情绪劳动作用机制下服务企业的人力资源管理
|
摘要
全球正逐步进入服务业为主的社会。服务业所贩卖的不仅仅是商品本身,服务业比传统产业多了一项顾客与员工在工作场所会产生互动的特性。由于顾客和员工在服务传递中彼此面对面或者声音对声音产生互动,员工在服务传递过程中的一举一动都会被顾客所察觉,因此,员工在服务接触中的服务态度与服务行为表现便成了影响顾客对服务满意认知的重要影响因素。
Hochschild将这种按组织要求进行情绪管理以便产生组织需要的行为和面部表情的过程称之为情绪劳动。情绪在服务接触过程中的重要性决定了情绪劳动对组织有着极为重要的意义。情绪劳动通过增加顾客满意度来协调和改善与顾客的关系,促进组织目标的实现,增强企业的竞争力。但是实践表明,从长期来看,对员工而言,按照组织要求表达适当的情绪有时意味着摒弃自我,需要压制或伪装某种情感,久而久之,员工会出现工作压力增加,职业倦怠感加深等。
霍赫希尔德采取马克思的异化思想,认为组织结构迫使员工根据机械的和生产线的指令进行技术操作,因此增强了异化。而当下,组织进一步迫使员工控制他们的心情。从这个意义上来讲,组织对员工的控制水平加深了,因为员工私人和内在的感受和体验也受到组织的操纵。当工作不允许真诚的表达时,员工的情感对他们是没有意义的,这就导致员工体验到一种虚假的自我意义。
情绪劳动之所以增强了人的异化,从根源上讲,是由于组织结构和组织管理本身所具备的特性决定的。企业作为一种营利性组织,处于竞争性市场之中,必然要追求效率,由此决定了在组织管理和组织结构中,需要通过强调规则和非人格化、劳动分工和等级制、专业化、集权与控制、命令与服从,限制情感的表达来增强企业竞争力。这种管理模式,即管理学家所称的官僚制。在很长一段时期内,官僚制为提高组织运作效率发挥了巨大作用。但是,它内在的理性主义假设与人所具备的社会性存在一种二律背反。其中的约束机制迫使人们按照规则去工作,因而增强了效率,然而,这种运营模式对人又是一种禁锢,人异化为服从的工具。特别是情绪劳动的出现,当情感都成为工具性的操控对象时,消极心理效应的加剧从而又反过来对组织产生了消极影响。同时值得注意的是,这种官僚制抹杀了人的个性和创新精神,而情绪劳动普遍存在于服务行业,这一行业的服务,是需要员工充分发挥主体性的,特别是个性化服务要求越高的企业,越需要服务创新。当员工处于消极心理状态的时候,带来的就是组织经营效率的下降。
内部营销理论认为：只有满意的员工,才能带来满意的绩效。长期从事服务行业的员工的缺乏精力、挫折与疲惫、冷漠与疏离等心理或情绪反应,最终会导致影响到企业的长期发展。美国学者Lawrence S. Kleiman(1999)曾在人力资源管理实践与竞争优势关系模型中指出,以雇员为中心的结果将引起以组织为中心的结果,进而影响到组织的竞争优势,组织的管理实践必须切实改善员工的心理、工作态度和行为,才能在为企业建立和保持持续竞争优势上发挥作用。员工的情绪劳动作为一种容易被消耗的资源,它的开发和使用就需要引起企业的重视,以实现资源的可持续发展和利用,这是组织实现长远发展的需要。这也是服务企业发挥自主性、创新性的要求。社会经济的发展和文明的进步,必然使得服务行业日益具备关系型特征,体验经济正在兴起,并成为趋势。这种特征要求员工要以饱满的精神投入工作,那么企业必须对员工的心理状态进行关注。
但是,当前的服务企业管理存在局限性。目前企业注意到了情绪劳动的消极后果,并采取了一定的手段进行管理,其主要思想是企业管理者要更加注重薪酬管理中的非物质因素,加强对员工个人情感和需求的关怀,创造良好的工作环境,培养员工对组织的归属感,设法提高员工的满意度,减轻员工的工作压力等,在员工关系管理中要注重企业内部的人际冲突。但是这些措施比较片面,没有成为一个系统的整体,也没有从根源上改善情绪劳动的消极后果。当Hochschild首次将情感列为劳动的重要组成部分时,这一概念所带来的意义是深刻的。它意味着组织从此不仅需要关注体力和脑力劳动,情感也将成为企业管理的重要对象。以往建立在工业经济时代的管理理论和技术受到挑战,情绪劳动必然使得企业管理开始具备情感性特征。对情绪劳动的管理不能仅仅局限于情绪劳动本身。事实上,情绪劳动的提出可能对组织管理模式是一种全面的革新。根据上述的情绪劳动导致异化的根源进行分析,组织必须缓解或消除员工在组织管理模式下的被控制感,强化员工自我真实性的获取,从根本上解决情绪劳动的管理难题。这正是女性主义组织理论家所倡导的。
女性主义理论从两性文化价值和伦理思想的视角为官僚制的变革提供了一种崭新的途径,实现了一种新的超越。女性对友谊的注重、对合作的义务的承担、良好的沟通能力和相互支持的态度可以给原来的男性主导的竞争性的公共组织带来重要的变化。因此,女性主义途径对传统官僚制的改革具有十分重要的意义。女性主义组织理论家已经更进一步关注情感的个人真实性,认为在工作中表达了更大范围的情绪是可取的。女性主义组织努力促进员工的福祉。他们弱化层级,宁愿相对平等的组织方式和协商一致的决策方式；领导责任实行共享,往往建立在轮换的基础上；并且避免专门的劳动分工或利用工作轮换和培训绕开。女性主义组织依靠于一种不突兀的独特的控制,强调情感表达和私人的首要地位。这种管理模式能够有效的缓解情绪劳动和组织管理对人们的操控感,The Body Shop为我们提供了一个优秀的典范。
The Body Shop拥有大量连锁店来销售公司的化妆品,工作内容中包含了典型的情绪劳动,其基于女性主义文化的情绪劳动管理的结果就是美体小铺的员工彼此之间积极互动并热情地致力于他们的工作,创造了一个严密、亲密的组织。它的管理策略主要包括如下三个层面：第一,消除支持控制行为及其机制的因素,传统的管理模式在行为特征上是以控制为导向的,而新的管理模式下,组织成员及其行为要具有更多的平等和自由的特征,从而大大减少情绪劳动带来的异化。美体小铺在企业文化到具体措施上都实现了这一点。第二,在工作和其他任务上,更多采用情感式的方式,而不是传统的行使权力或者遵守规则的方式,这种实践打破了公共情感与私人之间的壁垒,使私人化的情感融入进入工作本身。第三,在工作之外,组织采取了更加个性化和更宽容的方式尊重员工的个人需求,在组织目标与员工个人情感之间,提供一种创新性的情绪劳动和有限感性的组合,这样能够创造一个亲密的团体。
理论分析和美体小铺的实践都表明,上述管理策略对服务企业一线员工的情绪劳动管理是起到很大的积极作用。特别是美体小铺用它自身的鲜活的实践,证明情绪劳动的管理上,突破传统的官僚式的管理模式,贬低非人格化,鼓励公开表达情感,并承认“私人”和工作的关注的不可分割,是主要的管理思想。
在上述思路上,本文继承国内外情绪劳动研究的研究成果,充分吸收前人的研究经验和最新的理论模型,在以下几个方面做出了贡献和一些创新性的探索：1、在情绪劳动作用机制的视角下探讨情绪劳动的管理策略,本文首先回顾了相关的研究,考察了情绪劳动对员工产生的消极影响,为情绪劳动研究提供了更全面的理论分析。2、首次异化理论、官僚制改革以及女性主义理论的观点,探索了情绪劳动的管理。这些理论从其内在思想上有一脉相承之处,本研究把这些理论进行了整合和应用,为情绪劳动的管理研究提供了独特的理论视角。3、采取了国外学者进行深入调查和走访得出的案例分析,为理论分析提供了事实论据,验证了女性主义文化下的情绪劳动管理是有效的。
