幼儿掌控动机的发展特点及其与能力、自尊的关系研究
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摘要
掌控动机是人类发展研究领域中的一个核心概念，它是指人们有一种内在动力去理解和影响环境，并在不同程度上与环境发生着有效的相互作用。考虑到掌控动机在个体发展、尤其是早期发展中的重要性，本研究首先考察了掌控动机在幼儿期的表现形式与发展特点；其次，考虑到掌控动机与能力之间存在的相互作用，我们对掌控动机与认知等方面能力之间的关系进行了横向与纵向的探讨；除此，随着儿童社会化程度的加深，社会性成分对掌控动机这种内在驱动力的影响会不断增强。自尊，作为对自我能力和价值的评价性情感体验，可能通过掌控动机对能力的促进或阻碍作用，而受到能力和掌控动机的直接和间接影响。所以，本研究最后考察掌控动机、能力及自尊三者之间可能存在的关系模型。综合所有研究结果如下：
发展特点：
（1）对于工具性掌控动机的行为表现，动作掌控主要包括完全由自身发出动作、借助外物发出动作和自我发声（口语运动）；物体掌控主要包括使物体运动、使物体发声、以及使物体发生其它变化；社会掌控主要包括直接寻求与成人的接触、间接引起成人的关注、以及自身行为引发他人模仿；
（2）对于表达性掌控动机的行为表现，儿童在动作和物体掌控行为中获得了较多的积极情感体验，表现在身体动作、面部表情和言语表达中；而在社会掌控中，当掌控活动成功，即教师给予正面反馈，儿童会表现出明显的积极情感反应，即使不成功，情感反应也是不明显的；
（3）随着儿童年龄增长，动作掌控和物体操作掌控行为事件比例明显减少，社会掌控行为事件比例明显增多；由于身体动作的发展，儿童的动作逐渐由大肌肉到小肌肉过渡，由简单到复杂，表现在动作掌控和物体掌控的行为上；随着儿童言语行为的逐步成熟，语言在社会掌控行为和掌控动机的表达性方面开始发挥作用；在不同年龄段，儿童通过单独的行为、行为语言结合及单独的语言获得社会掌控的事件比例变化明显，反映出幼儿动作与语言发展中的一些关键变化；另外，儿童社会掌控行为的对象逐渐由教师向同伴扩展；
（4）随年龄增长，幼儿在高认知低效果类材料-拼图上的掌控时间显著提高，掌控变换性显著下降，对低认知高效果类材料-汽车的喜爱度有先下降后上升的趋势；
（5）4-6岁幼儿在不同材料类型上的平均掌控时间存在显著差异。认知类材料-图书最低，两可类材料-积木最高。对不同材料类型的喜爱度存在显著差异，认知类材料-图书最低，低认知高效果类材料-汽车和两可类材料-积木最高；
（6）年龄与材料类型对掌控时间和喜爱度的交互作用显著。除了拼图以外，不同年龄（4-6岁）幼儿在其他各类玩具材料上的掌控指向表现出大体的一致性，即随年龄变化比较平缓。但是对高认知低效果类材料-拼图的掌控呈现出显著的上升趋势。另外，不同年龄幼儿对几类材料的喜爱度及其变化趋势具有较大的差异性；
掌控动机与能力：
（7）物体掌控动机中的掌控变换性和脱离掌控时间对于两项能力分数均具有显著的负向预测作用；除此，低认知高效果类材料-汽车上的掌控时间显著负向预测了精细动作；认知效果结合类材料-钓鱼上的掌控时间显著负向预测了认知学习；而高认知低效果类材料-拼图上的掌控时间显著正向预测了认知学习；
（8）控制气质差异后，对于认知学习，认知效果结合类-钓鱼的掌控时间和掌控变换性具有负向的预测作用，而高认知低效果类-拼图的掌控时间具有正向的预测作用。对于精细动作，脱离掌控时间和掌控变换性具有负向的预测作用；
（9）在低认知高效果任务（探索反馈任务）中，气质的活动性-专注性因素具有显著调节作用。对于活动型幼儿，高水平的探索时间预测了低水平的认知知识，高水平的掌控愉悦感预测了低水平的夹球和低水平的学习方式，但这些关系对于专注型幼儿不显著；
（10）在高认知低效果任务（困难任务）上成功的幼儿，气质的反应性-抑制性因素在掌控愉悦感对夹球的预测中有显著调节作用。对于抑制型幼儿，来自成功的高掌控愉悦感预测了高水平的夹球技能，而这个关系对于反应型幼儿不显著。在高认知低效果任务上失败的幼儿，气质的活动性-专注性因素在坚持性对学习方式的预测中有显著调节作用。对于专注型幼儿任务中的高坚持性预测了高水平的学习方式，而这个关系对于活动型幼儿不显著；
（11）对于父母评估的掌控动机，活动性-专注性在物体掌控动机与精细动作（夹球）、物体掌控动机与学习方式以及大动作掌控动机与感觉运动（扔口袋）之间具有显著的调节作用。对于专注型幼儿，高水平的物体掌控动机预测了高水平的精细动作和学习方式，高水平的大动作掌控动机预测了高水平的感觉运动，而这些关系对于活动型幼儿不显著；
（12）对于父母评估的掌控动机，反应性-抑制性在同伴社会掌控动机和精细动作、感觉运动及学习方式之间分别具有显著的调节作用。对于抑制型幼儿，高水平的同伴社会掌控动机预测了低水平的精细动作、感觉运动和学习方式。反过来，对于反应型幼儿，高水平的同伴社会掌控动机预测了高水平的精细动作；
掌控动机与能力及自尊：
（13）在建构的掌控动机、能力、自尊三者的因果模型中，第一个模型从不同材料上的掌控时间到能力，再到自尊中的胜任感，有3条显著路径。在高认知低效果类-拼图上的掌控时间可以解释认知学习能力变异的12%，在低认知高效果类-汽车上的掌控时间可以解释精细动作能力变异的4%，综合能力可以解释自尊中胜任感变异的17%。第二个模型从掌控动机的综合指标（掌控变换性）到认知学习能力，再到自尊中的胜任感，有2条显著路径。掌控变换性可以解释认知学习能力变异的18%，而认知学习能力可以解释自尊中胜任感变异的11%。
Mastery motivation is a core concept in the field of human development, which isdefined that humans are motivated to understand, influence, and interact effectively withenvironment in varying degrees. Given the crucial role of mastery motivation inindividual development, especially in early life, this study firstly investigated themanifestations and characteristics in early childhood. Secondly, concerning the relationsof mastery motivation to other mental functions, we examined the associations of masterymotivation with competence (e.g., cognition and motor skills) in both cross-sectional andlongtudinal researches. In addition, the influence of social factors on this internalmotivation increases along with children’s socialization. Self-esteem, which is defined asthe emotional experience based on self-evaluation of competence and worthiness, may beaffected by competence and mastery motivation directly or indirectly. Therefore, themodels describing the relationships among mastery motivation, competence andself-esteem were built and tested. All the results were concluded as follow:
