农民职业分化的影响因素研究
摘要
20世纪80年代以来,我国进入了前所未有的社会转型期,农民职业结构已经发生并正在发生显著的变化,主要表现是农民由原来单一的农业职业向非农职业的转移,在农村或城镇形成多种职业角色。探索农民职业分化的影响因素,不仅是理论研究之需,而且也是实践之需。
本文首先对农民概念和农民职业分化的概念进行了界定;其次,以青岛地区为例研究宏观因素对当代农民职业分化的影响;再次,根据实地入村入户调查数据,建立计量经济模型,分析受教育程度、婚姻、年龄、居住地等微观因素对当代农民职业分化的影响,对决定因素做系统分析,揭示特定时空条件下农民职业分化的规律和特征;复次,通过建立农户模型分析农民职业分化对农户的消费和农业生产的影响;最后,提出引导和促进农民职业分化的政策建议。主要研究内容和结果如下。
对农民概念和农民职业分化的概念进行了界定,当代中国农民职业分化的影响因素可以划分为宏观影响因素和微观影响因素。宏观影响因素包括:经济增长速度和水平、经济结构调整、经济增长方式的转变、城乡收入的不平衡、区域经济发展的不平衡等经济发展因素,户籍制度、城乡分割的社会保障制度、劳动力市场制度、农地制度等体制因素。农民职业分化的微观影响因素包括:性别、年龄、婚姻、受教育程度、党员身份等自身特征,家庭耕地面积、家庭人均耕地面积、家庭劳动力人数、家中儿童数量、家中老人数量等家庭特征,到县城距离、到乡镇距离、每天经过该村客车班次、村中企业数量等居住地特征。
从影响农民职业分化的宏观因素来看:(1)经济增长是促进青岛地区农民职业分化的根本动因。(2)经济结构的调整为青岛地区农民的职业分化提供了可能空间,引导农民职业向不同产业、不同行业分化。(3)经济增长方式的变化对劳动力的排挤在短期内不利于农民的职业分化,但促使农民提升自身素质,实现可持续分化。(4)城乡收入的差距是农民职业分化的直接诱因。各区域经济发展的不平衡也是影响农民职业分化的重要经济因素。(5)户籍制度和城乡分割的劳动力市场制度、社会保障制度是农民职业分化的主要障碍。(6)农地制度对农民职业分化的影响较为复杂。一方面,土地是职业分化初级阶段农民的保障手段;另一方面,它又使得农民不愿彻底脱离农业和农村,导致农民的兼业化,进而阻碍农民进一步的职业分化。
从影响农民职业分化的微观因素来看:(1)农民自身因素是农民职业分化的决定因素。农民职业分化最终取决于农民自身因素,家庭因素和居住地因素的影响处于次要位置。(2)就农民自身因素而言,性别、年龄、受教育程度、是否党员对农民职业分化有显著影响,是否结婚对农民职业分化没有影响。男性农民比女性农民实现非农职业所受的约束力小,更容易实现职业分化;年轻人较容易发生分化,年龄越大越不利于农民职业分化;受教育程度是农民职业分化的重要影响因素,受教育程度越高越有利于农民职业分化;党员比非党员更容易实现职业分化。(3)就家庭因素而言,家庭人均耕地面积、家中7岁以下儿童数对农民职业分化有显著的负向影响。家庭人均耕地面积、家中7岁以下儿童数量越多越不利于农民职业分化;家庭劳动力负担系数、家中70岁以上老人数越多越不利于农民职业分化,但他们负向作用并不十分显著;家中61-69岁老人数量越多、家中有党员将有利于农民职业分化,但正向作用并不十分显著;是否户主对农民职业分化没有影响。(4)就居住地因素而言,区位条件对农民职业分化有显著影响,距离县城近比距离县城远的农民更容易分化;到乡镇距离对农民职业分化影响总体不显著;村中企业数量对农民职业分化有显著正向影响。
农民职业分化对农民生产及生活具有多方面的影响。职业分化使得农户改变了传统的纯农业生产模式,逐步向兼业化发展。农户从事农业的劳动力减少对粮食生产等种植业生产有一定影响。农民职业分化使大量劳动力从土地上转移出去,为土地合理流转创造了条件,是促进农村劳动力资源有效配置和提高农业劳动生产率的重要途径。另外,农民职业分化使农民收入来源多样化并且增加了农民收入、改变了消费结构,有利于提高职业分化农民的素质。农民职业分化还使农户贫富差距拉大。
政府引导和推进我国农民的职业分化,基本的政策思路只能是尊重农民,通过循序渐进的改革来实现。政策的切入点是着眼于当前农民的职业分化尚处于初级阶段所具有的不稳定性和不彻底性的实际和农民职业分化过程的实际需要,一方面稳定和促使已经发生了职业分化的农民彻底完成职业分化,另一方面促进尚未发生职业分化的农民逐步进入职业分化过程。主要的政策措施是:改革户籍制度,创新农民保障制度,完善土地流转制度,健全城乡一体化劳动力市场,加强农民教育培训,努力提高农民素质等。
Since 1980s, China has been in an unprecedented social transformation period. Farmers’professional structure has taken and is taking prominent changes, which mainly shows that former single agricultural profession shifts to non-agricultural one and there form many kinds of professional roles in the countryside or town. To probe into the influencing factors of farmers’professional differentiation is of both theoretical and practical significant.
The dissertation first delimits the notion of farmers and the notion of farmers’professional differentiation. Secondly, taking Qingdao area as an example, it studies the macro-factors which influence the current farmers’professional differentiation. Thirdly, based on the research statistics of farmers’residence in villages, it sets up a calculating economic model, analyzes the influences of micro-factors, such as level of education, marital status, age, residence and so on, on the farmer’s professional differentiation and manifests the laws and features of farmers’professional differentiation at a particular time and space by systematically analyzing the decisive factors. Fourthly, it analyzes influences of farmers’professional differentiation on farmer household consumption and the agricultural production by setting up a farmer household model. At last, it proposes policies and suggestions to guide and promote farmer’s professional differentiation. Here are the major contents and results of the research:
It delimits the notion of farmers and the notion of farmers’professional differentiation. The influencing factors of farmers’professional differentiation in contemporary China can be classified into macro ones and micro ones. Macro influencing factors include economic factors, such as the rate and level of economic growth, restructuring of economic structure, the change of the economic growth mode, the income difference between urban and rural population, the imbalance of regional economic development and so on, and systematic factors, such as household registration system, different social security systems in urban and rural areas, labor market system, farmland system, and so on. Micro influencing factors include personal characteristics, such as gender, age, marital status, level of education, party member identity and so on, family characteristics, such as the total farmland of the family, per-capita farmland of family members, the number of labors, the number of the children and the old and so on, and the residence characteristics, such as the distance from towns, the number of buses passing by a village, the number of village ownership enterprises and so on.