The world is gradually entering into a service-based society. The difference between service industry and traditional industries is that customers and employees will have interactive features in workplace. Such emotional management process by organizational requirements in order to generate behaviors and facial expressions organizations needed is called emotional labor by Hochschild. In the long run, for employees, to express the appropriate emotions in accordance with organizational requirements sometimes means to put aside ego, it needs to suppress or disguise some emotion. Over time, it will occur that pressure is increasing and the sense of job burnout is deepening in staff.
Through adoption of the idea of Marx's alienation, Hochchild considered that employees are forced to behave according to the instructions of machinery and production lines by the organizational structure and are enhanced alienation. While now, organizations further compel employees to control their feelings. In this sense, the level of control of employees is deepening, because employees'private and inner feelings and experiences have also been manipulated by the organizations.
Internal marketing theory suggests that:only satisfied employees can bring about satisfactory performance. The lack of energy, frustration and fatigue, apathy and alienation, and other psychological or emotional reactions in the employees in the service sectors will eventually affect the long-term development of enterprises. As a kind of resources which is easy to consume, development and use of staffs emotion needs to attract the attention on the businesses to achieve sustainable development, which is not only the need of the organization to achieve long-term development, but also to achieve creativity in service.
However, there are some limitations in current service human resource management. At present, enterprises have taken note of the negative consequences of emotional labor and have taken certain measures, but these measures are one-sided to some extent and don't become a system as a whole, nor meliorate the negative consequences of emotional labor from its source. The management of emotional labor can not be confined to emotional labor itself. In fact, the emotional labor may mean a comprehensive innovation in organization management model. According to analysis of the root causes of alienation led to by the emotional labor, organizations need to reduce or eliminate the sense of control of staff in organization management mode, and strengthen the self-authenticity of employee. This is what feminist theorists advocated.
Feminist organizations rely on a non-obtrusive unique control, emphasizing emotional expression and the primacy of private sector. This management model can effectively alleviate the people's sense of control under the emotional labor and organizational management. The Body Shop has provided us an excellent example. Its result of emotional labor management based on feminist culture is that the staffs interact with each other positively and commit to their work enthusiastically, creating a tight, intimate organization. Its management strategies include the following three levels:First, in the management model, organizational members and their behaviors have more the characteristics of equality and freedom, thus greatly reduce the alienation caused by emotional labor. Secondly, there is the greater use of emotional style in work and other tasks, rather than the traditional exercise of authority or complying with the rules. Thirdly, the organizations have taken a more personalized and more tolerant way of respect for the staffs'personal needs outside work.
