的增殖量，来证明核弹头中高浓铀存在的可行性；研究了用能量低于1MeV的外中子源照射核弹头，用测量核弹头中裂变产生的高于源中子能量中子数的方法探测核弹头，通过数值模拟分析了可行性。计算结果表明，核弹头裂变产生的较高能的中子数很少，需要较长的时间或较强的低能中子源才能探测到可靠的信号。
本文研究了用外中子源照射核弹头，诱发其裂变材料裂变，探测缓发中子的方法，以此判断高浓铀与低浓铀，从而为核查核弹头的真伪提供依据。在计算程序中实现了基于两步输运算法对缓发中子的数值模拟，物理图像清晰，计算简单。数值模拟表明，这种方法比计数瞬发中子总数有较大的优点，可用来探测铀为弹芯的核弹头。计算表明用天然铀替代高浓铀作的假弹头，它们的出壳缓发中子数相差约3倍，需在一定条件下，才可对真伪核弹头做出判断。
本文研究了用中子符合探测方式测量能量低于1MeV的外中子源在核弹头中诱发的裂变数，以判别模型中是否含有高浓铀，从而作为判断核弹头的真伪的可行性。推导并提出用中子输运计算与概率方法结合计算符合中子计数，对能量低于1MeV的外源中子照射核弹头诱发裂变的符合中子测量作了数值模拟。计算表明用探测符合中子的方法探测核弹头对区分真假核弹头有明显的优点，对于同一核弹头模型，裂变弹芯是高浓铀和用天然铀替代高浓铀时，符合中子计数相差1个量级，如通过其他途径了解核弹头的大致结构，符合测量的方法就可以有较高的置信度分辨真假核弹头。
我们研究了γ射线谱作弹头指纹以判别弹头类型的可行性、适用范围以及对探测时间、距离的要求。通过γ射线谱指纹测量，可以认定是否是同类弹头。
中国工程物理研究院博士论文
对由特征Y射线谱反演核弹头信息的方法，分析了反演的可行性;提出为了保守核
武器设计的秘密，对能谱测量应施加的限制。分析中考虑了由于核弹头结构未知对材料
成分测量可能造成的误差。
Nuclear warheads detection is an important verification technology for nuclear disarmament treaty in nuclear disarmament process, and this technology is also concerned to the national security interests. Although the current nuclear reduction process is proceeding mainly between the US and Russia, as the deep cut process goes further, it is possible that China would be involved in the nuclear disarmament process. Because the nuclear disarmament verification technologies are quite complex, particularly the technology for nuclear warhead detection is very difficult, and it concerns to the sensitive issues such as national security and nonproliferation of nuclear weapons, it would be benefitial for China to explore the technology of nuclear warhead detection before participating in the nuclear disarmament process. The study on this is the most important technological preparation for our participating in the further deep nuclear disarmament.
In this thesis, the numeral simulation studies are performed on the measurement of neutrons and Gamma rays of some typical hypothetical nuclear warhead models. The feasibility of the measurements is studied, the situations that these measurements possibly can be applied are discussed, and the application conditions of these measurements are explored. In numeral simulation of passive neutron detection, it is proposed to use the iterative calculation in analyzing the neutron multiplication in nuclear warhead. On this basis, the mass of the plutonium pit could be obtained under some conditions. In analyzing the neutron active detection, the neutron multiplication in the nuclear warheads induced by outer neutron source with different neutron energys is studied with numeral simulation, and the feasibility of through counting neutrons to determine the presence of high enrichment uranium(HEU) in nuclear warhead has been proved. The method of detecting the warhead which contains HEU pit by counting the released neut
rons whose energy is higher than that of source neutron is studied. The feasibility of this method has been studied. The results of numeral simulation show that the higher-energy neutrons counting rate is quite low, it requires more counting time or much stronger low energy neutron source to detect the reliable signals.
Detecting nuclear warhead by counting delayed neutrons induced by neutron source is studied. The 2-step calculation method is proposed to resolve the delayed neutron transportation issue. This method can save computer's calculation time, and is easy to operate. The results show that the method is better than the method of counting prompt neutrons in
distinguishing real and fake nuclear warheads. If using the natural uranium to replace the HEU pit in warhead, the delayed neutron counting rate would be about 3 times lower.