The macro factors influence farmers’professional differentiation as follows: (1) Economic growth is the fundamental motivation for farmer’s professional differentiation in Qingdao area. (2) The restructuring of economic structure provides more space for farmer’s professional differentiation and guides it towards different professions. (3) The narrowing down of the need for labors owning to the change in the pattern of economic growth is unfavorable to farmer’s professional differentiation, but it urges farmers to improve themselves and helps to realize the sustainable differentiation. (4) The income difference between urban and rural areas directly results in farmers’professional differentiation. The imbalance of economic development in different areas is also an important economic factor for farmers’professional differentiation. (5) Household registration system, different labor market systems in urban and rural areas and social security make the main obstacles for farmer’s professional differentiation. (6) Farmland system has complicated influences on farmer’s professional differentiation. On one hand, farmland is a kind of security for farmers in the primary stage of professional differentiation. On the other hand, it makes farmers reluctant to completely leave their farmland, which universalizes the diversity of farmers’professions and hinders further development of professional differentiation.
Micro factors influence farmers’professional differentiation as follows: (1) The personal factor of farmers is the decisive factor of professional differentiation. Farmer’s professional differentiation is determined by the personal factor while the family and residence factors are less important. (2) As far as the personal factor of farmers is concerned, gender, age, level of educational, party member identity have prominent influences on farmer’s professional differentiation while marital status has no effect. There is less restraint for male farmers than the female in undertaking non-agricultural professions. The older the farmer is, the harder the professional differentiation is realized. The level of education plays an important role in farmer’s professional differentiation. The better-educated and party-member farmers tend to be easy to join in the professional differentiation. (3) In terms of family factor, the per-capita farmland of family members and the number of children under the age of seven have apparent negative effect on farmer’s professional differentiation. That is to say, the more per-capita farmland and the more children under seven, the more difficult the professional differentiation is. The more the burden coefficient of family labors and the more the number of the old above the age of sixty-nine, the more difficult the professional differentiation is, but their negative influence is not prominent. The numbers of the old of 61-69 years old and party member identity are important factors in promoting farmers’professional differentiation but their positive influence is also not prominent. Whether a farmer is the head of a household is of no influence on farmer’s professional differentiation. (4) As for residence factor, regional condition has significant influence on farmer’s professional differentiation. Farmers near cities are more likely to be differentiated than those who are far away. But whether farmers are near or far away from towns has no apparent influence and the number of village ownership enterprises has positive influence on farmer’s professional differentiation.
Farmer’s professional differentiation influences agricultural production and daily life in many aspects. Professional differentiation changes the traditional farming production mode and makes it more diversified. The reduction of labors in farming will, to some extent, affect plantation production, such as crops production. Farmer’s professional differentiation makes a large number of labors leave their farmland and then paves the way for rational use of farmland. It becomes an important way to promote the rational and effective distribution of rural labor forces and improve labor productivity. Besides, farmer’s professional differentiation diversifies farmers’income sources, raises their income, changes the consumption patterns and improves their quality. Farmer’s professional differentiation also widens the gap between the rich and the poor in the countryside.
Our government’s basic policy to guide and promote farmer’s professional differentiation is to respect farmers and do it through constant reform. The policy should give high priority to the real needs in the process of professional differentiation and to the fact that farmer’s professional differentiation is in its primary stage and of high instability and low thoroughness. For one thing, the purpose of the policy is to stabilize and encourage those differentiated farmers. For another, the policy aims to make undifferentiated farmers to join the professional differentiation. The main contents include reforming household registration system, innovating of farmer’s security system, improving farmland circulation system, perfecting information network of urban and rural integration labor market, strengthening farmers’training and education and enhancing farmers’quality.
本文首先对农民概念和农民职业分化的概念进行了界定;其次,以青岛地区为例研究宏观因素对当代农民职业分化的影响;再次,根据实地入村入户调查数据,建立计量经济模型,分析受教育程度、婚姻、年龄、居住地等微观因素对当代农民职业分化的影响,对决定因素做系统分析,揭示特定时空条件下农民职业分化的规律和特征;复次,通过建立农户模型分析农民职业分化对农户的消费和农业生产的影响;最后,提出引导和促进农民职业分化的政策建议。主要研究内容和结果如下。
对农民概念和农民职业分化的概念进行了界定,当代中国农民职业分化的影响因素可以划分为宏观影响因素和微观影响因素。宏观影响因素包括:经济增长速度和水平、经济结构调整、经济增长方式的转变、城乡收入的不平衡、区域经济发展的不平衡等经济发展因素,户籍制度、城乡分割的社会保障制度、劳动力市场制度、农地制度等体制因素。农民职业分化的微观影响因素包括:性别、年龄、婚姻、受教育程度、党员身份等自身特征,家庭耕地面积、家庭人均耕地面积、家庭劳动力人数、家中儿童数量、家中老人数量等家庭特征,到县城距离、到乡镇距离、每天经过该村客车班次、村中企业数量等居住地特征。
从影响农民职业分化的宏观因素来看:(1)经济增长是促进青岛地区农民职业分化的根本动因。(2)经济结构的调整为青岛地区农民的职业分化提供了可能空间,引导农民职业向不同产业、不同行业分化。(3)经济增长方式的变化对劳动力的排挤在短期内不利于农民的职业分化,但促使农民提升自身素质,实现可持续分化。(4)城乡收入的差距是农民职业分化的直接诱因。各区域经济发展的不平衡也是影响农民职业分化的重要经济因素。(5)户籍制度和城乡分割的劳动力市场制度、社会保障制度是农民职业分化的主要障碍。(6)农地制度对农民职业分化的影响较为复杂。一方面,土地是职业分化初级阶段农民的保障手段;另一方面,它又使得农民不愿彻底脱离农业和农村,导致农民的兼业化,进而阻碍农民进一步的职业分化。
从影响农民职业分化的微观因素来看:(1)农民自身因素是农民职业分化的决定因素。农民职业分化最终取决于农民自身因素,家庭因素和居住地因素的影响处于次要位置。(2)就农民自身因素而言,性别、年龄、受教育程度、是否党员对农民职业分化有显著影响,是否结婚对农民职业分化没有影响。男性农民比女性农民实现非农职业所受的约束力小,更容易实现职业分化;年轻人较容易发生分化,年龄越大越不利于农民职业分化;受教育程度是农民职业分化的重要影响因素,受教育程度越高越有利于农民职业分化;党员比非党员更容易实现职业分化。(3)就家庭因素而言,家庭人均耕地面积、家中7岁以下儿童数对农民职业分化有显著的负向影响。家庭人均耕地面积、家中7岁以下儿童数量越多越不利于农民职业分化;家庭劳动力负担系数、家中70岁以上老人数越多越不利于农民职业分化,但他们负向作用并不十分显著;家中61-69岁老人数量越多、家中有党员将有利于农民职业分化,但正向作用并不十分显著;是否户主对农民职业分化没有影响。(4)就居住地因素而言,区位条件对农民职业分化有显著影响,距离县城近比距离县城远的农民更容易分化;到乡镇距离对农民职业分化影响总体不显著;村中企业数量对农民职业分化有显著正向影响。
农民职业分化对农民生产及生活具有多方面的影响。职业分化使得农户改变了传统的纯农业生产模式,逐步向兼业化发展。农户从事农业的劳动力减少对粮食生产等种植业生产有一定影响。农民职业分化使大量劳动力从土地上转移出去,为土地合理流转创造了条件,是促进农村劳动力资源有效配置和提高农业劳动生产率的重要途径。另外,农民职业分化使农民收入来源多样化并且增加了农民收入、改变了消费结构,有利于提高职业分化农民的素质。农民职业分化还使农户贫富差距拉大。
政府引导和推进我国农民的职业分化,基本的政策思路只能是尊重农民,通过循序渐进的改革来实现。政策的切入点是着眼于当前农民的职业分化尚处于初级阶段所具有的不稳定性和不彻底性的实际和农民职业分化过程的实际需要,一方面稳定和促使已经发生了职业分化的农民彻底完成职业分化,另一方面促进尚未发生职业分化的农民逐步进入职业分化过程。主要的政策措施是:改革户籍制度,创新农民保障制度,完善土地流转制度,健全城乡一体化劳动力市场,加强农民教育培训,努力提高农民素质等。
Since 1980s, China has been in an unprecedented social transformation period. Farmers’professional structure has taken and is taking prominent changes, which mainly shows that former single agricultural profession shifts to non-agricultural one and there form many kinds of professional roles in the countryside or town. To probe into the influencing factors of farmers’professional differentiation is of both theoretical and practical significant.
