原行星盘对行星系统形成及演化的影响
|
摘要
系外行星的探测是近年来炙手可热的话题,尤其是类地行星的探测。随着观测数据的不断积累,以及NASA的Kepler卫星的升空,越来越多的系外行星系统和类地行星被探测到,这将极大的丰富系外行星和系外行星系统的样本,为我们提供更多的素材,使我们对系外行星的形成,演化等过程有更加深刻的认识。
根据现有的行星形成理论,行星是在原行星盘中形成的,而原行星盘对原行星的影响在行星形成和演化过程中至关重要。正是原行星盘的多样性造就了系外行星系统的多样化。我们考察了行星形成的后期,当气体盘尚未消散,火星质量大小的星胚已经形成后,星胚相互之间的引力作用明显,能够激发起相互的偏心率,或者碰撞并合,同时在气体盘的潮汐力矩作用下,它们的Ⅰ,Ⅱ型轨道迁移以及轨道圆化等过程都会很大程度上影响最后形成的行星系统。
第一章我们介绍了目前系外行星探测的主要方法,并且介绍了Kepler卫星上天之后,取得的一些新成果。例举了一些具有典型代表性的行星系统,以此说明系外行星系统的多样性。第二章我们主要叙述了现有的行星形成理论,包括引力不稳定性模型和核吸积模型,着重介绍目前主流的核吸积模型理论。
在第三章我们主要考察一个非自引力的粘滞盘与行星的相互作用,包括Ⅰ,Ⅱ型轨道迁移,轨道圆化,以及大质量的行星核吸积气体等因素,采用严格的N体模拟,考察不同的原行星盘对行星的形成过程乃至最终构型有怎样的影响。第四章采用蒙特卡洛法,根据原行星盘的观测结果,考虑原行星盘的参数分布,从统计上与观测结果作比较,比较好的解释了观测上行星的一些分布结果,并且能指导进一步的观测。
鉴于Ⅰ型迁移速度,甚至方向的不确定性,第五章我们考察了一维气体盘上由于扰动产生密度波后,低质量行星在盘上迁移的模型,我们给出了位于不同相位角中行星的总力矩变化情况,并且考虑到密度波的传播与行星的偏心率轨道,给出了在特定情形下,行星向外或者向内迁移的判据。
考虑到气体盘的自引力作用,第六章介绍了一个一维的准静态自引力盘模型,并且考察了气巨星在其中打开空隙的情形,我们发现气巨星打开的空隙宽度和气体面密度有关,面密度越大,空隙宽度也越大。对比非自引力盘的结果,我们发现当气体盘密度低于一个临界值时,自引力盘中的空隙宽度反而小于非自引力盘。文章的最后,我们总结了自己的工作并做了详细讨论。
The detection of exoplanets becomes hotter and hotter, especially the detection of Earth-like planets in habitable zone. As the accumulation of observed datas and progressing of Kepler mission of NASA, more exoplanets can be found or confirmed. The understanding of formation and evolution of exoplanets will be largely improved while much more samples are provided.
According to the popular theory of planet formation, protoplanet formed in the protoplanetary disc. Due to the interaction between disc and protoplanets, the prop-erties of the disc play a key role during the formation and evolution of planets. We investigate the later stage of planet formation, when Mars-sized cores appear. Inter-actions among planetary cores can excite their orbital eccentricities, accelerate their mergings and thus sculpture their final orbital architecture. The interaction between cores and gas disc lead to typeⅠorⅡmigration as well as the eccentricity damping. However the rate of typeⅠmigration is still uncertain in different discs models.
In Chapiter 1, we introduce the pop methods of exoplanet detection as well as the updating fruits after the launch of Kepler space telescope. We also list some examples of exoplanetary system to show their diversity. Popular planet formation theories, in-cluding gravitational instability and core accretion scenario, are presented in details in Chapter 2.
The studies in Chapiter 3 and 4 contribute to the final assembling of planetary systems with N-body simulations, including the typeⅠorⅡmigration, eccentricity damping of planets and gas accretion of massive cores in viscous discs. To compare with observations in statistics, we use the Monte Carlo method, setting a distribution of different discs. Our results of simulations interpret the distribution of exoplanets from observations and may guide the further observations.