The coincidence neutron detection is proposed to be used in nuclear warhead detection. With the outer neutron source which can only induce 235U fission, it could possibly prove the presence of HEU in a warhead by counting the coincidence neutrons. This method possibly provides one of necessary attributions in identifying the real nuclear warheads. The method of numeral simulating the coincidence neutron detection is proposed with combining the neutron transportation and probabilistic calculation. The method is introduced and used to simulate the nuclear warhead induced fission by source neutrons with energy below 1 MeV. The results show that coincidence detection method has obvious benefit in detecting nuclear warheads. For the same type warhead, the coincidence counts rates of the model of warhead of HEU pit is 10 times as big as that of fake warhead of natural uranium pit. If we know the nuclear warheads configuration by other methods, the method of coincidence neutron detection could be used to distinguis
h the fake nuclear warheads from the reals.
The feasibility of taking the Gamma ray spectrum as a fingerprint of nuclear warhead is studied. The range of the Gamma ray fingerprint could be applied to and the conditions under
引文
1． 美苏于1987年12月8日签订的消除中短程导弹的条约，称之为“中程核力量条约”(INF)。
2． 1996年9月10日，联合国大会以158票赞成、3票反对、5票弃权的压倒多数票通过一项禁止所有核试验爆炸的全球条约——《全面禁止核试验条约》，并于1996年9月24日，在第51届联大上开放供所有国家签署。
3． START-Ⅰ是美苏之间于1991年7月签署的削减和销毁战略武器条约。根据1992年5月里斯本协议，随着苏联的解体，苏联的START-Ⅰ义务应由俄罗斯、乌克兰、白俄罗斯、哈萨克斯坦(前苏联在其领土上有战略核武器的共和国)继承。
4． “第二阶段削减战略核武器条约”，1992年美俄达成第二阶段削减战略核武器条约，1994年美国参议院批准该条约，俄罗斯杜马2000年5月在附加了不允许美国不能推出ABM条约的条款下批准了该条约，2001年10月，美国宣布退出ABM条约，宣布了这个条约已不复存在。
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61. "Confidence, Security and Verification"
62. Joseph P. Harahan, "On-Site Inspections Under the INF Treaty, A History of the On-Site Inspection Agency and Treaty Implementation, 1988-1991. http://www.fas.org/nuke/control/inf/index.html
63. Belyaev, S.T., Lebedev, V.I., B.A. Obinyakov, B.A., Zemlyakov, M.V., Ryazantsev, V. A., Armashov, V.M. and Voshchinin, S.A. 1990. The Use of Helicopter-Borne Neutron Detectors to Detect Nuclear Warheads in the USSR-US Black Sea Experiment. Vol. 1, 3-4:328-333
64. "Confidence, Security and Verification"
65. E. K. Hyde, "The Nuclear Properties of the Heavy Elements, Ⅲ, Fission Phenomena" Dover Publications, New York, 1971
66. Doug Reilly etc. "Passive Nondestructive Assay of Nuclear Materials" NUREG/CR-5550 LA-UR-90-732. P.339
67. C.M. Lederer and V. S. Shirley, Eds. "Table of Isotopes", 7th ed. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York, 1978.
68. R.D. Evans "The Atomic Nucleus" McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, 1955
69. Doug Reilly etc. "Passive Nondestructive Assay of Nuclear Materials" NUREG/CR-5550 LA-UR-90-732. P.345
70. "Detecting Nuclear Warheads"
71. Taylor, T.B.. Verified Elimination of Nuclear Warheads. Vol. 1, 1-2:1-26, 1989
72. Fetter, S., Frolov, V. A., Prilutsky, O.F., Sagdeev, R.Z. 1990. Fissile Materials and Weapon Design. Vol. 1, 3-4:255-263.