The dissertation first delimits the notion of farmers and the notion of farmers’professional differentiation. Secondly, taking Qingdao area as an example, it studies the macro-factors which influence the current farmers’professional differentiation. Thirdly, based on the research statistics of farmers’residence in villages, it sets up a calculating economic model, analyzes the influences of micro-factors, such as level of education, marital status, age, residence and so on, on the farmer’s professional differentiation and manifests the laws and features of farmers’professional differentiation at a particular time and space by systematically analyzing the decisive factors. Fourthly, it analyzes influences of farmers’professional differentiation on farmer household consumption and the agricultural production by setting up a farmer household model. At last, it proposes policies and suggestions to guide and promote farmer’s professional differentiation. Here are the major contents and results of the research:
It delimits the notion of farmers and the notion of farmers’professional differentiation. The influencing factors of farmers’professional differentiation in contemporary China can be classified into macro ones and micro ones. Macro influencing factors include economic factors, such as the rate and level of economic growth, restructuring of economic structure, the change of the economic growth mode, the income difference between urban and rural population, the imbalance of regional economic development and so on, and systematic factors, such as household registration system, different social security systems in urban and rural areas, labor market system, farmland system, and so on. Micro influencing factors include personal characteristics, such as gender, age, marital status, level of education, party member identity and so on, family characteristics, such as the total farmland of the family, per-capita farmland of family members, the number of labors, the number of the children and the old and so on, and the residence characteristics, such as the distance from towns, the number of buses passing by a village, the number of village ownership enterprises and so on.
The macro factors influence farmers’professional differentiation as follows: (1) Economic growth is the fundamental motivation for farmer’s professional differentiation in Qingdao area. (2) The restructuring of economic structure provides more space for farmer’s professional differentiation and guides it towards different professions. (3) The narrowing down of the need for labors owning to the change in the pattern of economic growth is unfavorable to farmer’s professional differentiation, but it urges farmers to improve themselves and helps to realize the sustainable differentiation. (4) The income difference between urban and rural areas directly results in farmers’professional differentiation. The imbalance of economic development in different areas is also an important economic factor for farmers’professional differentiation. (5) Household registration system, different labor market systems in urban and rural areas and social security make the main obstacles for farmer’s professional differentiation. (6) Farmland system has complicated influences on farmer’s professional differentiation. On one hand, farmland is a kind of security for farmers in the primary stage of professional differentiation. On the other hand, it makes farmers reluctant to completely leave their farmland, which universalizes the diversity of farmers’professions and hinders further development of professional differentiation.
Micro factors influence farmers’professional differentiation as follows: (1) The personal factor of farmers is the decisive factor of professional differentiation. Farmer’s professional differentiation is determined by the personal factor while the family and residence factors are less important. (2) As far as the personal factor of farmers is concerned, gender, age, level of educational, party member identity have prominent influences on farmer’s professional differentiation while marital status has no effect. There is less restraint for male farmers than the female in undertaking non-agricultural professions. The older the farmer is, the harder the professional differentiation is realized. The level of education plays an important role in farmer’s professional differentiation. The better-educated and party-member farmers tend to be easy to join in the professional differentiation. (3) In terms of family factor, the per-capita farmland of family members and the number of children under the age of seven have apparent negative effect on farmer’s professional differentiation. That is to say, the more per-capita farmland and the more children under seven, the more difficult the professional differentiation is. The more the burden coefficient of family labors and the more the number of the old above the age of sixty-nine, the more difficult the professional differentiation is, but their negative influence is not prominent. The numbers of the old of 61-69 years old and party member identity are important factors in promoting farmers’professional differentiation but their positive influence is also not prominent. Whether a farmer is the head of a household is of no influence on farmer’s professional differentiation. (4) As for residence factor, regional condition has significant influence on farmer’s professional differentiation. Farmers near cities are more likely to be differentiated than those who are far away. But whether farmers are near or far away from towns has no apparent influence and the number of village ownership enterprises has positive influence on farmer’s professional differentiation.
Farmer’s professional differentiation influences agricultural production and daily life in many aspects. Professional differentiation changes the traditional farming production mode and makes it more diversified. The reduction of labors in farming will, to some extent, affect plantation production, such as crops production. Farmer’s professional differentiation makes a large number of labors leave their farmland and then paves the way for rational use of farmland. It becomes an important way to promote the rational and effective distribution of rural labor forces and improve labor productivity. Besides, farmer’s professional differentiation diversifies farmers’income sources, raises their income, changes the consumption patterns and improves their quality. Farmer’s professional differentiation also widens the gap between the rich and the poor in the countryside.