Developmental Characteristics:
(1) With regards to the behavioral mansfestations of instrumental aspects of masterymotivation, motor mastery were performed by children’s own motors without using otherobjects, motors with other objects, or children’s vocalization; object-oriented masterywere performed by making objects move, sound, or change in other ways; social masterywere performed by seeking contact with adults directly, attracting adults’ attentionindirectly, or inspiring other people’s imitation.
(2) With regards to the behavioral mansfestations of expressive aspects of masterymotivation, children gained much positive emotion experience in motor mastery andobjected-oriented mastery, which was reflected by gestures, expressions and speech;children also gained positive emotion experience when they succeeded in social mastery,and they had no obvious negative emotion even though failing.
(3) Along with children’s development, the proportion of motor mastery andobject-oriented mastery decreased and that of social mastery increased; children’s motorsin motor mastery and object-oriented mastery transitted from more gross motors to morefine motors and from more simple to more complex; language became to play an important role in social mastery and expressive aspects of mastery motivation; there weresignificant differences among three ages in porportin of behaviors alone, behaviors andlanguage, and language alone to gain social mastery, which reflected the central transitionof motor and language in early development; the objects of children’s social masterywere increasingly expanded from teachers to more people such as other children.
(4) As children’s ages increased, their persistence on materials with more cognitionengaged and less effect produced improved significantly, and the trasnsition in masterydecreased significantly. Whereas, interest in materials with less cognition engaged andmore effect produced dropped from age4to5and rised from age5-6.
(5) There were significant differences among persistence on various materials forchildren aged4-6, with lowest persistence on materials with cognition engaged absolutelyand highest persistence on equivocal masterials. In addition, there were significantdifferences among interest in various materials, with lowest interest in materials withcognition engaged absolutely and highest interest in materials with less cognitionengaged and more effect produced and equivocal masterials.
(6) The interactive influences of age and material type on persistence and interestwere significant. The general trends of persistence for four types of marterials wereparallel from age4to6except materials with more cognition engaged and less effectproduced. In addition, there was a great diversity of interest in various materials atseparate age.