73. Steve Fetter etc. "Detecting Nuclear Warheads" Science & Global Security, 1990, 第一卷 225-302页。
74． 吕晨曦“可用于核武器的材料研究”中物院研究生部，硕士毕业论文
75． 张会，“武器用钚的控制及其核查技术研究”中物院研究生部，博士毕业论文，1996年。
76． 1974年印度做过一次地下核试验，据认为是用233U为主要裂变原料。
77. "MCNP-4B General Monte Carlo Code for Neutron and Photon Transport", LA-7396-M
78. "Detecting Nuclear Warheads"
79. Kazuo FURUTA, Yoshiaki OKA, Shunsuke Kondo "BISON1.5 A one-dimensional transport and burnup calculation code" Nuclear Engineering Research Laboratory Faculty of Engineering University of Tokyo February, 1987
80． 伍钧等“以中子作外源的假想核弹头主动探测”计算物理20卷第1期，2003年
81. Brookhaven National Lab. ENDF/B-Ⅳ (1991)
82． 伍钧，张本爱，胡思得“用缓发中子探测核弹头的技术探索”，已投核技术杂志。
83. Brookhaven National Lab. ENDF/B-Ⅳ (1991).
84. Keepin, G.R., "Physics of Nuclear Kinetics"Addision-Wesley Publishing Co., Inc., 1965, Chp.4,
85． G I．贝尔，S．格拉斯登著，千里译，黄祖洽校“和反应堆理论”原子能出版社，1979年8月，北京第一版。P．320。
86. "MCNP-4B General Monte Carlo Code for Neutron and Photon Transport", LA-7396-M
87. Brookhaven National Lab. ENDF/B-Ⅳ (1991).
88． 伍钧，张本爱，胡思得“符合测量中子方法核查核弹头技术分析”核科学工程与技术，已接受。
89. Kenneth Baker etc. "Technology R&D for Arms Control" Arms Control and Nonproliferation Technologies, Office of Nonproliferation Research and Engineering, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. Spring 2001.
90. Rena Whiteson and Duncan W. MacArthur " Fissile Material Transparency Technology Demonstration Attribute Measurement System with Information Barrier: Functional Requirements" Los Alamos National Laboratory October, 1999
91. "Passive Nondesructive Assay of Nuclear Materials" NUREG/CR - 5550LA -UR -90-732
92. "Technology R&D for Arms Control"
93． 王永芬编著，“原子核物理基础”清华大学出版社，1986年12月第1版
94. C. H. Vincent, "The Pulse Separation Spectrum for the Detection of Neutrons from a Mixture of Fissions and Single-Neutron Events", Nuclear Instruments and Methods 138, 261 (1976)
95. N. Ensslin "Principles of Neutron Coincidence Counting" " Passive Nondesructive Assay of Nuclear Materials" NUREG/CR - 5550LA-UR -90-732, p.457-526
96． 伍钧，胡思得，解东“几种典型弹头的γ射线作弹头指纹分析”国防报告ZW-J-2002131
97. Steve Fetter, "The Future of Nuclear Arms Control" American Physical Society Centennial Symposium: History of Physics in National Defense World Congress Center, Atlanta, 24 May 1999
98. Annette Schaper "Verification Year book 2000 Verifying nuclear arms control and disarmament" www.vertic.org/yearbooldyb2000/schaper.pdf
99. Mayo, D.R. "Neutron / Gamma-Ray Fingerprint System." Report LA-UR-99-6591. Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos NM, 1999.
100. Mayo, D.R. et. al. "Calorimetry and Passive Neutron Multiplicity Counting of High-Enriched Uranium Components." Report LA-UR-99-5406. Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos NM, 1999.
101. Mattingly, J.K. et. al. "Passive NMIS Measurements to Estimate the Shape of Plutonium Assemblies." Report Y/LB-16,012. Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge TN, July 22, 1999.