In Chapiter 5, considering the uncertainty of the rate or even direction of typeⅠmigration, we assume a one dimensional gas disc model, including a density wave due to some perturbation, to survey the migration of low mass planets. The total tidal torques on the planets depend on their phase angle. Adding the propagation of density wave and the eccentric orbit of planet, we find an outward migration criterion for a planet in certain conditions.
After the formation of a gas giant, the tidal torque lead to a gap-opening in the disc around the giant. Chapiter 6 provides a one dimensional, quasi-steady, self-gravitational disc model. In this model, there is a positive correlation between the gap width and the surface density of gas disc. Comparing to non-self-gravitational disc model, we find a critical surface density below which the gap width in self-gravitational disc model become narrower than that in non-self-gravitational disc model. Finally in Chapiter 7, we summarize our results and make some discussions.
根据现有的行星形成理论,行星是在原行星盘中形成的,而原行星盘对原行星的影响在行星形成和演化过程中至关重要。正是原行星盘的多样性造就了系外行星系统的多样化。我们考察了行星形成的后期,当气体盘尚未消散,火星质量大小的星胚已经形成后,星胚相互之间的引力作用明显,能够激发起相互的偏心率,或者碰撞并合,同时在气体盘的潮汐力矩作用下,它们的Ⅰ,Ⅱ型轨道迁移以及轨道圆化等过程都会很大程度上影响最后形成的行星系统。
第一章我们介绍了目前系外行星探测的主要方法,并且介绍了Kepler卫星上天之后,取得的一些新成果。例举了一些具有典型代表性的行星系统,以此说明系外行星系统的多样性。第二章我们主要叙述了现有的行星形成理论,包括引力不稳定性模型和核吸积模型,着重介绍目前主流的核吸积模型理论。
在第三章我们主要考察一个非自引力的粘滞盘与行星的相互作用,包括Ⅰ,Ⅱ型轨道迁移,轨道圆化,以及大质量的行星核吸积气体等因素,采用严格的N体模拟,考察不同的原行星盘对行星的形成过程乃至最终构型有怎样的影响。第四章采用蒙特卡洛法,根据原行星盘的观测结果,考虑原行星盘的参数分布,从统计上与观测结果作比较,比较好的解释了观测上行星的一些分布结果,并且能指导进一步的观测。
鉴于Ⅰ型迁移速度,甚至方向的不确定性,第五章我们考察了一维气体盘上由于扰动产生密度波后,低质量行星在盘上迁移的模型,我们给出了位于不同相位角中行星的总力矩变化情况,并且考虑到密度波的传播与行星的偏心率轨道,给出了在特定情形下,行星向外或者向内迁移的判据。
考虑到气体盘的自引力作用,第六章介绍了一个一维的准静态自引力盘模型,并且考察了气巨星在其中打开空隙的情形,我们发现气巨星打开的空隙宽度和气体面密度有关,面密度越大,空隙宽度也越大。对比非自引力盘的结果,我们发现当气体盘密度低于一个临界值时,自引力盘中的空隙宽度反而小于非自引力盘。文章的最后,我们总结了自己的工作并做了详细讨论。
The detection of exoplanets becomes hotter and hotter, especially the detection of Earth-like planets in habitable zone. As the accumulation of observed datas and progressing of Kepler mission of NASA, more exoplanets can be found or confirmed. The understanding of formation and evolution of exoplanets will be largely improved while much more samples are provided.
According to the popular theory of planet formation, protoplanet formed in the protoplanetary disc. Due to the interaction between disc and protoplanets, the prop-erties of the disc play a key role during the formation and evolution of planets. We investigate the later stage of planet formation, when Mars-sized cores appear. Inter-actions among planetary cores can excite their orbital eccentricities, accelerate their mergings and thus sculpture their final orbital architecture. The interaction between cores and gas disc lead to typeⅠorⅡmigration as well as the eccentricity damping. However the rate of typeⅠmigration is still uncertain in different discs models.