Mastery Motivation and Competence:
(7) The transition and off-mastery in object-orientied mastery motivation predictedcognition-learning and fine motor negatively; persistence on materials with less cognitionengaged and more effect produced predicted fine motor negatively; persistence onmaterials with moderate cognition engaged and moderate effect produced predictedcognition-learning negatively; persistence on materials with more cognition engaged andless effect produced predicted cognition-learning positively.
(8) When temperament was controlled, on cognition-learning, persistence onmaterials with moderate cognition engaged and moderate effect produced and transitionin mastery had negative predictive effects, whereas, persistence on materials with morecognition engaged and less effect produced had a positive predictive effect. On finemotor skills, the transition and off-mastery still had negative predictive effects.
(9) For the effect-producing task (with less cognition engaged and more effectproduced), the moderation effect of Activity-Attention were significant. For children of Activity Type, higher levels of exploration predicted lower cognition, and higher masterypleasure predicted lower levels of fine motor and appoaches to learning. Theserelationships were not significant for children of Attention Type.
(10) For the difficult task (with more cognition engaged and less effect produced),the moderation effect of Reactivity-Inhibition and Activity-Attention were significant.For children of Inhibition Type, higher mastery pleasure from success predicted higherlevels of fine motor, whereas the relation was not significant for children of ReactivityType. For children of Attention Type, higher persistence when they failed predictedhigher levels of appoaches to learning, whereas the relation was not significant forchildren of Activity Type.
(11) For parental report of mastery motivation, the moderation effect ofActivity-Attention was significant. For children of Attention Type, higher object-orientedmastery motivation predicted higher levels of fine motor and appoaches to learning, andhigher gross motor mastery motivation predicted higher levels of sensory motor, whereasthese relations were not significant for children of Activity Type.
(12) For parental report of mastery motivation, the moderation effect ofReactivity-Inhibition was significant. For children of Inhibition Type, higher socialmastery motivation with children predicted lower levels of fine motor, sensory motor,and appoaches to learning. In turn, for children of Reactivity Type, higher social masterymotivation with children predicted higher levels of fine motor.
Mastery Motivation, Competence and Self-esteem
(13) According to persistence on various materials and general mastery (off masteryand transition in mastery), two models were built for describing the relationships amongmastery motivation, competence and self-esteem. In the first model, there were threesignificant paths. Persistence on materials with more cognition engaged and less effectproduced explained12%of variance in cognition-learning, and Persistence on materialswith less cognition engaged and more effect produced explained4%of variance in finemotor. Further, the latent variable of competence explained17%of variance in perceivedcompetence of self-esteem. In the second model, there were two significant paths. Thetransition in mastery explained18%of variance in cognition-learning andcognition-learning explained11%of variance in perceived competence of self-esteem.