102. Drell, S. et. al. Verification of Dismantlement of Nuclear Warheads and Controls on Nuclear Materials. Report JSR-92-331. The MITRE Corporation, McLean, VA, 1993
103． 伍钧，“Decay计算衰变及特征γ射线发射程序”。
104. "Passive Nondesructive Assay of Nuclear Materials" NUREG/CR - 5550LA-UP, -90-732
105．“原子核参数”，本所提供的参数。
106． 伍钧，胡思得等“用中子和伽马射线被动探测核弹头可能暴露的信息的分析及限制方法的评估”国防报告，909-010-003，2002。
2． 1996年9月10日，联合国大会以158票赞成、3票反对、5票弃权的压倒多数票通过一项禁止所有核试验爆炸的全球条约——《全面禁止核试验条约》，并于1996年9月24日，在第51届联大上开放供所有国家签署。
3． START-Ⅰ是美苏之间于1991年7月签署的削减和销毁战略武器条约。根据1992年5月里斯本协议，随着苏联的解体，苏联的START-Ⅰ义务应由俄罗斯、乌克兰、白俄罗斯、哈萨克斯坦(前苏联在其领土上有战略核武器的共和国)继承。
4． “第二阶段削减战略核武器条约”，1992年美俄达成第二阶段削减战略核武器条约，1994年美国参议院批准该条约，俄罗斯杜马2000年5月在附加了不允许美国不能推出ABM条约的条款下批准了该条约，2001年10月，美国宣布退出ABM条约，宣布了这个条约已不复存在。
5. "US and Russian Federation Joint Statement on Parameters on Future Reductions in Nuclear Forces" 1997, Helsinki
6. 1993年2月,美俄签署 "The Agreement Between the Government of the United States and the Government of the Russian Federation Concerning the Disposition of Highly Enriched Uranium Extracted from Nuclear Weapons" (俄罗斯高浓铀协议)
7. Committee on International Security and Arms Control, National Academy of Sciences of US, "Management and Disposition of Excess Weapons Plutonium" Washington D. C.: National Academy Press, 1994 P.7
8． 1992年俄罗斯要求美国协助建造一个裂变材料储存库，因为储存库容量不够推迟了俄罗斯核弹头拆卸过程。为满足这种要求，美国国防部在其减小共同威协(CTR)计划中承诺帮助俄罗斯在Mayak建设一个设施以储存从核弹中拆卸下的裂变材料。俄罗斯承诺一些透明措施。
9. Jan Lodal, "The Price of Dominance--The New Weapons of Mass Destruction and Their Challenge to American Leadership"Council on Foreign Relations Press 2001, New York。
10. Steve Fetter "A Comprehensive Transparency Regime for Warheads and Fissile Materials" Arms Control Today, Vol. 29, No. 1 (January/February 1999), p. 3-7.
11． 伍钧等“钚材料处理技术分析”核学会年会报告武汉2001年11月21-24
12. J F Morgan, "Transparency and Verification Options: An initial analysis of approaches for monitoring warhead dismantlement, Proceedings of the Institute of Nuclear Material Management 38th Annual Meeting, Phornix, Arizona, 1997年7月20-24。
13． 杜祥琬“核军备控制的科学技术基础”，国防工业出版社，1996年6月底1版，pp116-117。
14. Wu Jun "How Verification Can Be Used to Ensure Irreversible Deep Reductions in Nuclear weapons" CISAC Working Paper, Stanford University Encina Hall Stanford, Califonia 94305-6165, www.stanford.edu/group/CISAC/June 2001
15． 王羊主编“美苏军备竞赛与控制研究”，军事科学院外国军事研究部，军事科学出版社 北京，1993年2月。
16． “美苏关于限制反弹道导弹系统条约”1972年5月26日。2001年11月13日，美国总统布什宣布退出该条约，2002年5月该条约正式作废。
17. "INTERIM AGREEMENT BETWEEN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA AND THE UNION OF SOVIET SOCIALIST REPUBLICS ON CERTAIN MEASURES WITH RESPECT TO THE
LIMITATION OF STRATEGIC OFFENSIVE ARMS " Moscow May 26, 1972
18． TREATY BETWEEN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA AND THE UNION OF SOVIET SOCIALIST REPUBLICS ON THE LIMITATION OF STRATEGIC OFFENSIVE ARMS, TOGETHER WITH AGREED STATEMENTS AND COMMON UNDERSTANDINGS REGARDING THE TREATY Signed at Vienna June 18, 1979
19． Allan S. Krass "Verification-How Much is Enough" Lexington, Mass. : Lexington Books, c1985
20． "Protocol on procedures governing the elimination of the missile systems subject to the treaty between the United States of America and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics on the elimination of their intermediate-range and shorter-range missiles"
21． Joseph P. Harahan, "On-Site Inspections Under the INF Treaty, A History of the On-Site Inspection Agency and Treaty Implementation, 1988-1991． http://www.fas.org/nuke /control/inf/index.html
22． Spurgeon M. Keeny, Jr. and K. H. Panofsky, "Controlling Nuclear warheads and Materials: Steps toward a Comprehensive regime" Arms Control today January/February 1992 P5
23． Valerie Thomasa "Verification of Limits on Long-range Nuclear SLCMs" Science & Global Security, 1989, Volume I, pp.I-26
24． Taylor & Feokistov "Verified Elimination of Nuclear Warheads" in Francesco Calogero etal Verification Monitoring Disarmament (Westview Press, San Francisco: 1991) p54
25． START-I "PROTOCOL ON INSPECTIONS AND CONTINUOUS MONITORING ACTIVITIES RELATING TO THE TREATY BETWEEN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA AND THE UNION OF SOVIET SOCIALIST REPUBLICS ON THE REDUCTION AND LIMITATION OF STRATEGIC OFFENSIVE ARMS"
26． Jan Lodal, "The Price of Dominance-The New Weapons of Mass Destruction and Their Challenge to American Leadership"Council on Foreign Relations Press 2001, New York,,
27． 伍钧等“钚材料处理技术分析”核学会年会报告武汉2001年11月21-24
28． U.S. and Russian Federation, "Joint Statement on Parameters on Future Reduction in Nuclear Forces", March 21, 1997, Helsinki, Finland.