Our government’s basic policy to guide and promote farmer’s professional differentiation is to respect farmers and do it through constant reform. The policy should give high priority to the real needs in the process of professional differentiation and to the fact that farmer’s professional differentiation is in its primary stage and of high instability and low thoroughness. For one thing, the purpose of the policy is to stabilize and encourage those differentiated farmers. For another, the policy aims to make undifferentiated farmers to join the professional differentiation. The main contents include reforming household registration system, innovating of farmer’s security system, improving farmland circulation system, perfecting information network of urban and rural integration labor market, strengthening farmers’training and education and enhancing farmers’quality.
引文
1 [18]刘豪兴:《农村社会学》,中国人民大学出版社,2004年版,第217页
2 [美]丹尼尔贝尔:《后工业社会的来临》,23页,商务印书馆,1986年。
3曹金波,杨成胜:《关于柴码村农民分化的研究》,《长沙铁道学院学报》,2003年第4期。
4王自亮:《变动与选择:农村社会阶层结构形成的诱因》,《浙江社会科学》,2003年第3期。
8谭明方:《农村社会结构与“三农”问题研究》,《社会科学研究》,2005年第5期。
9李腊生:《当代中国的阶层分化与利益整合》,《社会主义研究》,2004年第5期。
10李全生:《农村社会分层标准浅析》,《烟台大学学报(哲学社会科学版)》,2003年第2期。
11卢倩云:《当代中国农民阶层分化与现代化关系的社会学探析》,《广西师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版)》,2000年第S2期。
12邹农俭:《当代中国农村社会分层标准研究》,《南京师大学报(社会科学版)》,1999年第3期。
13杜丽红:《中国社会阶层结构变动的五大效应论析》,《四川行政学院学报》,2003年第5期。
14姚万禄:《现当代中国农村社会分化后果考察》,《甘肃政法成人教育学院学报》,2003年第4期。
15 [美]埃佛里特·M·罗吉斯、拉伯尔·J·柏德格著,王晓毅译:《乡村社会变迁》,浙江人民出版社,1988年版,第321页。
②[法]H·蒙德拉斯著,李培林译:《农民的终结》,中国社会科学出版社,1991年版,第8页。
16米格代尔著,李玉祺袁宁译,《农民、政治与革命》,中央编译出版社,1996年版,第15页。
(1)(美)阿尔蒙德,比较政治学:体系、过程和政策[M],上海译文出版社,1987。
(2)边燕杰,市场转型与社会分化与权利[M],三联书店,1997。
(3)曹金波,杨成胜,关于柴码村农民分化的研究[J],长沙铁道学院学报,2003(4)。
(4)陈会英,周衍平,赵瑞莹,分化动因对策——中国农民职业分化问题探析[J],农业现代化研究,1996(5)。
(5)陈宗胜,周云波,任国强,影响农村非农就业途径的主要因素研究——对天津市农村社会的实证分析[J],财经研究,2006(5)。
(6)蔡昉,中国流动人口问题[M],河南人民出版社,2000.6。
(7)陈光金,中国乡村现代化的回顾与前瞻[M],长沙:湖南出版社,1996。
(8)陈晏清,当代中国社会转型论[M],山西:山西教育出版社,1998。
(9)迪尔凯姆,社会分工论[M],北京:三联书店,2000。
(10)都阳,贫困地区农户参与非农工作的决定因素研究[J],农业技术经济,1999(4)。
(11)杜赞奇,文化、权利与国家:1900-1942年的华北农村[M],江苏人民出版社,1994。
(12)杜鹰,白南生,走出乡村—中国农村劳动力流动实证研究[M],经济科学出版社,1997。
(13)(美)E哈奇,人与文化的理论[M],哈尔滨:黑龙江教育出版社,1988。
(14)费孝通,城乡和边区发展的思考[M],天津人民出版社,1990。
(15)费孝通,乡土中国[A].费孝通选集[C].天津人民出版社,1988.88。
(16)凡勃伦,有闲阶级论[M],北京:商务印书馆,1983。
(17)范伟达,朱红生,多元化的社会学理论[M],沈阳:辽宁人民出版社,1989。
(18)格尔哈斯·伦斯基,权利与特权社会分层的理论[M],杭州:浙江人民出版社,1988。
(19)郭熙保,农业发展论[M],武汉大学出版社,1995。
(20)(美)格尔哈斯?伦斯基,权利与特权:社会分层理论[M],浙江人民出版社,1988。
(21)巩素萍,农民分化的必然趋势及政策引导[J],山西农经,2003(4)。
(22)胡士华,教育对我国农村劳动力流动影响研究[J],经济问题,2005(10)。
(23)黄润柏,试论壮族农民的职业分化——龙胜金竹寨壮族生活方式变迁个案研究之一[J],广西民族研究,2002(1)。
(24)何清涟,现代化的陷阱[M],北京:今日中国出版社,1998。
(25)哈贝马斯,轮重建历史唯物主义[M],郭官义[译],北京:社会科学文献出版社,2000。
(26)胡琼阁,对当前农村社会阶层分化的探析[J],兰州学刊,2005(2)。
(27)金太军,乡村关系与村民自治[M],广州:广州人民出版社,2002。
(28)贾春增,外国社会学史[M],北京:中国人民大学出版社,1989。
(29)金一虹,农村妇女职业分化研究[J],学海,1995(2)。
(30)韩梁,姜长云,农民就业模式分化和选择的影响因素分析[J],农业技术经济,1996(6)。
(31)鲁礼新,马昌河,鲁奇,水城县沙坡村农户经济行为调查研究[J],地理研究,2004(2)。
(32)陆学艺,当代中国农村和当代中国农民[M],北京:知识出版社,1991.45。
(33)李强,当代中国社会分层与流动[M],北京:中国经济出版社,1993。
(34)李强,转型时期的中国社会分层结构[M],哈尔滨:黑龙江人民出版社,2002。
(35)李培林,李强,孙立平等,中国社会分层[M],北京:社会科学文献出版社,2004版,第38页。
(36)刘豪兴,农村社会学[M],北京:中国人民大学出版社,2004年版,第217页。
(37)刘易斯等,社会学导论(中译本)[M],南开大学出版社,1990。
(38)林后春,当代中国农民阶级阶层分化研究综述[J],社会主义研究,1991(1)。
(39)林后春,八十年代中国农民阶层分化浅析[J],江汉论坛,1991(9)。
(40)林晓鸣,建国后农民阶级队伍演变及其发展趋势分析[J],社会主义研究,1990(1)。
(41)李卓鹏,当代中国的农民分化[J],教学与研究,1999(10)。
(42)卢福营,农民分化过程中的村治[M],广州:南方出版社,2000。
(43)陆学艺,改革中的农村与农民[M],中共中央党校出版社,1992。
(44)列宁,列宁全集[M],人民出版社,1958。
(45)陆学艺,当代中国社会阶层研究报告[M],社会科学出版社,2002。
(46)卢梭,社会契约论[M],北京:商务印书馆,1980。
(47)李银河,社会结构与社会分层[J],国外社会学,1987(2)。
(48)李正东,试论中国中产阶层:当前社会转型进程中社会结构整合的动态探索[J],广东社会科学,2001(2)。
(49)列宁,列宁选集第4卷[M],北京:人民出版社,1972。
(50)陆学艺,当代中国社会阶层研究报告[M],北京:社会科学文献出版社,2002。
(51)李强,关于中等收入层问题的研究[J],管理世界,1992(6)。