发展特点：
（1）对于工具性掌控动机的行为表现，动作掌控主要包括完全由自身发出动作、借助外物发出动作和自我发声（口语运动）；物体掌控主要包括使物体运动、使物体发声、以及使物体发生其它变化；社会掌控主要包括直接寻求与成人的接触、间接引起成人的关注、以及自身行为引发他人模仿；
（2）对于表达性掌控动机的行为表现，儿童在动作和物体掌控行为中获得了较多的积极情感体验，表现在身体动作、面部表情和言语表达中；而在社会掌控中，当掌控活动成功，即教师给予正面反馈，儿童会表现出明显的积极情感反应，即使不成功，情感反应也是不明显的；
（3）随着儿童年龄增长，动作掌控和物体操作掌控行为事件比例明显减少，社会掌控行为事件比例明显增多；由于身体动作的发展，儿童的动作逐渐由大肌肉到小肌肉过渡，由简单到复杂，表现在动作掌控和物体掌控的行为上；随着儿童言语行为的逐步成熟，语言在社会掌控行为和掌控动机的表达性方面开始发挥作用；在不同年龄段，儿童通过单独的行为、行为语言结合及单独的语言获得社会掌控的事件比例变化明显，反映出幼儿动作与语言发展中的一些关键变化；另外，儿童社会掌控行为的对象逐渐由教师向同伴扩展；
（4）随年龄增长，幼儿在高认知低效果类材料-拼图上的掌控时间显著提高，掌控变换性显著下降，对低认知高效果类材料-汽车的喜爱度有先下降后上升的趋势；
（5）4-6岁幼儿在不同材料类型上的平均掌控时间存在显著差异。认知类材料-图书最低，两可类材料-积木最高。对不同材料类型的喜爱度存在显著差异，认知类材料-图书最低，低认知高效果类材料-汽车和两可类材料-积木最高；
（6）年龄与材料类型对掌控时间和喜爱度的交互作用显著。除了拼图以外，不同年龄（4-6岁）幼儿在其他各类玩具材料上的掌控指向表现出大体的一致性，即随年龄变化比较平缓。但是对高认知低效果类材料-拼图的掌控呈现出显著的上升趋势。另外，不同年龄幼儿对几类材料的喜爱度及其变化趋势具有较大的差异性；
掌控动机与能力：
（7）物体掌控动机中的掌控变换性和脱离掌控时间对于两项能力分数均具有显著的负向预测作用；除此，低认知高效果类材料-汽车上的掌控时间显著负向预测了精细动作；认知效果结合类材料-钓鱼上的掌控时间显著负向预测了认知学习；而高认知低效果类材料-拼图上的掌控时间显著正向预测了认知学习；
（8）控制气质差异后，对于认知学习，认知效果结合类-钓鱼的掌控时间和掌控变换性具有负向的预测作用，而高认知低效果类-拼图的掌控时间具有正向的预测作用。对于精细动作，脱离掌控时间和掌控变换性具有负向的预测作用；
（9）在低认知高效果任务（探索反馈任务）中，气质的活动性-专注性因素具有显著调节作用。对于活动型幼儿，高水平的探索时间预测了低水平的认知知识，高水平的掌控愉悦感预测了低水平的夹球和低水平的学习方式，但这些关系对于专注型幼儿不显著；
（10）在高认知低效果任务（困难任务）上成功的幼儿，气质的反应性-抑制性因素在掌控愉悦感对夹球的预测中有显著调节作用。对于抑制型幼儿，来自成功的高掌控愉悦感预测了高水平的夹球技能，而这个关系对于反应型幼儿不显著。在高认知低效果任务上失败的幼儿，气质的活动性-专注性因素在坚持性对学习方式的预测中有显著调节作用。对于专注型幼儿任务中的高坚持性预测了高水平的学习方式，而这个关系对于活动型幼儿不显著；
（11）对于父母评估的掌控动机，活动性-专注性在物体掌控动机与精细动作（夹球）、物体掌控动机与学习方式以及大动作掌控动机与感觉运动（扔口袋）之间具有显著的调节作用。对于专注型幼儿，高水平的物体掌控动机预测了高水平的精细动作和学习方式，高水平的大动作掌控动机预测了高水平的感觉运动，而这些关系对于活动型幼儿不显著；
（12）对于父母评估的掌控动机，反应性-抑制性在同伴社会掌控动机和精细动作、感觉运动及学习方式之间分别具有显著的调节作用。对于抑制型幼儿，高水平的同伴社会掌控动机预测了低水平的精细动作、感觉运动和学习方式。反过来，对于反应型幼儿，高水平的同伴社会掌控动机预测了高水平的精细动作；
掌控动机与能力及自尊：
（13）在建构的掌控动机、能力、自尊三者的因果模型中，第一个模型从不同材料上的掌控时间到能力，再到自尊中的胜任感，有3条显著路径。在高认知低效果类-拼图上的掌控时间可以解释认知学习能力变异的12%，在低认知高效果类-汽车上的掌控时间可以解释精细动作能力变异的4%，综合能力可以解释自尊中胜任感变异的17%。第二个模型从掌控动机的综合指标（掌控变换性）到认知学习能力，再到自尊中的胜任感，有2条显著路径。掌控变换性可以解释认知学习能力变异的18%，而认知学习能力可以解释自尊中胜任感变异的11%。
Mastery motivation is a core concept in the field of human development, which isdefined that humans are motivated to understand, influence, and interact effectively withenvironment in varying degrees. Given the crucial role of mastery motivation inindividual development, especially in early life, this study firstly investigated themanifestations and characteristics in early childhood. Secondly, concerning the relationsof mastery motivation to other mental functions, we examined the associations of masterymotivation with competence (e.g., cognition and motor skills) in both cross-sectional andlongtudinal researches. In addition, the influence of social factors on this internalmotivation increases along with children’s socialization. Self-esteem, which is defined asthe emotional experience based on self-evaluation of competence and worthiness, may beaffected by competence and mastery motivation directly or indirectly. Therefore, themodels describing the relationships among mastery motivation, competence andself-esteem were built and tested. All the results were concluded as follow:
Developmental Characteristics:
(1) With regards to the behavioral mansfestations of instrumental aspects of masterymotivation, motor mastery were performed by children’s own motors without using otherobjects, motors with other objects, or children’s vocalization; object-oriented masterywere performed by making objects move, sound, or change in other ways; social masterywere performed by seeking contact with adults directly, attracting adults’ attentionindirectly, or inspiring other people’s imitation.
