妊娠期营养水平对初产母猪繁殖性能影响的研究
摘要
选用体重和日龄相近的(长白♂×梅山♀)杂交初产母猪21头，妊娠期分别供给初产母猪4个营养水平(高、NRC、中和低水平)，营养水平的设计用母猪维持的倍数来估计。在妊娠前期，高、NRC、中和低水平分别为维持需要的2倍、1.2倍、1倍和0.6倍，中期在前期的基础上增加20％，后期在中期的基础上增加25％。各营养水平中矿物质、维生素和粗纤维量相等。目的是考察妊娠期营养水平对初产母猪繁殖成绩的影响。在整个妊娠期内，母猪饲养在自动称重代谢笼上，每天早晨7:00称重。妊娠第3天、30天、85天和100天，进行代谢试验，粪尿收集期为6天。泌乳第1、3、7、14、21和28天测定母猪泌乳量。
试验结果表明：
1．母猪妊娠期营养水平不同，显著影响妊娠增重。营养水平提高，妊娠总增重、母体增重、前期、中期和后期增重相应提高。前期增重4.3kg和中期增重20.3kg，提高仔猪初生个体重。妊娠总增重55.9kg，提高仔猪初生个体重，降低母猪产后失重。妊娠各阶段营养分配：前期0.5873g／BW~(0.75)／d氮和0.1181 Mcal／BW~(0.75)／d DE；中期0.8295g／BW~(0.75)／d氮和0.0884Mcal／BW~(0.75)／d DE。
2．母猪妊娠期营养水平显著影响产仔数。母猪妊娠期采食低营养水平的日粮(0.91g氮／BW~(0.75)／d，0.13 Meal DE／BW~(0.75)／d)，提高产仔数，降低活产仔数、仔猪初生个体重、仔猪断奶成活率和随后生产性能。NRC和中水平组的产仔数比高水平组(1.82g氮／BW~(0.75)／d，0.27Mcal DE／BW~(0.75)／d)分别多3.34和0.67头。母猪妊娠期采食高营养水平的日粮，提高仔猪初生个体重及随后生产性能，降低母猪泌乳期采食量和前三天泌乳量。
3．母猪妊娠期营养水平显著影响母猪泌乳量。中水平组母猪泌乳量最高，其余各组表现为：提高母猪妊娠期营养水平，母猪泌乳量相应提高。高水平组母猪泌乳量与泌乳天数呈显著三次曲线关系；NRC和中水平组母猪泌乳量随泌乳期延长而增加；低水平组母猪泌乳量，24天达到最大值。
4．母猪妊娠期后期体重与体长、体斜长、胸围、腹围和臀围，在不同水平上呈显著正相关。体长、体斜长和臀围估计母猪体重的可靠程度低(R~2分别为0.09、0.061和0.299)。母猪体重与胸围和腹围显著相关，回归方程为：体重=0.0045x~2+0.7888x-22.902(x-胸围R~2=0.425，P=O.000)；体重=0.0136x~2-2.0698x+149.818(x-腹围R~2=0.504，P=0.000)。
5．除后期增重与后期母猪背膘厚不相关(P＞0.05)，妊娠增重与母猪背膘厚显著相
关。妊娠前期增重 4．3kg，对应的母猪背膘厚为 22。m；小JllJ增重 20．3kg，对应的母猪背
膘厚为Zlmm。
6．母猪排粪尿规律及母猪行为表现：，纪水个组与其亡水平组相比，母猪排出的粪
便颜色明显浅和稀：低水平组与其它水平组相比，母猪排出的粪便明显干而硬，粪便颜
色明显深。低水平组母猪与其它水平组相比，排粪尿次数明显槽加，但每次排泄量很少。
高水平组与其它水平组相比，躺卧时间明显长；而低水平组母猪站立时间明显长，并且
表现出明显的呆板行为：增加饮水次数、空口咀嚼、咬代谢笼栏杆、吃自己的粪便和代
”谢笼周围的塑料布。
由以上结果可得：
门）长梅初产母猪适宜妊娠总增重 55．gkg，前则和小 Lt）l增重分别为 4．3kg和 20．3kg。
门）在夏季u月）配种的长梅初产母猪，妊娠扭］适宜营养摄入量为：1．16559氮
／BWO” 和 of 64 Meal DE／BW们5／d。
（）妊娠各阶段营养分配：前期0．58739氮／BW”扣和0．118！MCCI DE／BWO·’sld；
中期 0．8295gi BW’·s 氮和 0．0884 Meal DE BW’·’sld。
（4）母猪体重与胸围和腹围显著相关，回归方程为：体重一0刀045X2＋0．7888X
．22．902（X－胸围旷－0．425，P＝0．000）；体重－0．0136X2－2．0698X＋149．8！8（X·腹围
RZ＝0．504，P。0．000）。
The effect of nutrition level during gestation on reproductive performance of primiparous sow was evaluated using 21 (LandreceX Meishan) gilts, allocated to four dietary treatments in single factorial arrangement. Treatments consisted of four nutrition levels (high, NRC, mid, low) during gestation, providing approximately 2, 1.2, 1, 0.6 times the requirement of maintenance during early gestation, increasing 20% on the base of prophase during mid pregnancy, and increasing 25% on the base of metaphase during late pregnancy. Diets provided similar amounts of miner, vitamin and fiber to all gilts. During gestation, all the experimental sows were raised in automatically weighted cages, weighted 7:00 in everyday morning. Metabolism experimentations were conducted during four 6-d periods at 3, 30, 85, 105 d of gestation; milk yield of lactating sows were measured during 1, 3, 7, 14, 21 and 28 d of lactation.