In Chapiter 1, we introduce the pop methods of exoplanet detection as well as the updating fruits after the launch of Kepler space telescope. We also list some examples of exoplanetary system to show their diversity. Popular planet formation theories, in-cluding gravitational instability and core accretion scenario, are presented in details in Chapter 2.
The studies in Chapiter 3 and 4 contribute to the final assembling of planetary systems with N-body simulations, including the typeⅠorⅡmigration, eccentricity damping of planets and gas accretion of massive cores in viscous discs. To compare with observations in statistics, we use the Monte Carlo method, setting a distribution of different discs. Our results of simulations interpret the distribution of exoplanets from observations and may guide the further observations.
In Chapiter 5, considering the uncertainty of the rate or even direction of typeⅠmigration, we assume a one dimensional gas disc model, including a density wave due to some perturbation, to survey the migration of low mass planets. The total tidal torques on the planets depend on their phase angle. Adding the propagation of density wave and the eccentric orbit of planet, we find an outward migration criterion for a planet in certain conditions.
After the formation of a gas giant, the tidal torque lead to a gap-opening in the disc around the giant. Chapiter 6 provides a one dimensional, quasi-steady, self-gravitational disc model. In this model, there is a positive correlation between the gap width and the surface density of gas disc. Comparing to non-self-gravitational disc model, we find a critical surface density below which the gap width in self-gravitational disc model become narrower than that in non-self-gravitational disc model. Finally in Chapiter 7, we summarize our results and make some discussions.
引文
[1]Maryor, M.,& Queloz,D.,1995,Nature,378,355M
[2]Kasting, J. F., Whitmire, D. P.,& Reynolds, R. T.1993, Icarus 101,108K
[3]Forget, F.,& Wordsworth, R. D.2010, ASPC 430,55F
[4]Marois, C., Zuckerman, B., Konopacky, Q. M., Macintosh, B.,& Barman, T.,2010 Nature, 468,1080M
[5]Lafreniere, D., Jayawardhana, R., Janson, M., Helling, C., Witte, S.,& Hauschildt, P.2011, ApJ,730,42L
[6]Marcy, G. W., Butler, R. P., Vogt, S S., Fischer, D.,& Lissauer, J. J.,1998, ApJ,505L, 147M
[7]Marcy, G., et al.2005,PThPS,158,24
[8]Beaulieu, J.-P. et al.,2006, Nature,439,437
[9]Wright, J. T., Upadhyay, S., Marcy, G. W., Fischer, D. A., Ford, E. B.,& Johnson, J. A. 2009, ApJ,693,1084
[10]Lissauer, J. J. et al.2011, Nature,470:53
[11]Naef D., Latham D., Mayor M. et al.2001, A & A,375, L27
[12]Lissauer, J., Fabrycky, D., Ford E. et al.2011, Nature,470,53
[13]Batalha, N., Borucki, W., Bryson, S. et al.2011 ApJ.,729,27
[14]Winn, J. N., Johnson, J. A., Albrecht, S. et al.2009, ApJ,703, L99
[15]Milani, A., Carpino, M., Hahn, G.,& Nobili, A. M.1989, Icarus,78,212M
[16]Libert, A.-S.,& Tsiganis, K.2009, A & A,493,677L
[17]Hatzes, A. P., Cochran, W. D., Endl, M., McArthur, B., Paulson, B., Walker, G. A. H., Campbell, B.,& Yang,S.2003,ApJ,599,1383
[18]Thebault, P., Marzari, F., Scholl, H., Turrini, D.,& Barbieri, M.2004, A & A,427,1097
[19]Cameron, A. G. W.1978, Moon and the Planets,18,5
[20]Kuiper, G. P.1951, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci.37,1