(2) With regards to the behavioral mansfestations of expressive aspects of masterymotivation, children gained much positive emotion experience in motor mastery andobjected-oriented mastery, which was reflected by gestures, expressions and speech;children also gained positive emotion experience when they succeeded in social mastery,and they had no obvious negative emotion even though failing.
(3) Along with children’s development, the proportion of motor mastery andobject-oriented mastery decreased and that of social mastery increased; children’s motorsin motor mastery and object-oriented mastery transitted from more gross motors to morefine motors and from more simple to more complex; language became to play an important role in social mastery and expressive aspects of mastery motivation; there weresignificant differences among three ages in porportin of behaviors alone, behaviors andlanguage, and language alone to gain social mastery, which reflected the central transitionof motor and language in early development; the objects of children’s social masterywere increasingly expanded from teachers to more people such as other children.
(4) As children’s ages increased, their persistence on materials with more cognitionengaged and less effect produced improved significantly, and the trasnsition in masterydecreased significantly. Whereas, interest in materials with less cognition engaged andmore effect produced dropped from age4to5and rised from age5-6.
(5) There were significant differences among persistence on various materials forchildren aged4-6, with lowest persistence on materials with cognition engaged absolutelyand highest persistence on equivocal masterials. In addition, there were significantdifferences among interest in various materials, with lowest interest in materials withcognition engaged absolutely and highest interest in materials with less cognitionengaged and more effect produced and equivocal masterials.
(6) The interactive influences of age and material type on persistence and interestwere significant. The general trends of persistence for four types of marterials wereparallel from age4to6except materials with more cognition engaged and less effectproduced. In addition, there was a great diversity of interest in various materials atseparate age.
Mastery Motivation and Competence:
(7) The transition and off-mastery in object-orientied mastery motivation predictedcognition-learning and fine motor negatively; persistence on materials with less cognitionengaged and more effect produced predicted fine motor negatively; persistence onmaterials with moderate cognition engaged and moderate effect produced predictedcognition-learning negatively; persistence on materials with more cognition engaged andless effect produced predicted cognition-learning positively.
(8) When temperament was controlled, on cognition-learning, persistence onmaterials with moderate cognition engaged and moderate effect produced and transitionin mastery had negative predictive effects, whereas, persistence on materials with morecognition engaged and less effect produced had a positive predictive effect. On finemotor skills, the transition and off-mastery still had negative predictive effects.
(9) For the effect-producing task (with less cognition engaged and more effectproduced), the moderation effect of Activity-Attention were significant. For children of Activity Type, higher levels of exploration predicted lower cognition, and higher masterypleasure predicted lower levels of fine motor and appoaches to learning. Theserelationships were not significant for children of Attention Type.
(10) For the difficult task (with more cognition engaged and less effect produced),the moderation effect of Reactivity-Inhibition and Activity-Attention were significant.For children of Inhibition Type, higher mastery pleasure from success predicted higherlevels of fine motor, whereas the relation was not significant for children of ReactivityType. For children of Attention Type, higher persistence when they failed predictedhigher levels of appoaches to learning, whereas the relation was not significant forchildren of Activity Type.
(11) For parental report of mastery motivation, the moderation effect ofActivity-Attention was significant. For children of Attention Type, higher object-orientedmastery motivation predicted higher levels of fine motor and appoaches to learning, andhigher gross motor mastery motivation predicted higher levels of sensory motor, whereasthese relations were not significant for children of Activity Type.
(12) For parental report of mastery motivation, the moderation effect ofReactivity-Inhibition was significant. For children of Inhibition Type, higher socialmastery motivation with children predicted lower levels of fine motor, sensory motor,and appoaches to learning. In turn, for children of Reactivity Type, higher social masterymotivation with children predicted higher levels of fine motor.
Mastery Motivation, Competence and Self-esteem
(13) According to persistence on various materials and general mastery (off masteryand transition in mastery), two models were built for describing the relationships amongmastery motivation, competence and self-esteem. In the first model, there were threesignificant paths. Persistence on materials with more cognition engaged and less effectproduced explained12%of variance in cognition-learning, and Persistence on materialswith less cognition engaged and more effect produced explained4%of variance in finemotor. Further, the latent variable of competence explained17%of variance in perceivedcompetence of self-esteem. In the second model, there were two significant paths. Thetransition in mastery explained18%of variance in cognition-learning andcognition-learning explained11%of variance in perceived competence of self-esteem.
引文
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