The results showed:
1. Supplying different nutrition levels to sows during gestation, affected pregnant weight gain obviously. As dietary nutrition increased during gestation, sows gained more. Early BW gained 4.3kg and mid BW gained 20.3kg, improved litter size and weight of individual piglet born. Enhancing late BW gain, increased litter size and weight of individual piglet born. Nutrition distribution during pregnancy: 0.5873g nitrogen/BW0.75/d and 0.1181 Meal DE /BW0.75/d during early pregnancy, 0.8295g nitrogen/BW0.75/d and 0.0884 Meal DE/BW0.75/d during mid pregnancy.
2. Nutrition levels of sows during gestation, influenced litter size. Sows intaked low nutrition level diet(0.91g nitrogen/ BW075/d and 0.13Mcal DE/BW?S/d), enhanced litter size, decreased number born alive, weight of piglet born, weaning survive rate and subsequent productive performance. Number born of NRC and mid level were 3.34 and 0.67 piglets more than high level(1.82g nitrogen/ BW?5/d and 0.27Mcal DE/BW075/d). Increasing nutrition
level during pregnancy, increased weight of individual piglet born and piglet productive performance, decreased sow feed intake and milk yield at first three days during lactating.
3. Nutrition levels of sows during gestation affected milk yield of sows. Milk yield of sows in mid level was higher, in addition, milk yield of sow increased as nutrition level increased during gestation. Relation between milk yield of high level and number of days during lactating was cubic; as lactating extended, milk yield of sow in NRC and mid level increased; milk yield of low level reached highest at 24th day during lactating.
4. In different levels, correlation between sow weight during late pregnancy and body length, body side length, circumference, perimeter of abdomen and hip width was positive. But body length, body side length and hip width were used to estimate sow weight, their credibility were low. So, using circumference and perimeter of abdomen, estimated sow weight, regression equation: weight = 0.0045x2 + 0.7888x - 22.902 (R2 = 0.425, P=0.000 x-circumference), weight = 0.0136x2 - 2.0698x + 149.818 (R2 = 0.504, P = 0.000 x- perimeter abdomen).
5. Correlation of sow weight and backfat thickness was not significant (P>0.05), but correlation of gestation BW gain and backfat thickness was significantly positive. Pregnant BW gained 4.3kg during early pregnancy, their backfat thickness were 22mm; Pregnant BW gained 20.3kg during min pregnancy, their backfat thickness were 21mm; but correlation of pregnant BW gain and backfat thickness during late pregnancy was not significant.