[21]Durisen, R. H., Boss, A. P., Mayer, L., Nelson, A. F.,49 Quinn, T.,& RiceW. K. M.2007, Protostars and Planets V, eds B. Reipurth, D. Jewitt, and K. Keil, University of Arizona Press, Tucson
[22]Toomre, A.1964, ApJ,139,1217
[23]Chiang, E.,& Youdin, A.2010, AREPS,38,493C
[24]Jessberger, E. K., Stephan, T., Rost, D., Arndt, P., Maetz, M. et al.2001, In Interplanetary Dust, ed. E Grun, BAS Gustafson, SF Dermott, H Fechtig, pp.253, Berlin:Springer-Verlag
[25]Weidenschilling, S. J.,& Cuzzi, J. N.,'Formation of planetesimals in the solar nebular', In The Formation and Evolution of Planetary Systems, (eds) Weawer, H. and Danly, L. 1031-1060, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge(1993)
[26]Weidenschilling, S. J.1997, Icarus,127,290
[27]Youdin, A.,& Shu. F.2002, ApJ,580,494
[28]Safronov, V. S.1969, Evolution of the Protoplanetary Cloud and Formation of the Earth and the Planets, English translation NSSA TT F-677 (1972)
[29]Goldreich, P.,& Ward, W. R.,1973, ApJ,183,1051
[30]Supulver, K. D., Bridges, F. G., Tiscareno, S., Lievore, J.,& Lin, D. N. C.1997, Icarus, 129,539S
[31]Blum, J.,& Wurm, G,2008, ARA&A,46,21B
[32]Stewart, G. R.,& Wetherill, G. W.1988, Icarus,74,542
[33]Ormel, C. W., Dullemond, C. P.,& Spaans, M.2010, ApJL,714, L103
[34]Armitage, P. J.& Rice, W. K. M.2005, astro-ph/0507492
[35]Raymond, S. N., Mandell, A. M.,& Sigurdsson, S.2006, Science,313.1413
[36]Beckwith, S. V., Sargent, A. I., Chini, R. S.,& Guesten, R.,1990, ApJ,99,924
[37]Santos, N. C., Israelian, G., Mayor, M., Rebolo, R.,& Udry, S.2003, A & A,398,363
[38]Nordstrom, B., Mayor, M., Andersen, J., et al.2004, A & A,418,989
[39]Mordasini, C., Alibert, Y.,& Benz, W.2009,A & A,501,1139
[40]Pollack,J. B., Hubickyj, O., Bodenheimer, P. et al.1996, Icarus,124,62
[41]Udry, S., Mayor, M., Naef, D., et al.2000 A & A,356,590
[42]Fischer, D. A.,& Valenti, J.2005, ApJ,622,1102
[43]Natta, A., Testi, L.,& Randich, S.2006,A & A,452,245
[44]Vorobyov, E. I.,& Basu, I.2009, ApJ,703,922
[45]Pringle, J. E.1981, ARA(?)A,19,137
[46]White, R. J.,& Hillenbrand, L. A.2004, ApJ,616,998
[47]Matsuyama, I., Johnstone, D.,& Hartmann, L.2003, ApJ,582,893
[48]Haisch, K. E., Lada, E. A.,& Lada, C. J.2001, ApJ,553, L153
[49]Gammie C.F.1996, ApJ,457,355
[50]Kretke, K. A.,& Lin, D. N. C.2007, ApJ,664, L55
[51]Sano, T., Miyama, S. M., Umebayashi, T.,& Nakano, T.2000, ApJ,543,486
[52]Kretke, K. A., Lin, D. N. C., Garaud, P.,& Turner, N. J.2009, ApJ,690,407
[53]Gullbring,E. et al.1998, ApJ,492,323
[54]Goldreich, P.,& Tremaine, S.1979, ApJ,233,857
[55]Lin, D. N. C.,& Papaloizou, J. C. B.1985, in Protostars and Planets Ⅱ, ed. D. C. Black & M. S. Matthew (Tuscon:Univ. Arizona Press),981
[56]Ward, W. R.1997, Icarus,126,261
[57]Cresswell, P.,& Nelson, R. P.2006, A & A,450,833
[58]Alibert, Y., Mordasini, C., Benz,W.,& Winisdoerffer, C.2005, A & A,434,343
[59]Ida, S.,& Lin, D. N. C.2008, ApJ,673,487
[60]Ikoma, M., Nakazawa, K.,& Emori, H.2000, ApJ,537,1013
[61]Ida, S.,& Lin, D. N. C.2004a, ApJ,604,388
[62]Ida, S.,& Lin, D. N. C.2004b, ApJ,616,567
[63]Armitage, P. J.,& Rice, W. K. M.2005, In STScI Symp. Ser.19, ed. M. Livio, K. Sahu,& J. Valenti (Cambridge University Press),66
[64]Lee, M. H.,& Peale, S. J.2002, ApJ,567,596
[65]Kokubo, E., Yoshinaga, K.,& Makino, J.1998, MNRAS,297,1067
[66]Aarseth, S. J.2003, Gravitational N-Body Simulations, Cambridge University Press, Cam-bridge.