In summary, theoretical analysis and the practice of Body Shop have both shown that breaking the traditional bureaucratic style of management, to belittle the non-personification, encouraging open expression of emotion, and recognition the indivisibility of the "private" and work concerns in emotional labor management are the main management thinking.
Hochschild将这种按组织要求进行情绪管理以便产生组织需要的行为和面部表情的过程称之为情绪劳动。情绪在服务接触过程中的重要性决定了情绪劳动对组织有着极为重要的意义。情绪劳动通过增加顾客满意度来协调和改善与顾客的关系,促进组织目标的实现,增强企业的竞争力。但是实践表明,从长期来看,对员工而言,按照组织要求表达适当的情绪有时意味着摒弃自我,需要压制或伪装某种情感,久而久之,员工会出现工作压力增加,职业倦怠感加深等。
霍赫希尔德采取马克思的异化思想,认为组织结构迫使员工根据机械的和生产线的指令进行技术操作,因此增强了异化。而当下,组织进一步迫使员工控制他们的心情。从这个意义上来讲,组织对员工的控制水平加深了,因为员工私人和内在的感受和体验也受到组织的操纵。当工作不允许真诚的表达时,员工的情感对他们是没有意义的,这就导致员工体验到一种虚假的自我意义。
情绪劳动之所以增强了人的异化,从根源上讲,是由于组织结构和组织管理本身所具备的特性决定的。企业作为一种营利性组织,处于竞争性市场之中,必然要追求效率,由此决定了在组织管理和组织结构中,需要通过强调规则和非人格化、劳动分工和等级制、专业化、集权与控制、命令与服从,限制情感的表达来增强企业竞争力。这种管理模式,即管理学家所称的官僚制。在很长一段时期内,官僚制为提高组织运作效率发挥了巨大作用。但是,它内在的理性主义假设与人所具备的社会性存在一种二律背反。其中的约束机制迫使人们按照规则去工作,因而增强了效率,然而,这种运营模式对人又是一种禁锢,人异化为服从的工具。特别是情绪劳动的出现,当情感都成为工具性的操控对象时,消极心理效应的加剧从而又反过来对组织产生了消极影响。同时值得注意的是,这种官僚制抹杀了人的个性和创新精神,而情绪劳动普遍存在于服务行业,这一行业的服务,是需要员工充分发挥主体性的,特别是个性化服务要求越高的企业,越需要服务创新。当员工处于消极心理状态的时候,带来的就是组织经营效率的下降。
内部营销理论认为：只有满意的员工,才能带来满意的绩效。长期从事服务行业的员工的缺乏精力、挫折与疲惫、冷漠与疏离等心理或情绪反应,最终会导致影响到企业的长期发展。美国学者Lawrence S. Kleiman(1999)曾在人力资源管理实践与竞争优势关系模型中指出,以雇员为中心的结果将引起以组织为中心的结果,进而影响到组织的竞争优势,组织的管理实践必须切实改善员工的心理、工作态度和行为,才能在为企业建立和保持持续竞争优势上发挥作用。员工的情绪劳动作为一种容易被消耗的资源,它的开发和使用就需要引起企业的重视,以实现资源的可持续发展和利用,这是组织实现长远发展的需要。这也是服务企业发挥自主性、创新性的要求。社会经济的发展和文明的进步,必然使得服务行业日益具备关系型特征,体验经济正在兴起,并成为趋势。这种特征要求员工要以饱满的精神投入工作,那么企业必须对员工的心理状态进行关注。
但是,当前的服务企业管理存在局限性。目前企业注意到了情绪劳动的消极后果,并采取了一定的手段进行管理,其主要思想是企业管理者要更加注重薪酬管理中的非物质因素,加强对员工个人情感和需求的关怀,创造良好的工作环境,培养员工对组织的归属感,设法提高员工的满意度,减轻员工的工作压力等,在员工关系管理中要注重企业内部的人际冲突。但是这些措施比较片面,没有成为一个系统的整体,也没有从根源上改善情绪劳动的消极后果。当Hochschild首次将情感列为劳动的重要组成部分时,这一概念所带来的意义是深刻的。它意味着组织从此不仅需要关注体力和脑力劳动,情感也将成为企业管理的重要对象。以往建立在工业经济时代的管理理论和技术受到挑战,情绪劳动必然使得企业管理开始具备情感性特征。对情绪劳动的管理不能仅仅局限于情绪劳动本身。事实上,情绪劳动的提出可能对组织管理模式是一种全面的革新。根据上述的情绪劳动导致异化的根源进行分析,组织必须缓解或消除员工在组织管理模式下的被控制感,强化员工自我真实性的获取,从根本上解决情绪劳动的管理难题。这正是女性主义组织理论家所倡导的。
女性主义理论从两性文化价值和伦理思想的视角为官僚制的变革提供了一种崭新的途径,实现了一种新的超越。女性对友谊的注重、对合作的义务的承担、良好的沟通能力和相互支持的态度可以给原来的男性主导的竞争性的公共组织带来重要的变化。因此,女性主义途径对传统官僚制的改革具有十分重要的意义。女性主义组织理论家已经更进一步关注情感的个人真实性,认为在工作中表达了更大范围的情绪是可取的。女性主义组织努力促进员工的福祉。他们弱化层级,宁愿相对平等的组织方式和协商一致的决策方式；领导责任实行共享,往往建立在轮换的基础上；并且避免专门的劳动分工或利用工作轮换和培训绕开。女性主义组织依靠于一种不突兀的独特的控制,强调情感表达和私人的首要地位。这种管理模式能够有效的缓解情绪劳动和组织管理对人们的操控感,The Body Shop为我们提供了一个优秀的典范。
The Body Shop拥有大量连锁店来销售公司的化妆品,工作内容中包含了典型的情绪劳动,其基于女性主义文化的情绪劳动管理的结果就是美体小铺的员工彼此之间积极互动并热情地致力于他们的工作,创造了一个严密、亲密的组织。它的管理策略主要包括如下三个层面：第一,消除支持控制行为及其机制的因素,传统的管理模式在行为特征上是以控制为导向的,而新的管理模式下,组织成员及其行为要具有更多的平等和自由的特征,从而大大减少情绪劳动带来的异化。美体小铺在企业文化到具体措施上都实现了这一点。第二,在工作和其他任务上,更多采用情感式的方式,而不是传统的行使权力或者遵守规则的方式,这种实践打破了公共情感与私人之间的壁垒,使私人化的情感融入进入工作本身。第三,在工作之外,组织采取了更加个性化和更宽容的方式尊重员工的个人需求,在组织目标与员工个人情感之间,提供一种创新性的情绪劳动和有限感性的组合,这样能够创造一个亲密的团体。
理论分析和美体小铺的实践都表明,上述管理策略对服务企业一线员工的情绪劳动管理是起到很大的积极作用。特别是美体小铺用它自身的鲜活的实践,证明情绪劳动的管理上,突破传统的官僚式的管理模式,贬低非人格化,鼓励公开表达情感,并承认“私人”和工作的关注的不可分割,是主要的管理思想。
在上述思路上,本文继承国内外情绪劳动研究的研究成果,充分吸收前人的研究经验和最新的理论模型,在以下几个方面做出了贡献和一些创新性的探索：1、在情绪劳动作用机制的视角下探讨情绪劳动的管理策略,本文首先回顾了相关的研究,考察了情绪劳动对员工产生的消极影响,为情绪劳动研究提供了更全面的理论分析。2、首次异化理论、官僚制改革以及女性主义理论的观点,探索了情绪劳动的管理。这些理论从其内在思想上有一脉相承之处,本研究把这些理论进行了整合和应用,为情绪劳动的管理研究提供了独特的理论视角。3、采取了国外学者进行深入调查和走访得出的案例分析,为理论分析提供了事实论据,验证了女性主义文化下的情绪劳动管理是有效的。