6. The rule of sow excreting feces and urine: High nutrition level contrast to other levels, color of its feces was lighter and more watery. Feces color in low nutrition level was deeper and dryer than other nutrition levels, frequency of excreting feces and urine increased, excretory quantity was little. Time of sow lying in high level was longer than other levels, but time of sow standing was longer than other levels. Sows in low nutrition level showed stereotyped behavior, such as frequency of drinking water increased, em
试验结果表明：
1．母猪妊娠期营养水平不同，显著影响妊娠增重。营养水平提高，妊娠总增重、母体增重、前期、中期和后期增重相应提高。前期增重4.3kg和中期增重20.3kg，提高仔猪初生个体重。妊娠总增重55.9kg，提高仔猪初生个体重，降低母猪产后失重。妊娠各阶段营养分配：前期0.5873g／BW~(0.75)／d氮和0.1181 Mcal／BW~(0.75)／d DE；中期0.8295g／BW~(0.75)／d氮和0.0884Mcal／BW~(0.75)／d DE。
2．母猪妊娠期营养水平显著影响产仔数。母猪妊娠期采食低营养水平的日粮(0.91g氮／BW~(0.75)／d，0.13 Meal DE／BW~(0.75)／d)，提高产仔数，降低活产仔数、仔猪初生个体重、仔猪断奶成活率和随后生产性能。NRC和中水平组的产仔数比高水平组(1.82g氮／BW~(0.75)／d，0.27Mcal DE／BW~(0.75)／d)分别多3.34和0.67头。母猪妊娠期采食高营养水平的日粮，提高仔猪初生个体重及随后生产性能，降低母猪泌乳期采食量和前三天泌乳量。
3．母猪妊娠期营养水平显著影响母猪泌乳量。中水平组母猪泌乳量最高，其余各组表现为：提高母猪妊娠期营养水平，母猪泌乳量相应提高。高水平组母猪泌乳量与泌乳天数呈显著三次曲线关系；NRC和中水平组母猪泌乳量随泌乳期延长而增加；低水平组母猪泌乳量，24天达到最大值。
4．母猪妊娠期后期体重与体长、体斜长、胸围、腹围和臀围，在不同水平上呈显著正相关。体长、体斜长和臀围估计母猪体重的可靠程度低(R~2分别为0.09、0.061和0.299)。母猪体重与胸围和腹围显著相关，回归方程为：体重=0.0045x~2+0.7888x-22.902(x-胸围R~2=0.425，P=O.000)；体重=0.0136x~2-2.0698x+149.818(x-腹围R~2=0.504，P=0.000)。
5．除后期增重与后期母猪背膘厚不相关(P＞0.05)，妊娠增重与母猪背膘厚显著相
关。妊娠前期增重 4．3kg，对应的母猪背膘厚为 22。m；小JllJ增重 20．3kg，对应的母猪背
膘厚为Zlmm。
6．母猪排粪尿规律及母猪行为表现：，纪水个组与其亡水平组相比，母猪排出的粪
便颜色明显浅和稀：低水平组与其它水平组相比，母猪排出的粪便明显干而硬，粪便颜
色明显深。低水平组母猪与其它水平组相比，排粪尿次数明显槽加，但每次排泄量很少。
高水平组与其它水平组相比，躺卧时间明显长；而低水平组母猪站立时间明显长，并且
表现出明显的呆板行为：增加饮水次数、空口咀嚼、咬代谢笼栏杆、吃自己的粪便和代
”谢笼周围的塑料布。
由以上结果可得：
门）长梅初产母猪适宜妊娠总增重 55．gkg，前则和小 Lt）l增重分别为 4．3kg和 20．3kg。
门）在夏季u月）配种的长梅初产母猪，妊娠扭］适宜营养摄入量为：1．16559氮
／BWO” 和 of 64 Meal DE／BW们5／d。
（）妊娠各阶段营养分配：前期0．58739氮／BW”扣和0．118！MCCI DE／BWO·’sld；
中期 0．8295gi BW’·s 氮和 0．0884 Meal DE BW’·’sld。
（4）母猪体重与胸围和腹围显著相关，回归方程为：体重一0刀045X2＋0．7888X
．22．902（X－胸围旷－0．425，P＝0．000）；体重－0．0136X2－2．0698X＋149．8！8（X·腹围
RZ＝0．504，P。0．000）。
The effect of nutrition level during gestation on reproductive performance of primiparous sow was evaluated using 21 (LandreceX Meishan) gilts, allocated to four dietary treatments in single factorial arrangement. Treatments consisted of four nutrition levels (high, NRC, mid, low) during gestation, providing approximately 2, 1.2, 1, 0.6 times the requirement of maintenance during early gestation, increasing 20% on the base of prophase during mid pregnancy, and increasing 25% on the base of metaphase during late pregnancy. Diets provided similar amounts of miner, vitamin and fiber to all gilts. During gestation, all the experimental sows were raised in automatically weighted cages, weighted 7:00 in everyday morning. Metabolism experimentations were conducted during four 6-d periods at 3, 30, 85, 105 d of gestation; milk yield of lactating sows were measured during 1, 3, 7, 14, 21 and 28 d of lactation.