29． "Technology R&D for Arms Control" Office of Nonproliferation and Engineering LLNL.
30． Duncan W. MacArthur "Attribute Measurement System with Information Barrier (AMS/IB): Conceptual Description " Los Alamos National Laboratory http://www-safeguards.lanl.gov/FMTT/presentations/pdf_docs/AMS_IB_Paper.doc
31． Rena Whiteson and Duncan W. MacArthur " Fissile Material Transparency Technology Demonstration Attribute Measurement System with Information Barrier: Functional Requirements" Los Alamos National Laboratory, October, 1999 http://www-safeguards.lanl.gov/FMTT/presentations/pdf_docs/Func_Reqmts.pdf
32． "FissileMaterial Transparency Technology Demonstration" Los Alamos National Laboratory, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory and Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, http://www-safeguards.lanl.gov/FMTT/index_main.htm
33． " Technical Overview of Fissile Material Transparency Technology Demonstration " http://www-safeguards.lanl.gov/FMTT/presentations/pdf docs/ExecSummary.doc
34． 美俄就削减战略武器条约，莫斯科，2002年5月3日
35． Doug Reilly etc. "Passive Nondestructive Assay of Nuclear Materials" NUREG/CR-5550 LA-UR-90-732．
36． Steve Fetter "The Future of Nuclear Arms Control" American Physical Society Centennial Symposium: History of Physics in National Defense World Congress Center, Atlanta, 24 May 1999
37. Annette Schaper "Verification Year book 2000 Verifying nuclear arms control and disarmament" www.vertic.org/yearbook/yb2000/schaper.pdf
38. Mayo, D.R. "Neutron / Gamma-Ray Fingerprint System." Report LA-UR-99-6591. Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos NM, 1999.
39. Occasional Report "The Black Sea Experiment---US and Soviet Reports From a Cooperative Verification Experiment", Steve Fetter and Frank von Hippel "Measurement of Radiation From a Soviet warhead" Science & Global Security, 1990, 第一卷 323-327页。
40. Belyaev, S.T., Lebedev, V.I., B.A. Obinyakov, B.A., Zemlyakov, M.V., Ryazantsev, V. A., Armashov, V.M. and Voshchinin, S.A. 1990. The Use of Helicopter-Borne Neutron Detectors to Detect Nuclear Warheads in the USSR-US Black Sea Experiment. Vol. 1, Science & Global Security, 1990, 第一卷 3-4:328-333
41. Steve Fetter etc. "Detecting Nuclear Warheads" Science & Global Security, 1990, 第一卷 225-302页
42. "Detecting Nuclear Warheads" Science & Global Security, 1990, 第一卷 225-302页
43. "Technical Overview of Fissile Material Transparency Technology Demonstration" http://www-safeguards.lanl.gov/FMTT/presentations/pdf does/ExecSummary.doc
44. Andrew J. Bieniawski, etc. "Overview of US-Russia Laboratory-to Laboratory Warhead Dismantlement Tranpareney Program: A US Perspective" 41 届 INMM年会, New Orleans, 2000年7月。
45. Rena Whiteson and Duncan W. MaeArthur "Fissile Material Transparency Technology Demonstration Attribute Measurement System with Information Barrier: Functional Requirements" Los Alamos National Laboratory October, 1999 http://www-safeguards.lanl.gov/FMTT/presentations/pdf_docs/Fune_Reqmts.pdf