The world is gradually entering into a service-based society. The difference between service industry and traditional industries is that customers and employees will have interactive features in workplace. Such emotional management process by organizational requirements in order to generate behaviors and facial expressions organizations needed is called emotional labor by Hochschild. In the long run, for employees, to express the appropriate emotions in accordance with organizational requirements sometimes means to put aside ego, it needs to suppress or disguise some emotion. Over time, it will occur that pressure is increasing and the sense of job burnout is deepening in staff.
Through adoption of the idea of Marx's alienation, Hochchild considered that employees are forced to behave according to the instructions of machinery and production lines by the organizational structure and are enhanced alienation. While now, organizations further compel employees to control their feelings. In this sense, the level of control of employees is deepening, because employees'private and inner feelings and experiences have also been manipulated by the organizations.
Internal marketing theory suggests that:only satisfied employees can bring about satisfactory performance. The lack of energy, frustration and fatigue, apathy and alienation, and other psychological or emotional reactions in the employees in the service sectors will eventually affect the long-term development of enterprises. As a kind of resources which is easy to consume, development and use of staffs emotion needs to attract the attention on the businesses to achieve sustainable development, which is not only the need of the organization to achieve long-term development, but also to achieve creativity in service.
However, there are some limitations in current service human resource management. At present, enterprises have taken note of the negative consequences of emotional labor and have taken certain measures, but these measures are one-sided to some extent and don't become a system as a whole, nor meliorate the negative consequences of emotional labor from its source. The management of emotional labor can not be confined to emotional labor itself. In fact, the emotional labor may mean a comprehensive innovation in organization management model. According to analysis of the root causes of alienation led to by the emotional labor, organizations need to reduce or eliminate the sense of control of staff in organization management mode, and strengthen the self-authenticity of employee. This is what feminist theorists advocated.
Feminist organizations rely on a non-obtrusive unique control, emphasizing emotional expression and the primacy of private sector. This management model can effectively alleviate the people's sense of control under the emotional labor and organizational management. The Body Shop has provided us an excellent example. Its result of emotional labor management based on feminist culture is that the staffs interact with each other positively and commit to their work enthusiastically, creating a tight, intimate organization. Its management strategies include the following three levels:First, in the management model, organizational members and their behaviors have more the characteristics of equality and freedom, thus greatly reduce the alienation caused by emotional labor. Secondly, there is the greater use of emotional style in work and other tasks, rather than the traditional exercise of authority or complying with the rules. Thirdly, the organizations have taken a more personalized and more tolerant way of respect for the staffs'personal needs outside work.