The results showed:
1. Supplying different nutrition levels to sows during gestation, affected pregnant weight gain obviously. As dietary nutrition increased during gestation, sows gained more. Early BW gained 4.3kg and mid BW gained 20.3kg, improved litter size and weight of individual piglet born. Enhancing late BW gain, increased litter size and weight of individual piglet born. Nutrition distribution during pregnancy: 0.5873g nitrogen/BW0.75/d and 0.1181 Meal DE /BW0.75/d during early pregnancy, 0.8295g nitrogen/BW0.75/d and 0.0884 Meal DE/BW0.75/d during mid pregnancy.
2. Nutrition levels of sows during gestation, influenced litter size. Sows intaked low nutrition level diet(0.91g nitrogen/ BW075/d and 0.13Mcal DE/BW?S/d), enhanced litter size, decreased number born alive, weight of piglet born, weaning survive rate and subsequent productive performance. Number born of NRC and mid level were 3.34 and 0.67 piglets more than high level(1.82g nitrogen/ BW?5/d and 0.27Mcal DE/BW075/d). Increasing nutrition
level during pregnancy, increased weight of individual piglet born and piglet productive performance, decreased sow feed intake and milk yield at first three days during lactating.
3. Nutrition levels of sows during gestation affected milk yield of sows. Milk yield of sows in mid level was higher, in addition, milk yield of sow increased as nutrition level increased during gestation. Relation between milk yield of high level and number of days during lactating was cubic; as lactating extended, milk yield of sow in NRC and mid level increased; milk yield of low level reached highest at 24th day during lactating.
4. In different levels, correlation between sow weight during late pregnancy and body length, body side length, circumference, perimeter of abdomen and hip width was positive. But body length, body side length and hip width were used to estimate sow weight, their credibility were low. So, using circumference and perimeter of abdomen, estimated sow weight, regression equation: weight = 0.0045x2 + 0.7888x - 22.902 (R2 = 0.425, P=0.000 x-circumference), weight = 0.0136x2 - 2.0698x + 149.818 (R2 = 0.504, P = 0.000 x- perimeter abdomen).
5. Correlation of sow weight and backfat thickness was not significant (P>0.05), but correlation of gestation BW gain and backfat thickness was significantly positive. Pregnant BW gained 4.3kg during early pregnancy, their backfat thickness were 22mm; Pregnant BW gained 20.3kg during min pregnancy, their backfat thickness were 21mm; but correlation of pregnant BW gain and backfat thickness during late pregnancy was not significant.
6. The rule of sow excreting feces and urine: High nutrition level contrast to other levels, color of its feces was lighter and more watery. Feces color in low nutrition level was deeper and dryer than other nutrition levels, frequency of excreting feces and urine increased, excretory quantity was little. Time of sow lying in high level was longer than other levels, but time of sow standing was longer than other levels. Sows in low nutrition level showed stereotyped behavior, such as frequency of drinking water increased, em
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Henry, Y., and M. Etienne,. 1978． Alimentation energetique du pore. Journ. Rech. Porcine Fr. 10:119．
Hughes, B. O., and I. D. H. Duncan. 1988． The notion of ethological need, models of motivation and animal welfare. Anim. Behav. 36:1696-1707．
Hughes, P. E. 1993． The effects of food level during lactation and early gestation on the reproductive performan-ce of mature sows. Anim. Prod. 57:437-445．
Jin, L. X., K. Yu, D. D. Gary, J. Pettigrew, and A. Sower. 1997． Glucose tolerance, lutein-izing hormone release, and reproductive performance of first-litter sows fed tow levels of energy during ges-tation. J. Anim. Sci. 75:1845-1852．
Jindal, R., J. R. Cosgrove, F. X. Aherne, and G. R. Forcroft. 1997． Progesterone mediates nutritionally induced effects on embryonic survival in gilts. 75:1063-1070．