(52)李春玲,社会结构变迁中的城镇社会流动[J],北京:社会学研究,1997(5)。
(53)李培林,流动民工的社会网络与社会地位[J],北京:社会学研究,1996(6)。
(54)刘精明,教育与社会分层结构的变迁——关于中高级白领职业阶层的分析[J],北京:中国人民大学学报,2001(2)。
(55)迈克尔P托达罗,经济发展与第三世界[M],北京:中国经济出版社,1992:506。
(56)马克思和恩格斯选集:第一卷[M],人民出版社,1972。
(57)(澳)马尔科姆·沃特斯,现代社会学理论[M],杨善华等[译],北京:华夏出版社,2000。
(58)(美)丹尼尔?贝尔,资本主义文化矛盾[M],北京:三联书店,1989。
(59)乔纳森? H?特纳,现代西方社会学理论[M],天津人民出版社,1988。
(60)宋镇修,中国农民社会学[M],哈尔滨:黑龙江人民出版社,1989.124-129。
(61)舒尔茨,转变传统农业[M],商务印书馆,1987。
(62)孙立平,改革前后中国大陆国家、民间统治精英及民众间互动关系的演变[J],中国社会科学季刊(香港),2001.4。
(63)樊平,“恶人治村”的实质是盈利经纪,华中师范大学中国农村问题研究中心“中国农村村民委员会选举学术研讨会”论文,武汉:华中师范大学出版社,2000。
(64)宋林飞,现代社会学[M],上海人民出版社,1987。
(65)文军,当代中国农民外出就业动因的社会学分析[J],社会学,2002(3)。
(66)王春光,新生代农村流动人口的社会认同与城乡融合的关系,人口学与计划生育,2002
(5)。
(67)王汉生,改革以来中国农村的工业化与农村精英构成的变化[J],中国社会科学辑刊(香港),1994.秋季卷。
(68)韦伯,经济与社会[M],林荣远[译],北京:商务印书馆,1998。
(69)王小章,社会分层与社会秩序——一个理论的总数[J],浙江社会科学,2001(1)。
(70)王自亮,变动与选择:农村社会阶层结构形成的诱因[J],浙江社会科学,2003(3)。
(71)王铭铭,社会人类学与中国研究[M],北京:三联书店,1997。
(72)许欣欣,当代中国社会结构变迁与流动[M],北京:社会科学文献出版社,2000。
(73)徐勇,村干部的双重角色:代理人与当家人[J].二十一世纪(香港),1997.8。
(74)徐勇,中国农村村民自治[M],武汉:华中师范大学出版社,1997。
(75)杨金凤,张清霞,教育对农村劳动力外出就业及收入的影响——基于山西省的调查[J].高等农业教育,2005(12)。
(77)杨善华,家族政治和农村基层政治精英的选拔、角色定位和精英更替[J],社会学研究,1997.5。
(78)阎志民,中国现阶段阶级阶层研究[M],北京:中共中央党校出版社,2002。
(79)伊恩?罗伯逊,社会学[M],商务印书馆,1990。
(80)赵耀辉,中国农村劳动力流动及教育在其中的作用——以四川省为基础的研究[J],经济研究,1997(2)。
(81)郑杭生,社会学概论新修[M],北京:中国人民出版社,1994。
(82)郑杭生,关于21世纪中国社会发展的几点展望[J],社会学研究,1997(2)。
(83)邹农俭,农民非农化的阶段、形态及其内部关系[J],江海学刊,1999(3)。
(84)汝信等主编,1998年:中国社会形势分析与预测[C],社会科学文献出版社,1998.76-78。
(85)朱力,中国民工潮[M],福建人民出版社,2002.165。
(86)朱农,离土还是离乡?——中国农村劳动力地域流动和职业流动的关系分析[J],世界经济文汇,2004(1)。
(87)张厚义,刘文璞,中国的私营经济与私营企业主[M],知识出版社,1995。
(88)周庆智能,中国县级行政结构及其运行[M],贵州人民出版社,2004。
(89)周怡,解读社会:文化与结构的路径[M],社会科学文献出版社,2004。
(90) Anthony Gddens , The Constitution of Society : Outline of the Theory of Structuration , Oxford : Polity. 1984.
(91)Bourdieu, Pierre. Cultural reproduction and social reproduction. In J. karabel, & A.H. Halsey (Eds.), Power and ideology in education. New York: Oxford University Press,1977.
(92) Bourdieu, Pierre :“The Forms of Capital.”, In Handbook Of Theory And Research For The Sociology Of Education, edited by John. G. Richardson . Westport, CT.: Greenwood Press,1986.
(93)Brown, D. J. . Schools with heart. Voluntarism and public education. Boulder, CO: Westview Press,1998.
(94)C. Write. White Collar: The American Middle classes . New York: Oxford University Press, 1951.
(95)Coleman, J. S. . Family and schools. Educational researcher, 1987.
(96) Coleman, J. S. . Family, school, and social capital. In T. Husen, & T. N. Postlethwaite(eds), International encyclopedia of education. Oxford: Pergamon Press,1994.
(97)Carl J. Friedrich , The Unique Character of Totalitarian society . In Totalitarian ,ed. by Carl J. Friedrich ,Cambridge : Harvard University Press. 1954.
(98)De Brauw,Alan,Huang,Jikun,Rozelle,Scott et al..The Evolution of China’s Rural Labor Markets During the Reforms[J].Journal of Comparative Economics,2002,(30).
(99)Granovetter, Mark :“The strength of weak ties”, In Marsden D.; Lin N. : (ed.) Social structure and Netword Analysis, London.1982. ( 100 ) Harold R. Kerbo , Social stratification and inequality: class conflict in historical and comparative perspective (second edition), New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc. 1991.
(101)Hare,D..Women's Economic Status in Rural China:Household Contributions to Male-Female Disparities in the wage-laber Market[J].World Development,1999,(6).
(102)Jean c. Oi , State and Peasant in Contemporary China : The Political Economy of Village Government , University of California Press .1989.
(103)Lin, Nan, and Yanjie Bian. Getting Ahead in Urban China. American Journal of Sociology,1991.
(104)Neil J·Smelser, Sociology (alternate education), New Jersey Prentice-Hall Inc. .1984.