In summary, theoretical analysis and the practice of Body Shop have both shown that breaking the traditional bureaucratic style of management, to belittle the non-personification, encouraging open expression of emotion, and recognition the indivisibility of the "private" and work concerns in emotional labor management are the main management thinking.
引文
[1][美],彼得·布劳,马歇尔·梅耶著,马戎,时宪民,邱泽奇译,现代社会中的科层制[M],上海：学林出版社,2001。
[2]本尼斯,组织发展与官僚制体系的命运[A],孙耀君,西方管理学名著提要[C],南昌：江西人民出版社,2002。
[3][美]罗伯特·B·登哈特著,扶松茂,丁力译,公共组织理论[M],’北京：中国人民大学出版社,2003。
[4][美]W·理查德·斯格特著,黄洋,等译,组织理论[M],北京：华夏出版社,2002。
[5][美]斯蒂芬·P·罗宾斯著,孙健敏,李原译,组织行为学[M],北京：中国人民大学出版社,1998
[6]Brotheridge CM & Lee RT, Testing a conservation of resources model of the dynamics of emotional labor[J], Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 2002,7 (1):57-67.
[7]Martin, Joanne, Knopoff, Kathleen & Christine Beckman, An Alternative to Bureaucratic Impersonality and Emotional Labor:Bounded Emotionality at The Body Shop, Administrative Science Quarterly,1998,43(2):429-469.
[8][美]乔纳森·特纳、简·斯戴兹,情感社会学[M],上海人民出版社,2007。
[9]董以红,官僚制改革的女性主义视角[J],中华女子学院学报,2004,(2)。
[10]张辉华,凌文辁,方俐洛,“情绪劳动”研究概况[J],心理科学进展,2006,14(1)：111-119。
[12]孙俊才,乔建中,情绪性工作的研究现状[J],心理科学进展,2005,(1)：85-90。
[13]吴宗佑,工作中的情绪劳动：概念发展、相关变项分析、心理历程议题探讨[D],台湾大学心理学研究所,博士论文,2003。
[14]李永鑫,三种职业人群工作倦怠的比较研究：基于整合的视角[D],博士论文,上海：华东师范大学,2005.105-120。
[15]李永鑫,张阔.工作倦怠研究的新趋势.心理科学,2007,30(2)：478-481.
[16]向光富,中学教师工作倦怠、工作压力、工作满意及其关系的研究[D],华中师范大学硕士学位论文,2005。
[17]汤小薄,工作倦怠、工作满意度与组织承诺的相关研究[D],重庆大学硕士学位论文,2007。
[18]吴宗佑,郑伯壎,工作投入、调节他人情绪能力与情绪劳动交互作用对情绪耗竭的预测效果[J],中华心理学刊,2006,48(1)：69-87。
[19]陈瑞君,零售业人员情绪劳动情绪耗竭与心理健康的关系研究[D],硕士论文,开封：河南大学,2006：12-14。
[20]邢占军,张友谊,唐正风,国有大中型企业职工满意感研究[J],心理科学,2001,24(2)：191-193。
[21]汪彩玲,工作满意度影响因素分析[J],市场研究,2005,2：29-32。
[22]马淑蕾,黄敏儿.情绪劳动：表层动作与深层动作,哪一种效果更好?[J],心理学报,2006,38(2)：262-270。
[23]钟建安,林剑,张媛媛.情绪表达规则、调节策略与工作倦怠关系的研究.应用心理学,2007,13(2)：144-148。
[24]彭正敏,情绪智力、情绪劳动与耗竭的关系及其内部机制的研究[D],硕士论文,北京：北京师范大学,2005。
[25]吕莉,高校教师工作倦怠与工作满意度和社会支持的关系研究[D],华中科技大学硕士学位论文,2005。
[26]蒋奖,张西超,许燕,银行职员的工作倦怠与身心健康、工作满意度的探讨[J],中国心理卫生杂志,2004,18(3)：197-199.48
[27]Abraham,R.The impact of emotional dissonance on organizational commitment and intention toturnover. The Journal of Psychology,1999.133(4):441-455.
[28]Ashforth,B.E.,&Humphrey,R.N.Emotional labor in service roles:The influence of identity. Academy of Management Review,1993,18:88-115.
[29]Adelmann,P.K.EMOTIONAL LABOR as a potential source of job stress.1995.In S.L.Sauter,&L.R.Murphy(Eds.)
[30]Barrick, R.K.Burnout and job satisfaction of vocational supervisors.Journal of Agricultural Education,1989:35-41.
[31]Bono,J.E.,&Vey,M.A.Toward understanding emotional management at work.:A quantitative review of emotional labor research. In C.E.J.Hartel,W.J.Zerbe,&Ashkanasy(Eds),Emotions in organizational behavior(pp.213-234).Mahwah,NJ:Erlbaum.