[67]Kokubo, E.,& Ida, S.1998, Icarus,131,171
[68]Kokubo, E.,& Ida, S.2002, ApJ,581,666
[69]Zhou, J. L., Lin, D. N. C.,& Sun, Y. S.2007, ApJ,666,423
[70]Garaud, P.,& Lin, D. N. C,2007, ApJ,654,606
[71]Kennedy, G. M.,& Kenyon, S. J.2008, ApJ,673,502
[72]Yoshinaga, K., Kokubo, E.,& Makino, J.1999, Icarus,139,328
[73]Rasio, F. A.,& Ford, E.1996, Science,274,954
[74]Chatterjee, S., Ford, E. B., Matsumura, S.,& Rasio, F. A.2008, ApJ,686,580
[75]Juric, M.,& Tremaine, S.2008, ApJ,686,603
[76]Thommes, E. W., Matsumura, S.,& Rasio, F. A.2008, Science,321,814
[77]Chambers, J. E.2001, Icarus,149,262
[78]Kley, W., Lee, M. H., Murray, N.,& Peale, S. J.2005, A & A,437,727
[79]Kley, W.& Dirksen, G.2006, A & A,447,369
[80]Kley, W.& Crida, A.2008, A & A,487, L9
[81]Kley, W., Bitsch, B.,& Klahr, H.2009, A & A,506,971
[82]Paardekooper S.-J.,& Mellema G.,2006a, A & A,459, L17
[83]Paardekooper S.-J.,& Mellema G.,2006b, A & A,450,1203
[84]Paardekooper S.-J.,& Mellema G.,2008, A & A,478,245
[85]Paardekooper S.-J.,& Papaloizou J. C. B.,2008, A & A,485,877
[86]Paardekooper S.-J.,& Papaloizou J. C. B.,2009a, MNRAS,394,2283
[87]Paardekooper S.-J.,& Papaloizou J. C. B.,2009b, MNRAS,394,2297
[88]Paardekooper, S.-J., Baruteau, C., Cridal, A.,& Kley W.2010, MNRAS,401,1950
[89]Paardekooper, S.-J.,& Mellema, G.2006, A & A,459, L17
[90]Bitsch, B.,& Kley, W.2010, A & A,523, A30
[91]Lin, D. N. C.& Papaloizou, J.1986a, ApJ,307,395
[92]Lin, D. N. C.& Papaloizou, J.1986b, ApJ,309,846
[93]Ward W. R.,1989, ApJ,336,526
[94]Binney, J.,& Tremaine, S. D.1987, Galactic Dynamics, Princeton Univ. Press, Princeton
[95]Ward W. R.,1986, Icarus,67,164
[96]Artymowicz, P.1993, ApJ,419,155
[97]Masset F. S., D'Angelo G., Kley W.,2006, ApJ,652,730
[98]Masset F. S.,& Casoli J.,2010, ApJ,723,1393
[99]Tanaka, H., Takeuchi, T.,& Ward, W. R.2002, ApJ,565,1257
[100]Gammie, C. F.2001, ApJ,553,174
[101]Rice, W. K. M., Armitage, P. J., Bate, M. R.,& Bonnell, I. A.,2003, MNRAS,329,1025
[102]Lodato, G.,& Rice, W. K. M.,2004, MNRAS,351,630
[103]Lodato, G.,& Rice, W. K. M.,2005, MNRAS,358,1489
[104]Lynden-Bell, D.,& Pringle, J. E.1974, MNRAS,168,603
[105]Rice, W. K. M., Mayo, J. H.,& Armitage, P. J.,2010, MNRAS,402,1740
[106]Alibert, Y., Mordasini, C.,& Benz, W.2011 A & A,526A,63A
[107]Johnson, J. A., Aller, K. M., Howard, A. W.,& Crepp, J. R.2010, PASP,122,905J
[108]Ogihara M.,& Ida, S.2009, ApJ,699,824
[109]Fernandez, J. A.,& Ip, W.-H.1984, Icarus,58,109
[110]Malhotra, R.1993, Nature,365,819