Jindal, R., J. R. Cosgrove, F. X. Aherne, and G. R. Foxcroft .1996． Effect of nutriition on embryonal nortality in gilts: association with progesterone . J. Anim. Sci. 74:620-624．
Kemp, B., N. M. Soede, F. A. Helmond, and M. W. Bosch. 1995． Effects of energy source in the diet on produ-ctive hormones and insulin during lactation and subsequent estrus in multiparous sows. J. Anim. Sci. 73: 3022-3029．
Kemp, B., N. Soede, F. A. Helmond, and W. Bosch. 1995． Effects of energy source in the diet on productive hormones and insulin during lactation and subsequent estrus in multiparous sows. J. Anim. Sci. 73: 3022-3029．
King, R. H., and W. G. Brown. 1993． Interrelationships between dietary protein lever, energy intake, and nitro-gen retention in pregnant gilts. J. Anim. Sci. 71:2450-2456．
Kusina, J., J. E. Pettigrew, A. F. Sower, M. E. White, B. A. Crooker, and M. R. Hathaway. 1999． Effect of protein intake during gestation and lactation on the lactational performance of primiparous sows. J. Anim. Sci. 77: 931-941．
Lawrence, A. B., and J. Rushen. 1993． Stereotypic Animal Behaviour: Fundamentals and animal welfare. CAB International, Wallingford, U. K.
Mahan, D. C. 1998． Relationship of gestation protein and feed intake leverl over a five-pairty period using a high producing sow geneotype. J. Anim. Aci. 76:533-541．
Matte, J. J., S. Robert, C. L. Girard, C. Farmer, and G. P. Martineau. 1994． Effect of bulky diets based on wheat bar or oat hulls on reproductive performance of sows during their first two parities. J. Anim. Sci. 72:1754-1760．
NRC. 1998． Nutrition requirements of swine. 10 ed. National Academy Press, Washington, DC.
Pettigrew, J. E., and H. Yang. 1997． Protein nutrition of gestating sows. J. Anim. Sci. 75:2723-2730．
Pharazyn, A., L. A. Den hartog, G. R. Foxcroft, and F. X. Aherne. 1991． Dietary energy and protein intake, p1-asma progesterone and embryo survival in early pregnancy in the gilt. Can. J. Anim. Sci. 71:949-952．
Robert, S., J. J. Matte, C. Farmer, C. L. Girard, and G. P. Martineau. 1993． High fiber diets for sows: Effects on sterotypies and adjunctive drinking. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 37:297-309．
Schokencht, P. A., G. R. Newton, D. E. Weise, and W. G. Pond. 1994． Protein restriction in early pregnancy alte-rs fetal and placental growth and allanyoic fluid proteins in swine. Theriogenology. 42:217-226．
Schoknecht, P. A., W. G. Pond, H. J. Mersmamm, and R. P. Madrer. 1993． Protein restriction during pregnancy affects postnatal growth in swine progeny. J. Nutr. 123: 1818-1825．
Sinclair, A. G., V. C. Bland, and S. A. Edwards. 2001． thr influence of gestation feeding strategy on body com-position of gilts at farrowing and response to dietary protein in modified lactation. J. Anim. Sci. 79:2397-2405．
Terlouw, E. M. C., A. B. Lawrence, and A. W. Illius. 1991． Influences of feeding level and physical restriction on development of stereotypies in sows. Anim. Behav. 42:981-991．
Toplis, P., and M. F. J. Ginesi. 1983． The influence of high food levels in early pregnancy on embryo survival in multiparous sow. Anim. prod. 37:45-48．
Van den Brand, H., M. J. W. Heetkamp, N. M. Soede, J. W. Schrama, and B. Kenp. 2000． Energy blance of lact-ating primiparous sows as affected by feeding leverl and dietary energy source. J. Anim. Sci. 78:1520-1528．
Verstegen, M. W. A., and L. A. Den Hartog. 1989． Nutrition of sows in relation to environment. Pig News Info. 10:341-344．
Weldon, W. C., A. J. Lewis, G. F. Louis, J. L. Kovar, and P. S. Miller. 1994． Postpartum hypophagia in prinip-arous sows: II. Effects of feeding level during gestation and exogenous insulin on lactation feed intake, glucose tolerance, and epinephrine-stimulated release of nonesterified fatty acids and glucose. J. Anim. Sci. 72: 395-403．
Weldon, W. C., A. J. Lewis, G. F. Louis, J. L. Kovar, M. A. Giesemann, and P. S. Miller. 1994． Postpartum hypo-phagia in primiparous sows: I. Effects of gestation feeding level on feed intake, feeding behavior, and plasma metabolite concentrations during lactation.