[32]Brotheridge,C.M.,&Grandy,A.A.Emotional labor and burnout:comparing two perspectives of" people work".Journal of Vocational Behavior,2002a,60:17-39.
[33]Brotheridge,C.M.,&Lee,R.T.Testing a conservation of resources model of the dynamics of emotional labor.Journal of Occupational Health Psychology,2002b,7(1):57-67.
[34]Brown,J.W.,&Campbell,E.A.Sources of occupational stress in the police.Work and Stress,1990,4:305-318.
[35]Cheung,F.,&Tang,C.Assessment of emotional dissonance among Chinese human service professionals.Paper presented to the Asian Applied Psychology International-Regional Conference.2005.
[36]Cordes,C.I.,&Dougherty,T.W.A review and an intergration of research on the job burnout. Academy of Management Review,1993,18(4):621-656.
[37]Diefendorff,J.M.,&Richard,E.M.Antecedents and consequences of emotional display rule perceptions.Journal of Applied Psychology,2003,88(2):284-294.
[38]Dormann,C.,&Zapf,D.Customer-Related social stressors and burnout.Journal of Occupational Health Psychology,2004,9(1):61-82.
[39]Ever,W.,Tomic,W.,&Brouwers,A.Aggressive behavior and burnout among staff of homes for the elderly.International Journal of Mental Health Nursing,2002,11:2-9.
[40]Grandey,A.A.Emotion regulation in the workplace:A new way to conceptualize emotional labor. Journal of Occupational Health,2000.
[41]Grandey, A.When the show must go on:surface and acting as determinants of emotional exhaustion and peer-rated service delivery.Academy of Manangement Journal,2003,46(1):86-96.
[42]Hallberg,U.E.,&Schaufeli,W.B."Same same"but differernt?Can work engagement be discriminated from job involement organizational commitment?European Psychologist,2006,11 (2):119-127.
[43]Heuven,E.,&Bakker,A.B.Emotional dissonance and burnout among cabin attendants.European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology,2003,12(1):81-100.
[44]Hobfoll,G.H.Conservations of resources:A new attempt at conceptualizing stress.American Psychologist,1989,44(3):513-524.
[45]Hobfoll,S.E.Social and psychological resources and adaptation.Review of General Psychology,2001,6:307-324.
[20]Johnson,H.M.,&Sepector,P.E.Service with a smile:Do emotional intelligence,gender,and autonomy moderate the emotional labor process?Journal of Occupational Health Psychology,2007,12(4):319-333.
[46]Jones, J.R.An examination of the emotional labor construct and its effects on employee outcomes. Doctoral Dissertation, The University Of Nebraska-Lincoln,1998.1-17.
[47]Kop,N.,Euwema,M.,&Schaufei,W.B.Burnoutjob stress and violent behaviour among Dutch police officers.Work and Stress,1999,13:326-340.
[48]Lee,R.T.,&Ashforth,B.E.Ameta-analytic examination of the correlates of the three dimensions of job burnout. Journal of Applied Psyeholony,1996,81(2):123-133.
[49]Liu,Y.M.,Perrewe,P.L.,Hochwarter,W.A.,&Kacmar,C.J.Dispositional antecedents and consequences of emotional labor at Work.Journal of Leadership&Organizational Studies,2004,10(4):12-25.
[50]Mann,S.'People-work':emotion management,stress and coping.British Journal Guidance&Counselling,2004,32(2):205-220.
[51]Morris,J.A.,&Feldman,D.C.The dimensions,antecedents,and consequences of emotional labor.Academy of Management Review,1996,21:986-1010.
[52]Morris,J.A.,&Feldman,D.C.Managing emotions in the workplace.Journal of Managerial Issues,1997,9:257-274.
[53]Naring,Gerard.,Briet Mariette.,&Brouwers,Andre.Beyond demand-control:emotional labor and symptoms of burnout in teacher.Work&Stress,2006,20(4):303-315.
[54]Ogino,Kayoko.,Takigasaki,Takashi.,&Inaki Koichiro.Eeffects of emtion work on burnout and stress among human service professionals.Japanese Journal of Psychology,2004,75(4):371-377.
[55]Poncet,M.C.Burnout syndrome in critical care nursing staff.American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine.2007,175 (7):698-704
[56]Schaubroeck,J.,&Jones,J.R.Antecedments of workplace emotional labor dimensions and moderators of their effects on physical symptoms.Journal of Organizational Behavior,2000,21:163-184.
[57]Schaufeli,W.B.,Salanova,M.,&Bakker,A.B.The measurement of engagement and burnout:a two sample confirmatory factor analytic approach..Journal of Happiness Studies,2002,3:71-92.
[58]Tett,R.P.,&Meyer,J.P.Job satisfaction,organizational commitment,turnover intention turnover:path analyses based on meta-analytic findings.Personnel Psychology,1993,46(2):259-293.
[59]Totterdell,P.,&Holman,D.Emotion regulation in customer service roles:Testing a model of emotional labor.Journal of Occupational Health Psychology,2003,8:55-73.
[60]Zammuner,V.L.,&Galli,C.Wellbeing:Causes and consequence of emotion regulation in work settings.International Review of Psychiatry,2005,17(5):355-364.