[111]Tsiganis, K., Gomes, R., Morbidelli, A.,& Levison, H. F.2005,Nature,435,459
[112]Chang, H.-Y.,2010, JASS 27,1C
[2]Kasting, J. F., Whitmire, D. P.,& Reynolds, R. T.1993, Icarus 101,108K
[3]Forget, F.,& Wordsworth, R. D.2010, ASPC 430,55F
[4]Marois, C., Zuckerman, B., Konopacky, Q. M., Macintosh, B.,& Barman, T.,2010 Nature, 468,1080M
[5]Lafreniere, D., Jayawardhana, R., Janson, M., Helling, C., Witte, S.,& Hauschildt, P.2011, ApJ,730,42L
[6]Marcy, G. W., Butler, R. P., Vogt, S S., Fischer, D.,& Lissauer, J. J.,1998, ApJ,505L, 147M
[7]Marcy, G., et al.2005,PThPS,158,24
[8]Beaulieu, J.-P. et al.,2006, Nature,439,437
[9]Wright, J. T., Upadhyay, S., Marcy, G. W., Fischer, D. A., Ford, E. B.,& Johnson, J. A. 2009, ApJ,693,1084
[10]Lissauer, J. J. et al.2011, Nature,470:53
[11]Naef D., Latham D., Mayor M. et al.2001, A & A,375, L27
[12]Lissauer, J., Fabrycky, D., Ford E. et al.2011, Nature,470,53
[13]Batalha, N., Borucki, W., Bryson, S. et al.2011 ApJ.,729,27
[14]Winn, J. N., Johnson, J. A., Albrecht, S. et al.2009, ApJ,703, L99
[15]Milani, A., Carpino, M., Hahn, G.,& Nobili, A. M.1989, Icarus,78,212M
[16]Libert, A.-S.,& Tsiganis, K.2009, A & A,493,677L
[17]Hatzes, A. P., Cochran, W. D., Endl, M., McArthur, B., Paulson, B., Walker, G. A. H., Campbell, B.,& Yang,S.2003,ApJ,599,1383
[18]Thebault, P., Marzari, F., Scholl, H., Turrini, D.,& Barbieri, M.2004, A & A,427,1097
[19]Cameron, A. G. W.1978, Moon and the Planets,18,5
[20]Kuiper, G. P.1951, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci.37,1
[21]Durisen, R. H., Boss, A. P., Mayer, L., Nelson, A. F.,49 Quinn, T.,& RiceW. K. M.2007, Protostars and Planets V, eds B. Reipurth, D. Jewitt, and K. Keil, University of Arizona Press, Tucson
[22]Toomre, A.1964, ApJ,139,1217
[23]Chiang, E.,& Youdin, A.2010, AREPS,38,493C
[24]Jessberger, E. K., Stephan, T., Rost, D., Arndt, P., Maetz, M. et al.2001, In Interplanetary Dust, ed. E Grun, BAS Gustafson, SF Dermott, H Fechtig, pp.253, Berlin:Springer-Verlag
[25]Weidenschilling, S. J.,& Cuzzi, J. N.,'Formation of planetesimals in the solar nebular', In The Formation and Evolution of Planetary Systems, (eds) Weawer, H. and Danly, L. 1031-1060, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge(1993)
[26]Weidenschilling, S. J.1997, Icarus,127,290
[27]Youdin, A.,& Shu. F.2002, ApJ,580,494
[28]Safronov, V. S.1969, Evolution of the Protoplanetary Cloud and Formation of the Earth and the Planets, English translation NSSA TT F-677 (1972)