J. Anim. Sci. 72:387．
Weldon,W. C., A. J. Thulin, 0． A. MacDougald, L. J. Johnston, E. R. Miller, and H. A. Tucker. 1991． Effects of increased dietary energy and protein during late gestation on mammary developmemnt in gilts. J. Anim. Sci. 69:194-200．
Young, L G., G. J. King, J. Shaw, M. Quinton, J. S. Walton, and I. Mcmillan. 1991． Interrelationships among age, body weight, backfat and lactation feed intake with reproductive performance and longevity of sows. Can. J. Anim. Sci. 71:567-575．
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Dyck, G. W. 1991． The effect of postmating diet intake on embryonic and fetal survival, and litter size in gilts. Can. J. Anim. Sci. 71:675-681．
Dyck, G. W., and A. D. Kennedy. 1995． The effect of leverl of diet intake after mating on the serum concentrat-ion of thyroxine, triiodothyronine, growth hormone, insulin and glucose, and embryonic survival in the gilt. Can. J. Anim. Sci. 75:315-325．
Dyck, G. W., f. M. palmer, and S. Simaraks. 1980． Progesterone and luteinzing hormone concentration of pregnant gilts on different levels of feed consumption. Can. J. Anim. Aci. 60:579．
Dyck. G. W., and J. H. Strain. 1983． Post-mating feeding level effects on conception rate and embryonic survival in gilts. Can. J. Anim. Sci. 63:579．
Head, R. H., I. H. Williams. 1991． Mammogenesis is ihfluenced by the nutrition of gilts during pregnancy. In: E. S. Batterham (Ed.) Manipulating Pig Production III. p 33． Australasian Pig Sci. Assoc., Werribbee, Australia.
Head, R. H., N. W. Bruce, and I. H. Williams. 1991． More cells might lead to more milk. In: E. S. Batterham (Ed.) Manipulating Pig Production III. p 76． Australasian Pig Sci. Assoc., Werribbee, Australia.
Henry, Y., and M. Etienne,. 1978． Alimentation energetique du pore. Journ. Rech. Porcine Fr. 10:119．
Hughes, B. O., and I. D. H. Duncan. 1988． The notion of ethological need, models of motivation and animal welfare. Anim. Behav. 36:1696-1707．
Hughes, P. E. 1993． The effects of food level during lactation and early gestation on the reproductive performan-ce of mature sows. Anim. Prod. 57:437-445．
Jin, L. X., K. Yu, D. D. Gary, J. Pettigrew, and A. Sower. 1997． Glucose tolerance, lutein-izing hormone release, and reproductive performance of first-litter sows fed tow levels of energy during ges-tation. J. Anim. Sci. 75:1845-1852．
Jindal, R., J. R. Cosgrove, F. X. Aherne, and G. R. Forcroft. 1997． Progesterone mediates nutritionally induced effects on embryonic survival in gilts. 75:1063-1070．
Jindal, R., J. R. Cosgrove, F. X. Aherne, and G. R. Foxcroft .1996． Effect of nutriition on embryonal nortality in gilts: association with progesterone . J. Anim. Sci. 74:620-624．
Kemp, B., N. M. Soede, F. A. Helmond, and M. W. Bosch. 1995． Effects of energy source in the diet on produ-ctive hormones and insulin during lactation and subsequent estrus in multiparous sows. J. Anim. Sci. 73: 3022-3029．
Kemp, B., N. Soede, F. A. Helmond, and W. Bosch. 1995． Effects of energy source in the diet on productive hormones and insulin during lactation and subsequent estrus in multiparous sows. J. Anim. Sci. 73: 3022-3029．
King, R. H., and W. G. Brown. 1993． Interrelationships between dietary protein lever, energy intake, and nitro-gen retention in pregnant gilts. J. Anim. Sci. 71:2450-2456．
Kusina, J., J. E. Pettigrew, A. F. Sower, M. E. White, B. A. Crooker, and M. R. Hathaway. 1999． Effect of protein intake during gestation and lactation on the lactational performance of primiparous sows. J. Anim. Sci. 77: 931-941．
Lawrence, A. B., and J. Rushen. 1993． Stereotypic Animal Behaviour: Fundamentals and animal welfare. CAB International, Wallingford, U. K.