(105)Portes, alejandro and sensen renner, Julia . enbeddedness and immigration : notes on the social determinants of economic action . American Journal of Sociology,1993.
(106) Peter M. Biau, ed. Approaches to the Study of Social Structure, New York: Free Press. 1975.
(107) Robert Wuthnow , Meaning and Moral Order : Explorations in Culture Analysis , Berkeley , CA :University of California Press . 1987.
(108)Stephen K·Sanderson, Macrosociology. an introduction to human society (second edition), New York HarperCollins Publishers Inc.. (109J Sehultz, T.P.&Tansel, A Measurement of returns to adult health; Morbidity Effects on Wage Rates in Cote d'Ivoire and Ghana, Yale Economic Growth Center Discussion Paper, 1992, 663,53
(110) Schultz, T. P.&Tansel, A. Wage and labor supply effects of illness in cote d’Ivoire and Ghana: instrumental variable estimates for days disabled [J].Journal of Development Economics, 1997,53(2):251-286.
(111) Schultz, T.W. The formation of human capital by education[J]. Journal of Political Economy, 1960, 68( 6): 571-83.
(112) Schultz, T.W. Investment in human capital[J].American Economic Review,1961, S1(1): 1-17.
(113) Scott, L.C., Smith, L.H.&Rungeling, B. Labor force participation in southern rural labor markets [J]. American Journal of Agricultural Economics,1977,59 (2):266-274.
(114) Shaw, R.P Canadian farm and nonfarm family incomes [J). American Journal of Agricultural Economics,1979, 61(4): 676-682.
(115) Shi, A.Q. The migration differential in education in rural China. Chinese Economists Society 2005 Annual Conference. International Symposium on Sustainable Economic Growth in China:Investing in Human Capital and Environment. Chongqing, 2005.
(116) Stern, S. Semiparametric estimates of the supply and demands effects of the disability on labor force participation[J]. Journal of Economics, 1996,71:49-70.
(117) Summer, D.A. Wage functions and occupational selection in a rural less developed country setting[J]. The Review of Economics and Statistics, 1981,63 (4):S 13-S 19.
(118)Summer, D.A. The off-farm labor supply of farmers american[J]. Journal of Agricultural Economics, 1982, 64(3):499-509.
(119) Talcott Parsons and Neil J Smelser, Economy and Society , New York: Free Press. 1956.
(120) Walder , Andrew G , Communist Neo-traditionalism : Work and Authority in Chinese Industry , Berkeley : University of California Press .1986.
(121) William Kornhauser, The Politics of Mass Society. Gencoe,Ⅲ. The Free Press. 1959.
(122) Yang, D.T. Education and off farm work [J].Economic Development and Cultural Change, 1997,45(3):613-632.
(123) Yang, D.T.&An, M.Y. Human capital, entrepreneurship, and farm household earnings[J].Journal of Development Economics, 2002,68(1):65一88, 6.
(124) Yao, Y. Rural industry and labor market integration in eastern China[J]. Journalof Development Economics,1999,59(2): 463-496.
(125) Zeng, T.&Goodwin, B.K. Chinese farm household crop production technical efficiency and off-farm labor supply: a stochastic frontier approach. Chinese Economists Society 2005 Annual Conference. International Symposium on Sustainable Economic Growth in China:Investing in Human Capital and Environment. Chongqing, 2005.
(126) Zhang, J.S. Does education pay in urban China? Estimating returns to education using Chinese twins. Human Capital Investment and Regional Economic Development International Conference. Hangzhou, 2005.
(127) Zhang, J. S.&Zhao, Y. H. Economic returns to schooling in China,1988一1999. World Bank Discussion Draft, 2002, presented at the 5th annual NBER-CCER conference, June 30July 2, Beijing, 2002. [EB/OL]. http://econ.pku.edu.cn/ccissr/resume/zhaoyaohui.htm,2006-02-12.
(128) Zhang, L.X., Huang, J.K.&Rozelle,S. Employment, emerging labor markets and the role of education in China[J].China Economic Review, 2002,13(2-3): 313-328.
(129) Zhao, W.&Zhou, X.G. Institutional transformation and returns to education in urban China: an empirical assessment,In The Future of Market Transition[M].edited by K. T. Leicht. Kidlington: Elsevier Science.2001:339-375.
(130) Zhao, Y H. Labor mobility and migration and returns to education in rural China[D]. Ph.D. Dissertation,University of Chicago, 1995.
(131) Zhao, Y H. Labor migration and earnings differences: the case of rural China[J]. Economic Development and Cultural Change, 1999,47(4):767-782.
2 [美]丹尼尔贝尔:《后工业社会的来临》,23页,商务印书馆,1986年。
3曹金波,杨成胜:《关于柴码村农民分化的研究》,《长沙铁道学院学报》,2003年第4期。
4王自亮:《变动与选择:农村社会阶层结构形成的诱因》,《浙江社会科学》,2003年第3期。