46. Duncan W. MacArthur "Attribute Measurement System with Information Barrier (AMS/IB)--Coneeptual Description" Los Alamos National Laboratory http://www-safeguards.lanl.gov/FMTT/presentations/pdf does/AMS IB fin.doc
47. "Technology R&D for Arms Control"
48. Thomas Gosnell "Review of Plutonium Attribute Measurement Technologies: Gamma-Ray and Symmetry Measurements" Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
49. "Technology R&D for Arms Control"
50. M. William Johnson "Physics Basis of the AMS/IB System" Los Alamos National Laboratory
51. "Technology R&D for Arms Control"
52. Thomas Gosnell "Review of Plutonium Attribute Measurement Technologies: Gamma-Ray and Symmetry Measurements" Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
53. "Technical Overview of Fissile Material Transparency Technology Demonstration Executive Summary" http://www-safeguards.lanl.gov/nis7_projects/FMTTD/pdfs/presentations-papers/exec-sum.pdf
54. Doug Reilly etc. "Passive Nondestructive Assay of Nuclear Materials" NUREG/CR-5550 LA-UR-90-732. pp407-429
55. Xiangdong Lu, Dong Xie, Dongfeng Tian "γ-raY Self-absorption Correction for Random Size and Samples”第13届北太平洋地区核能会议(深圳)
56． 路向东，解东，田东风，“多层介质核材料的γ射线谱分析”计算物理年会，2002年西安
57． 路向东，解东，田东风任意几何形状源的γ射线只吸收修正“核技术杂志，已接收，即将发表。
58. Doug Reilly etc. "Passive Nondestructive Assay of Nuclear Materials" NUREG/CR-5550 LA-UR-90-732. pp195-220
59． 伍钧等“铀浓缩度测量分析”国防报告ZW-J-2003132
60. "A SUMMARY REPORT BY THE MINISTRY OF DEFENCE ON THE STUDY CONDUCTED BY THE ATOMIC WEAPONS ESTABLISHMENT ALDERMASTON INTO THE UNITED KINGDOM'S CAPABILITIES TO VERIFY THE REDUCTION AND ELIMINATION OF NUCLEAR WEAPONS" http://www.mod.uk/publications/nuclear_weapons/verification.htm
61. "Confidence, Security and Verification"
62. Joseph P. Harahan, "On-Site Inspections Under the INF Treaty, A History of the On-Site Inspection Agency and Treaty Implementation, 1988-1991. http://www.fas.org/nuke/control/inf/index.html
63. Belyaev, S.T., Lebedev, V.I., B.A. Obinyakov, B.A., Zemlyakov, M.V., Ryazantsev, V. A., Armashov, V.M. and Voshchinin, S.A. 1990. The Use of Helicopter-Borne Neutron Detectors to Detect Nuclear Warheads in the USSR-US Black Sea Experiment. Vol. 1, 3-4:328-333
64. "Confidence, Security and Verification"
65. E. K. Hyde, "The Nuclear Properties of the Heavy Elements, Ⅲ, Fission Phenomena" Dover Publications, New York, 1971
66. Doug Reilly etc. "Passive Nondestructive Assay of Nuclear Materials" NUREG/CR-5550 LA-UR-90-732. P.339
67. C.M. Lederer and V. S. Shirley, Eds. "Table of Isotopes", 7th ed. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York, 1978.
68. R.D. Evans "The Atomic Nucleus" McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, 1955
69. Doug Reilly etc. "Passive Nondestructive Assay of Nuclear Materials" NUREG/CR-5550 LA-UR-90-732. P.345
70. "Detecting Nuclear Warheads"
71. Taylor, T.B.. Verified Elimination of Nuclear Warheads. Vol. 1, 1-2:1-26, 1989
72. Fetter, S., Frolov, V. A., Prilutsky, O.F., Sagdeev, R.Z. 1990. Fissile Materials and Weapon Design. Vol. 1, 3-4:255-263.