[29]Goldreich, P.,& Ward, W. R.,1973, ApJ,183,1051
[30]Supulver, K. D., Bridges, F. G., Tiscareno, S., Lievore, J.,& Lin, D. N. C.1997, Icarus, 129,539S
[31]Blum, J.,& Wurm, G,2008, ARA&A,46,21B
[32]Stewart, G. R.,& Wetherill, G. W.1988, Icarus,74,542
[33]Ormel, C. W., Dullemond, C. P.,& Spaans, M.2010, ApJL,714, L103
[34]Armitage, P. J.& Rice, W. K. M.2005, astro-ph/0507492
[35]Raymond, S. N., Mandell, A. M.,& Sigurdsson, S.2006, Science,313.1413
[36]Beckwith, S. V., Sargent, A. I., Chini, R. S.,& Guesten, R.,1990, ApJ,99,924
[37]Santos, N. C., Israelian, G., Mayor, M., Rebolo, R.,& Udry, S.2003, A & A,398,363
[38]Nordstrom, B., Mayor, M., Andersen, J., et al.2004, A & A,418,989
[39]Mordasini, C., Alibert, Y.,& Benz, W.2009,A & A,501,1139
[40]Pollack,J. B., Hubickyj, O., Bodenheimer, P. et al.1996, Icarus,124,62
[41]Udry, S., Mayor, M., Naef, D., et al.2000 A & A,356,590
[42]Fischer, D. A.,& Valenti, J.2005, ApJ,622,1102
[43]Natta, A., Testi, L.,& Randich, S.2006,A & A,452,245
[44]Vorobyov, E. I.,& Basu, I.2009, ApJ,703,922
[45]Pringle, J. E.1981, ARA(?)A,19,137
[46]White, R. J.,& Hillenbrand, L. A.2004, ApJ,616,998
[47]Matsuyama, I., Johnstone, D.,& Hartmann, L.2003, ApJ,582,893
[48]Haisch, K. E., Lada, E. A.,& Lada, C. J.2001, ApJ,553, L153
[49]Gammie C.F.1996, ApJ,457,355
[50]Kretke, K. A.,& Lin, D. N. C.2007, ApJ,664, L55
[51]Sano, T., Miyama, S. M., Umebayashi, T.,& Nakano, T.2000, ApJ,543,486
[52]Kretke, K. A., Lin, D. N. C., Garaud, P.,& Turner, N. J.2009, ApJ,690,407
[53]Gullbring,E. et al.1998, ApJ,492,323
[54]Goldreich, P.,& Tremaine, S.1979, ApJ,233,857
[55]Lin, D. N. C.,& Papaloizou, J. C. B.1985, in Protostars and Planets Ⅱ, ed. D. C. Black & M. S. Matthew (Tuscon:Univ. Arizona Press),981
[56]Ward, W. R.1997, Icarus,126,261
[57]Cresswell, P.,& Nelson, R. P.2006, A & A,450,833
[58]Alibert, Y., Mordasini, C., Benz,W.,& Winisdoerffer, C.2005, A & A,434,343
[59]Ida, S.,& Lin, D. N. C.2008, ApJ,673,487
[60]Ikoma, M., Nakazawa, K.,& Emori, H.2000, ApJ,537,1013
[61]Ida, S.,& Lin, D. N. C.2004a, ApJ,604,388
[62]Ida, S.,& Lin, D. N. C.2004b, ApJ,616,567
[63]Armitage, P. J.,& Rice, W. K. M.2005, In STScI Symp. Ser.19, ed. M. Livio, K. Sahu,& J. Valenti (Cambridge University Press),66
[64]Lee, M. H.,& Peale, S. J.2002, ApJ,567,596
[65]Kokubo, E., Yoshinaga, K.,& Makino, J.1998, MNRAS,297,1067
[66]Aarseth, S. J.2003, Gravitational N-Body Simulations, Cambridge University Press, Cam-bridge.