8谭明方:《农村社会结构与“三农”问题研究》,《社会科学研究》,2005年第5期。
9李腊生:《当代中国的阶层分化与利益整合》,《社会主义研究》,2004年第5期。
10李全生:《农村社会分层标准浅析》,《烟台大学学报(哲学社会科学版)》,2003年第2期。
11卢倩云:《当代中国农民阶层分化与现代化关系的社会学探析》,《广西师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版)》,2000年第S2期。
12邹农俭:《当代中国农村社会分层标准研究》,《南京师大学报(社会科学版)》,1999年第3期。
13杜丽红:《中国社会阶层结构变动的五大效应论析》,《四川行政学院学报》,2003年第5期。
14姚万禄:《现当代中国农村社会分化后果考察》,《甘肃政法成人教育学院学报》,2003年第4期。
15 [美]埃佛里特·M·罗吉斯、拉伯尔·J·柏德格著,王晓毅译:《乡村社会变迁》,浙江人民出版社,1988年版,第321页。
②[法]H·蒙德拉斯著,李培林译:《农民的终结》,中国社会科学出版社,1991年版,第8页。
16米格代尔著,李玉祺袁宁译,《农民、政治与革命》,中央编译出版社,1996年版,第15页。
(1)(美)阿尔蒙德,比较政治学:体系、过程和政策[M],上海译文出版社,1987。
(2)边燕杰,市场转型与社会分化与权利[M],三联书店,1997。
(3)曹金波,杨成胜,关于柴码村农民分化的研究[J],长沙铁道学院学报,2003(4)。
(4)陈会英,周衍平,赵瑞莹,分化动因对策——中国农民职业分化问题探析[J],农业现代化研究,1996(5)。
(5)陈宗胜,周云波,任国强,影响农村非农就业途径的主要因素研究——对天津市农村社会的实证分析[J],财经研究,2006(5)。
(6)蔡昉,中国流动人口问题[M],河南人民出版社,2000.6。
(7)陈光金,中国乡村现代化的回顾与前瞻[M],长沙:湖南出版社,1996。
(8)陈晏清,当代中国社会转型论[M],山西:山西教育出版社,1998。
(9)迪尔凯姆,社会分工论[M],北京:三联书店,2000。
(10)都阳,贫困地区农户参与非农工作的决定因素研究[J],农业技术经济,1999(4)。
(11)杜赞奇,文化、权利与国家:1900-1942年的华北农村[M],江苏人民出版社,1994。
(12)杜鹰,白南生,走出乡村—中国农村劳动力流动实证研究[M],经济科学出版社,1997。
(13)(美)E哈奇,人与文化的理论[M],哈尔滨:黑龙江教育出版社,1988。
(14)费孝通,城乡和边区发展的思考[M],天津人民出版社,1990。
(15)费孝通,乡土中国[A].费孝通选集[C].天津人民出版社,1988.88。
(16)凡勃伦,有闲阶级论[M],北京:商务印书馆,1983。
(17)范伟达,朱红生,多元化的社会学理论[M],沈阳:辽宁人民出版社,1989。
(18)格尔哈斯·伦斯基,权利与特权社会分层的理论[M],杭州:浙江人民出版社,1988。
(19)郭熙保,农业发展论[M],武汉大学出版社,1995。
(20)(美)格尔哈斯?伦斯基,权利与特权:社会分层理论[M],浙江人民出版社,1988。
(21)巩素萍,农民分化的必然趋势及政策引导[J],山西农经,2003(4)。
(22)胡士华,教育对我国农村劳动力流动影响研究[J],经济问题,2005(10)。
(23)黄润柏,试论壮族农民的职业分化——龙胜金竹寨壮族生活方式变迁个案研究之一[J],广西民族研究,2002(1)。
(24)何清涟,现代化的陷阱[M],北京:今日中国出版社,1998。
(25)哈贝马斯,轮重建历史唯物主义[M],郭官义[译],北京:社会科学文献出版社,2000。
(26)胡琼阁,对当前农村社会阶层分化的探析[J],兰州学刊,2005(2)。
(27)金太军,乡村关系与村民自治[M],广州:广州人民出版社,2002。
(28)贾春增,外国社会学史[M],北京:中国人民大学出版社,1989。
(29)金一虹,农村妇女职业分化研究[J],学海,1995(2)。
(30)韩梁,姜长云,农民就业模式分化和选择的影响因素分析[J],农业技术经济,1996(6)。
(31)鲁礼新,马昌河,鲁奇,水城县沙坡村农户经济行为调查研究[J],地理研究,2004(2)。
(32)陆学艺,当代中国农村和当代中国农民[M],北京:知识出版社,1991.45。
(33)李强,当代中国社会分层与流动[M],北京:中国经济出版社,1993。
(34)李强,转型时期的中国社会分层结构[M],哈尔滨:黑龙江人民出版社,2002。
(35)李培林,李强,孙立平等,中国社会分层[M],北京:社会科学文献出版社,2004版,第38页。
(36)刘豪兴,农村社会学[M],北京:中国人民大学出版社,2004年版,第217页。
(37)刘易斯等,社会学导论(中译本)[M],南开大学出版社,1990。
(38)林后春,当代中国农民阶级阶层分化研究综述[J],社会主义研究,1991(1)。
(39)林后春,八十年代中国农民阶层分化浅析[J],江汉论坛,1991(9)。
(40)林晓鸣,建国后农民阶级队伍演变及其发展趋势分析[J],社会主义研究,1990(1)。
(41)李卓鹏,当代中国的农民分化[J],教学与研究,1999(10)。
(42)卢福营,农民分化过程中的村治[M],广州:南方出版社,2000。
(43)陆学艺,改革中的农村与农民[M],中共中央党校出版社,1992。
(44)列宁,列宁全集[M],人民出版社,1958。
(45)陆学艺,当代中国社会阶层研究报告[M],社会科学出版社,2002。
(46)卢梭,社会契约论[M],北京:商务印书馆,1980。
(47)李银河,社会结构与社会分层[J],国外社会学,1987(2)。
(48)李正东,试论中国中产阶层:当前社会转型进程中社会结构整合的动态探索[J],广东社会科学,2001(2)。
(49)列宁,列宁选集第4卷[M],北京:人民出版社,1972。
(50)陆学艺,当代中国社会阶层研究报告[M],北京:社会科学文献出版社,2002。
(51)李强,关于中等收入层问题的研究[J],管理世界,1992(6)。
(52)李春玲,社会结构变迁中的城镇社会流动[J],北京:社会学研究,1997(5)。
(53)李培林,流动民工的社会网络与社会地位[J],北京:社会学研究,1996(6)。
(54)刘精明,教育与社会分层结构的变迁——关于中高级白领职业阶层的分析[J],北京:中国人民大学学报,2001(2)。
(55)迈克尔P托达罗,经济发展与第三世界[M],北京:中国经济出版社,1992:506。
(56)马克思和恩格斯选集:第一卷[M],人民出版社,1972。
(57)(澳)马尔科姆·沃特斯,现代社会学理论[M],杨善华等[译],北京:华夏出版社,2000。
(58)(美)丹尼尔?贝尔,资本主义文化矛盾[M],北京:三联书店,1989。
(59)乔纳森? H?特纳,现代西方社会学理论[M],天津人民出版社,1988。
(60)宋镇修,中国农民社会学[M],哈尔滨:黑龙江人民出版社,1989.124-129。
(61)舒尔茨,转变传统农业[M],商务印书馆,1987。
(62)孙立平,改革前后中国大陆国家、民间统治精英及民众间互动关系的演变[J],中国社会科学季刊(香港),2001.4。
(63)樊平,“恶人治村”的实质是盈利经纪,华中师范大学中国农村问题研究中心“中国农村村民委员会选举学术研讨会”论文,武汉:华中师范大学出版社,2000。
(64)宋林飞,现代社会学[M],上海人民出版社,1987。
(65)文军,当代中国农民外出就业动因的社会学分析[J],社会学,2002(3)。
(66)王春光,新生代农村流动人口的社会认同与城乡融合的关系,人口学与计划生育,2002
(5)。
(67)王汉生,改革以来中国农村的工业化与农村精英构成的变化[J],中国社会科学辑刊(香港),1994.秋季卷。
(68)韦伯,经济与社会[M],林荣远[译],北京:商务印书馆,1998。
(69)王小章,社会分层与社会秩序——一个理论的总数[J],浙江社会科学,2001(1)。
(70)王自亮,变动与选择:农村社会阶层结构形成的诱因[J],浙江社会科学,2003(3)。
(71)王铭铭,社会人类学与中国研究[M],北京:三联书店,1997。
(72)许欣欣,当代中国社会结构变迁与流动[M],北京:社会科学文献出版社,2000。
(73)徐勇,村干部的双重角色:代理人与当家人[J].二十一世纪(香港),1997.8。
(74)徐勇,中国农村村民自治[M],武汉:华中师范大学出版社,1997。
(75)杨金凤,张清霞,教育对农村劳动力外出就业及收入的影响——基于山西省的调查[J].高等农业教育,2005(12)。
(77)杨善华,家族政治和农村基层政治精英的选拔、角色定位和精英更替[J],社会学研究,1997.5。
(78)阎志民,中国现阶段阶级阶层研究[M],北京:中共中央党校出版社,2002。
(79)伊恩?罗伯逊,社会学[M],商务印书馆,1990。
(80)赵耀辉,中国农村劳动力流动及教育在其中的作用——以四川省为基础的研究[J],经济研究,1997(2)。
(81)郑杭生,社会学概论新修[M],北京:中国人民出版社,1994。
(82)郑杭生,关于21世纪中国社会发展的几点展望[J],社会学研究,1997(2)。
(83)邹农俭,农民非农化的阶段、形态及其内部关系[J],江海学刊,1999(3)。
(84)汝信等主编,1998年:中国社会形势分析与预测[C],社会科学文献出版社,1998.76-78。
(85)朱力,中国民工潮[M],福建人民出版社,2002.165。
(86)朱农,离土还是离乡?——中国农村劳动力地域流动和职业流动的关系分析[J],世界经济文汇,2004(1)。
(87)张厚义,刘文璞,中国的私营经济与私营企业主[M],知识出版社,1995。
(88)周庆智能,中国县级行政结构及其运行[M],贵州人民出版社,2004。
(89)周怡,解读社会:文化与结构的路径[M],社会科学文献出版社,2004。
(90) Anthony Gddens , The Constitution of Society : Outline of the Theory of Structuration , Oxford : Polity. 1984.