73. Steve Fetter etc. "Detecting Nuclear Warheads" Science & Global Security, 1990, 第一卷 225-302页。
74． 吕晨曦“可用于核武器的材料研究”中物院研究生部，硕士毕业论文
75． 张会，“武器用钚的控制及其核查技术研究”中物院研究生部，博士毕业论文，1996年。
76． 1974年印度做过一次地下核试验，据认为是用233U为主要裂变原料。
77. "MCNP-4B General Monte Carlo Code for Neutron and Photon Transport", LA-7396-M
78. "Detecting Nuclear Warheads"
79. Kazuo FURUTA, Yoshiaki OKA, Shunsuke Kondo "BISON1.5 A one-dimensional transport and burnup calculation code" Nuclear Engineering Research Laboratory Faculty of Engineering University of Tokyo February, 1987
80． 伍钧等“以中子作外源的假想核弹头主动探测”计算物理20卷第1期，2003年
81. Brookhaven National Lab. ENDF/B-Ⅳ (1991)
82． 伍钧，张本爱，胡思得“用缓发中子探测核弹头的技术探索”，已投核技术杂志。
83. Brookhaven National Lab. ENDF/B-Ⅳ (1991).
84. Keepin, G.R., "Physics of Nuclear Kinetics"Addision-Wesley Publishing Co., Inc., 1965, Chp.4,
85． G I．贝尔，S．格拉斯登著，千里译，黄祖洽校“和反应堆理论”原子能出版社，1979年8月，北京第一版。P．320。
86. "MCNP-4B General Monte Carlo Code for Neutron and Photon Transport", LA-7396-M
87. Brookhaven National Lab. ENDF/B-Ⅳ (1991).
88． 伍钧，张本爱，胡思得“符合测量中子方法核查核弹头技术分析”核科学工程与技术，已接受。
89. Kenneth Baker etc. "Technology R&D for Arms Control" Arms Control and Nonproliferation Technologies, Office of Nonproliferation Research and Engineering, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. Spring 2001.
90. Rena Whiteson and Duncan W. MacArthur " Fissile Material Transparency Technology Demonstration Attribute Measurement System with Information Barrier: Functional Requirements" Los Alamos National Laboratory October, 1999
91. "Passive Nondesructive Assay of Nuclear Materials" NUREG/CR - 5550LA -UR -90-732
92. "Technology R&D for Arms Control"
93． 王永芬编著，“原子核物理基础”清华大学出版社，1986年12月第1版
94. C. H. Vincent, "The Pulse Separation Spectrum for the Detection of Neutrons from a Mixture of Fissions and Single-Neutron Events", Nuclear Instruments and Methods 138, 261 (1976)
95. N. Ensslin "Principles of Neutron Coincidence Counting" " Passive Nondesructive Assay of Nuclear Materials" NUREG/CR - 5550LA-UR -90-732, p.457-526
96． 伍钧，胡思得，解东“几种典型弹头的γ射线作弹头指纹分析”国防报告ZW-J-2002131
97. Steve Fetter, "The Future of Nuclear Arms Control" American Physical Society Centennial Symposium: History of Physics in National Defense World Congress Center, Atlanta, 24 May 1999
98. Annette Schaper "Verification Year book 2000 Verifying nuclear arms control and disarmament" www.vertic.org/yearbooldyb2000/schaper.pdf
99. Mayo, D.R. "Neutron / Gamma-Ray Fingerprint System." Report LA-UR-99-6591. Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos NM, 1999.
100. Mayo, D.R. et. al. "Calorimetry and Passive Neutron Multiplicity Counting of High-Enriched Uranium Components." Report LA-UR-99-5406. Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos NM, 1999.
101. Mattingly, J.K. et. al. "Passive NMIS Measurements to Estimate the Shape of Plutonium Assemblies." Report Y/LB-16,012. Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge TN, July 22, 1999.
102. Drell, S. et. al. Verification of Dismantlement of Nuclear Warheads and Controls on Nuclear Materials. Report JSR-92-331. The MITRE Corporation, McLean, VA, 1993
103． 伍钧，“Decay计算衰变及特征γ射线发射程序”。
104. "Passive Nondesructive Assay of Nuclear Materials" NUREG/CR - 5550LA-UP, -90-732
105．“原子核参数”，本所提供的参数。
106． 伍钧，胡思得等“用中子和伽马射线被动探测核弹头可能暴露的信息的分析及限制方法的评估”国防报告，909-010-003，2002。
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