[67]Kokubo, E.,& Ida, S.1998, Icarus,131,171
[68]Kokubo, E.,& Ida, S.2002, ApJ,581,666
[69]Zhou, J. L., Lin, D. N. C.,& Sun, Y. S.2007, ApJ,666,423
[70]Garaud, P.,& Lin, D. N. C,2007, ApJ,654,606
[71]Kennedy, G. M.,& Kenyon, S. J.2008, ApJ,673,502
[72]Yoshinaga, K., Kokubo, E.,& Makino, J.1999, Icarus,139,328
[73]Rasio, F. A.,& Ford, E.1996, Science,274,954
[74]Chatterjee, S., Ford, E. B., Matsumura, S.,& Rasio, F. A.2008, ApJ,686,580
[75]Juric, M.,& Tremaine, S.2008, ApJ,686,603
[76]Thommes, E. W., Matsumura, S.,& Rasio, F. A.2008, Science,321,814
[77]Chambers, J. E.2001, Icarus,149,262
[78]Kley, W., Lee, M. H., Murray, N.,& Peale, S. J.2005, A & A,437,727
[79]Kley, W.& Dirksen, G.2006, A & A,447,369
[80]Kley, W.& Crida, A.2008, A & A,487, L9
[81]Kley, W., Bitsch, B.,& Klahr, H.2009, A & A,506,971
[82]Paardekooper S.-J.,& Mellema G.,2006a, A & A,459, L17
[83]Paardekooper S.-J.,& Mellema G.,2006b, A & A,450,1203
[84]Paardekooper S.-J.,& Mellema G.,2008, A & A,478,245
[85]Paardekooper S.-J.,& Papaloizou J. C. B.,2008, A & A,485,877
[86]Paardekooper S.-J.,& Papaloizou J. C. B.,2009a, MNRAS,394,2283
[87]Paardekooper S.-J.,& Papaloizou J. C. B.,2009b, MNRAS,394,2297
[88]Paardekooper, S.-J., Baruteau, C., Cridal, A.,& Kley W.2010, MNRAS,401,1950
[89]Paardekooper, S.-J.,& Mellema, G.2006, A & A,459, L17
[90]Bitsch, B.,& Kley, W.2010, A & A,523, A30
[91]Lin, D. N. C.& Papaloizou, J.1986a, ApJ,307,395
[92]Lin, D. N. C.& Papaloizou, J.1986b, ApJ,309,846
[93]Ward W. R.,1989, ApJ,336,526
[94]Binney, J.,& Tremaine, S. D.1987, Galactic Dynamics, Princeton Univ. Press, Princeton
[95]Ward W. R.,1986, Icarus,67,164
[96]Artymowicz, P.1993, ApJ,419,155
[97]Masset F. S., D'Angelo G., Kley W.,2006, ApJ,652,730
[98]Masset F. S.,& Casoli J.,2010, ApJ,723,1393
[99]Tanaka, H., Takeuchi, T.,& Ward, W. R.2002, ApJ,565,1257
[100]Gammie, C. F.2001, ApJ,553,174
[101]Rice, W. K. M., Armitage, P. J., Bate, M. R.,& Bonnell, I. A.,2003, MNRAS,329,1025
[102]Lodato, G.,& Rice, W. K. M.,2004, MNRAS,351,630
[103]Lodato, G.,& Rice, W. K. M.,2005, MNRAS,358,1489
[104]Lynden-Bell, D.,& Pringle, J. E.1974, MNRAS,168,603
[105]Rice, W. K. M., Mayo, J. H.,& Armitage, P. J.,2010, MNRAS,402,1740
[106]Alibert, Y., Mordasini, C.,& Benz, W.2011 A & A,526A,63A
[107]Johnson, J. A., Aller, K. M., Howard, A. W.,& Crepp, J. R.2010, PASP,122,905J
[108]Ogihara M.,& Ida, S.2009, ApJ,699,824
[109]Fernandez, J. A.,& Ip, W.-H.1984, Icarus,58,109
[110]Malhotra, R.1993, Nature,365,819
[111]Tsiganis, K., Gomes, R., Morbidelli, A.,& Levison, H. F.2005,Nature,435,459
[112]Chang, H.-Y.,2010, JASS 27,1C