[61]Zapf,D.,Seufert,C.,&Schmutte,B.Emotion work and job stressors and their effects on burnout. Psychology and Health,2001,16:527-545.
[62]Zapf,D.Emotion work and psychological strain:A review of the literature and some conceptual considerations.Human Resource Management Review,2002,12:237-268.
[63]Zapf,D.,&Holz,M.On the positive and negative effects work in organizations.European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology,2006,15(1):1-28.
[2]本尼斯,组织发展与官僚制体系的命运[A],孙耀君,西方管理学名著提要[C],南昌：江西人民出版社,2002。
[3][美]罗伯特·B·登哈特著,扶松茂,丁力译,公共组织理论[M],’北京：中国人民大学出版社,2003。
[4][美]W·理查德·斯格特著,黄洋,等译,组织理论[M],北京：华夏出版社,2002。
[5][美]斯蒂芬·P·罗宾斯著,孙健敏,李原译,组织行为学[M],北京：中国人民大学出版社,1998
[6]Brotheridge CM & Lee RT, Testing a conservation of resources model of the dynamics of emotional labor[J], Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 2002,7 (1):57-67.
[7]Martin, Joanne, Knopoff, Kathleen & Christine Beckman, An Alternative to Bureaucratic Impersonality and Emotional Labor:Bounded Emotionality at The Body Shop, Administrative Science Quarterly,1998,43(2):429-469.
[8][美]乔纳森·特纳、简·斯戴兹,情感社会学[M],上海人民出版社,2007。
[9]董以红,官僚制改革的女性主义视角[J],中华女子学院学报,2004,(2)。
[10]张辉华,凌文辁,方俐洛,“情绪劳动”研究概况[J],心理科学进展,2006,14(1)：111-119。
[12]孙俊才,乔建中,情绪性工作的研究现状[J],心理科学进展,2005,(1)：85-90。
[13]吴宗佑,工作中的情绪劳动：概念发展、相关变项分析、心理历程议题探讨[D],台湾大学心理学研究所,博士论文,2003。
[14]李永鑫,三种职业人群工作倦怠的比较研究：基于整合的视角[D],博士论文,上海：华东师范大学,2005.105-120。
[15]李永鑫,张阔.工作倦怠研究的新趋势.心理科学,2007,30(2)：478-481.
[16]向光富,中学教师工作倦怠、工作压力、工作满意及其关系的研究[D],华中师范大学硕士学位论文,2005。
[17]汤小薄,工作倦怠、工作满意度与组织承诺的相关研究[D],重庆大学硕士学位论文,2007。
[18]吴宗佑,郑伯壎,工作投入、调节他人情绪能力与情绪劳动交互作用对情绪耗竭的预测效果[J],中华心理学刊,2006,48(1)：69-87。
[19]陈瑞君,零售业人员情绪劳动情绪耗竭与心理健康的关系研究[D],硕士论文,开封：河南大学,2006：12-14。
[20]邢占军,张友谊,唐正风,国有大中型企业职工满意感研究[J],心理科学,2001,24(2)：191-193。
[21]汪彩玲,工作满意度影响因素分析[J],市场研究,2005,2：29-32。
[22]马淑蕾,黄敏儿.情绪劳动：表层动作与深层动作,哪一种效果更好?[J],心理学报,2006,38(2)：262-270。
[23]钟建安,林剑,张媛媛.情绪表达规则、调节策略与工作倦怠关系的研究.应用心理学,2007,13(2)：144-148。
[24]彭正敏,情绪智力、情绪劳动与耗竭的关系及其内部机制的研究[D],硕士论文,北京：北京师范大学,2005。
[25]吕莉,高校教师工作倦怠与工作满意度和社会支持的关系研究[D],华中科技大学硕士学位论文,2005。
[26]蒋奖,张西超,许燕,银行职员的工作倦怠与身心健康、工作满意度的探讨[J],中国心理卫生杂志,2004,18(3)：197-199.48
[27]Abraham,R.The impact of emotional dissonance on organizational commitment and intention toturnover. The Journal of Psychology,1999.133(4):441-455.
[28]Ashforth,B.E.,&Humphrey,R.N.Emotional labor in service roles:The influence of identity. Academy of Management Review,1993,18:88-115.
[29]Adelmann,P.K.EMOTIONAL LABOR as a potential source of job stress.1995.In S.L.Sauter,&L.R.Murphy(Eds.)
[30]Barrick, R.K.Burnout and job satisfaction of vocational supervisors.Journal of Agricultural Education,1989:35-41.
[31]Bono,J.E.,&Vey,M.A.Toward understanding emotional management at work.:A quantitative review of emotional labor research. In C.E.J.Hartel,W.J.Zerbe,&Ashkanasy(Eds),Emotions in organizational behavior(pp.213-234).Mahwah,NJ:Erlbaum.
[32]Brotheridge,C.M.,&Grandy,A.A.Emotional labor and burnout:comparing two perspectives of" people work".Journal of Vocational Behavior,2002a,60:17-39.
[33]Brotheridge,C.M.,&Lee,R.T.Testing a conservation of resources model of the dynamics of emotional labor.Journal of Occupational Health Psychology,2002b,7(1):57-67.