Mahan, D. C. 1998． Relationship of gestation protein and feed intake leverl over a five-pairty period using a high producing sow geneotype. J. Anim. Aci. 76:533-541．
Matte, J. J., S. Robert, C. L. Girard, C. Farmer, and G. P. Martineau. 1994． Effect of bulky diets based on wheat bar or oat hulls on reproductive performance of sows during their first two parities. J. Anim. Sci. 72:1754-1760．
NRC. 1998． Nutrition requirements of swine. 10 ed. National Academy Press, Washington, DC.
Pettigrew, J. E., and H. Yang. 1997． Protein nutrition of gestating sows. J. Anim. Sci. 75:2723-2730．
Pharazyn, A., L. A. Den hartog, G. R. Foxcroft, and F. X. Aherne. 1991． Dietary energy and protein intake, p1-asma progesterone and embryo survival in early pregnancy in the gilt. Can. J. Anim. Sci. 71:949-952．
Robert, S., J. J. Matte, C. Farmer, C. L. Girard, and G. P. Martineau. 1993． High fiber diets for sows: Effects on sterotypies and adjunctive drinking. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 37:297-309．
Schokencht, P. A., G. R. Newton, D. E. Weise, and W. G. Pond. 1994． Protein restriction in early pregnancy alte-rs fetal and placental growth and allanyoic fluid proteins in swine. Theriogenology. 42:217-226．
Schoknecht, P. A., W. G. Pond, H. J. Mersmamm, and R. P. Madrer. 1993． Protein restriction during pregnancy affects postnatal growth in swine progeny. J. Nutr. 123: 1818-1825．
Sinclair, A. G., V. C. Bland, and S. A. Edwards. 2001． thr influence of gestation feeding strategy on body com-position of gilts at farrowing and response to dietary protein in modified lactation. J. Anim. Sci. 79:2397-2405．
Terlouw, E. M. C., A. B. Lawrence, and A. W. Illius. 1991． Influences of feeding level and physical restriction on development of stereotypies in sows. Anim. Behav. 42:981-991．
Toplis, P., and M. F. J. Ginesi. 1983． The influence of high food levels in early pregnancy on embryo survival in multiparous sow. Anim. prod. 37:45-48．
Van den Brand, H., M. J. W. Heetkamp, N. M. Soede, J. W. Schrama, and B. Kenp. 2000． Energy blance of lact-ating primiparous sows as affected by feeding leverl and dietary energy source. J. Anim. Sci. 78:1520-1528．
Verstegen, M. W. A., and L. A. Den Hartog. 1989． Nutrition of sows in relation to environment. Pig News Info. 10:341-344．
Weldon, W. C., A. J. Lewis, G. F. Louis, J. L. Kovar, and P. S. Miller. 1994． Postpartum hypophagia in prinip-arous sows: II. Effects of feeding level during gestation and exogenous insulin on lactation feed intake, glucose tolerance, and epinephrine-stimulated release of nonesterified fatty acids and glucose. J. Anim. Sci. 72: 395-403．
Weldon, W. C., A. J. Lewis, G. F. Louis, J. L. Kovar, M. A. Giesemann, and P. S. Miller. 1994． Postpartum hypo-phagia in primiparous sows: I. Effects of gestation feeding level on feed intake, feeding behavior, and plasma metabolite concentrations during lactation.
J. Anim. Sci. 72:387．
Weldon,W. C., A. J. Thulin, 0． A. MacDougald, L. J. Johnston, E. R. Miller, and H. A. Tucker. 1991． Effects of increased dietary energy and protein during late gestation on mammary developmemnt in gilts. J. Anim. Sci. 69:194-200．
Young, L G., G. J. King, J. Shaw, M. Quinton, J. S. Walton, and I. Mcmillan. 1991． Interrelationships among age, body weight, backfat and lactation feed intake with reproductive performance and longevity of sows. Can. J. Anim. Sci. 71:567-575．