[34]Brown,J.W.,&Campbell,E.A.Sources of occupational stress in the police.Work and Stress,1990,4:305-318.
[35]Cheung,F.,&Tang,C.Assessment of emotional dissonance among Chinese human service professionals.Paper presented to the Asian Applied Psychology International-Regional Conference.2005.
[36]Cordes,C.I.,&Dougherty,T.W.A review and an intergration of research on the job burnout. Academy of Management Review,1993,18(4):621-656.
[37]Diefendorff,J.M.,&Richard,E.M.Antecedents and consequences of emotional display rule perceptions.Journal of Applied Psychology,2003,88(2):284-294.
[38]Dormann,C.,&Zapf,D.Customer-Related social stressors and burnout.Journal of Occupational Health Psychology,2004,9(1):61-82.
[39]Ever,W.,Tomic,W.,&Brouwers,A.Aggressive behavior and burnout among staff of homes for the elderly.International Journal of Mental Health Nursing,2002,11:2-9.
[40]Grandey,A.A.Emotion regulation in the workplace:A new way to conceptualize emotional labor. Journal of Occupational Health,2000.
[41]Grandey, A.When the show must go on:surface and acting as determinants of emotional exhaustion and peer-rated service delivery.Academy of Manangement Journal,2003,46(1):86-96.
[42]Hallberg,U.E.,&Schaufeli,W.B."Same same"but differernt?Can work engagement be discriminated from job involement organizational commitment?European Psychologist,2006,11 (2):119-127.
[43]Heuven,E.,&Bakker,A.B.Emotional dissonance and burnout among cabin attendants.European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology,2003,12(1):81-100.
[44]Hobfoll,G.H.Conservations of resources:A new attempt at conceptualizing stress.American Psychologist,1989,44(3):513-524.
[45]Hobfoll,S.E.Social and psychological resources and adaptation.Review of General Psychology,2001,6:307-324.
[20]Johnson,H.M.,&Sepector,P.E.Service with a smile:Do emotional intelligence,gender,and autonomy moderate the emotional labor process?Journal of Occupational Health Psychology,2007,12(4):319-333.
[46]Jones, J.R.An examination of the emotional labor construct and its effects on employee outcomes. Doctoral Dissertation, The University Of Nebraska-Lincoln,1998.1-17.
[47]Kop,N.,Euwema,M.,&Schaufei,W.B.Burnoutjob stress and violent behaviour among Dutch police officers.Work and Stress,1999,13:326-340.
[48]Lee,R.T.,&Ashforth,B.E.Ameta-analytic examination of the correlates of the three dimensions of job burnout. Journal of Applied Psyeholony,1996,81(2):123-133.
[49]Liu,Y.M.,Perrewe,P.L.,Hochwarter,W.A.,&Kacmar,C.J.Dispositional antecedents and consequences of emotional labor at Work.Journal of Leadership&Organizational Studies,2004,10(4):12-25.
[50]Mann,S.'People-work':emotion management,stress and coping.British Journal Guidance&Counselling,2004,32(2):205-220.
[51]Morris,J.A.,&Feldman,D.C.The dimensions,antecedents,and consequences of emotional labor.Academy of Management Review,1996,21:986-1010.
[52]Morris,J.A.,&Feldman,D.C.Managing emotions in the workplace.Journal of Managerial Issues,1997,9:257-274.
[53]Naring,Gerard.,Briet Mariette.,&Brouwers,Andre.Beyond demand-control:emotional labor and symptoms of burnout in teacher.Work&Stress,2006,20(4):303-315.
[54]Ogino,Kayoko.,Takigasaki,Takashi.,&Inaki Koichiro.Eeffects of emtion work on burnout and stress among human service professionals.Japanese Journal of Psychology,2004,75(4):371-377.
[55]Poncet,M.C.Burnout syndrome in critical care nursing staff.American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine.2007,175 (7):698-704
[56]Schaubroeck,J.,&Jones,J.R.Antecedments of workplace emotional labor dimensions and moderators of their effects on physical symptoms.Journal of Organizational Behavior,2000,21:163-184.
[57]Schaufeli,W.B.,Salanova,M.,&Bakker,A.B.The measurement of engagement and burnout:a two sample confirmatory factor analytic approach..Journal of Happiness Studies,2002,3:71-92.
[58]Tett,R.P.,&Meyer,J.P.Job satisfaction,organizational commitment,turnover intention turnover:path analyses based on meta-analytic findings.Personnel Psychology,1993,46(2):259-293.
[59]Totterdell,P.,&Holman,D.Emotion regulation in customer service roles:Testing a model of emotional labor.Journal of Occupational Health Psychology,2003,8:55-73.
[60]Zammuner,V.L.,&Galli,C.Wellbeing:Causes and consequence of emotion regulation in work settings.International Review of Psychiatry,2005,17(5):355-364.
[61]Zapf,D.,Seufert,C.,&Schmutte,B.Emotion work and job stressors and their effects on burnout. Psychology and Health,2001,16:527-545.
[62]Zapf,D.Emotion work and psychological strain:A review of the literature and some conceptual considerations.Human Resource Management Review,2002,12:237-268.
[63]Zapf,D.,&Holz,M.On the positive and negative effects work in organizations.European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology,2006,15(1):1-28.