(91)Bourdieu, Pierre. Cultural reproduction and social reproduction. In J. karabel, & A.H. Halsey (Eds.), Power and ideology in education. New York: Oxford University Press,1977.
(92) Bourdieu, Pierre :“The Forms of Capital.”, In Handbook Of Theory And Research For The Sociology Of Education, edited by John. G. Richardson . Westport, CT.: Greenwood Press,1986.
(93)Brown, D. J. . Schools with heart. Voluntarism and public education. Boulder, CO: Westview Press,1998.
(94)C. Write. White Collar: The American Middle classes . New York: Oxford University Press, 1951.
(95)Coleman, J. S. . Family and schools. Educational researcher, 1987.
(96) Coleman, J. S. . Family, school, and social capital. In T. Husen, & T. N. Postlethwaite(eds), International encyclopedia of education. Oxford: Pergamon Press,1994.
(97)Carl J. Friedrich , The Unique Character of Totalitarian society . In Totalitarian ,ed. by Carl J. Friedrich ,Cambridge : Harvard University Press. 1954.
(98)De Brauw,Alan,Huang,Jikun,Rozelle,Scott et al..The Evolution of China’s Rural Labor Markets During the Reforms[J].Journal of Comparative Economics,2002,(30).
(99)Granovetter, Mark :“The strength of weak ties”, In Marsden D.; Lin N. : (ed.) Social structure and Netword Analysis, London.1982. ( 100 ) Harold R. Kerbo , Social stratification and inequality: class conflict in historical and comparative perspective (second edition), New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc. 1991.
(101)Hare,D..Women's Economic Status in Rural China:Household Contributions to Male-Female Disparities in the wage-laber Market[J].World Development,1999,(6).
(102)Jean c. Oi , State and Peasant in Contemporary China : The Political Economy of Village Government , University of California Press .1989.
(103)Lin, Nan, and Yanjie Bian. Getting Ahead in Urban China. American Journal of Sociology,1991.
(104)Neil J·Smelser, Sociology (alternate education), New Jersey Prentice-Hall Inc. .1984.
(105)Portes, alejandro and sensen renner, Julia . enbeddedness and immigration : notes on the social determinants of economic action . American Journal of Sociology,1993.
(106) Peter M. Biau, ed. Approaches to the Study of Social Structure, New York: Free Press. 1975.
(107) Robert Wuthnow , Meaning and Moral Order : Explorations in Culture Analysis , Berkeley , CA :University of California Press . 1987.
(108)Stephen K·Sanderson, Macrosociology. an introduction to human society (second edition), New York HarperCollins Publishers Inc.. (109J Sehultz, T.P.&Tansel, A Measurement of returns to adult health; Morbidity Effects on Wage Rates in Cote d'Ivoire and Ghana, Yale Economic Growth Center Discussion Paper, 1992, 663,53
(110) Schultz, T. P.&Tansel, A. Wage and labor supply effects of illness in cote d’Ivoire and Ghana: instrumental variable estimates for days disabled [J].Journal of Development Economics, 1997,53(2):251-286.
(111) Schultz, T.W. The formation of human capital by education[J]. Journal of Political Economy, 1960, 68( 6): 571-83.
(112) Schultz, T.W. Investment in human capital[J].American Economic Review,1961, S1(1): 1-17.
(113) Scott, L.C., Smith, L.H.&Rungeling, B. Labor force participation in southern rural labor markets [J]. American Journal of Agricultural Economics,1977,59 (2):266-274.
(114) Shaw, R.P Canadian farm and nonfarm family incomes [J). American Journal of Agricultural Economics,1979, 61(4): 676-682.
(115) Shi, A.Q. The migration differential in education in rural China. Chinese Economists Society 2005 Annual Conference. International Symposium on Sustainable Economic Growth in China:Investing in Human Capital and Environment. Chongqing, 2005.
(116) Stern, S. Semiparametric estimates of the supply and demands effects of the disability on labor force participation[J]. Journal of Economics, 1996,71:49-70.
(117) Summer, D.A. Wage functions and occupational selection in a rural less developed country setting[J]. The Review of Economics and Statistics, 1981,63 (4):S 13-S 19.
(118)Summer, D.A. The off-farm labor supply of farmers american[J]. Journal of Agricultural Economics, 1982, 64(3):499-509.
(119) Talcott Parsons and Neil J Smelser, Economy and Society , New York: Free Press. 1956.
(120) Walder , Andrew G , Communist Neo-traditionalism : Work and Authority in Chinese Industry , Berkeley : University of California Press .1986.
(121) William Kornhauser, The Politics of Mass Society. Gencoe,Ⅲ. The Free Press. 1959.
(122) Yang, D.T. Education and off farm work [J].Economic Development and Cultural Change, 1997,45(3):613-632.
(123) Yang, D.T.&An, M.Y. Human capital, entrepreneurship, and farm household earnings[J].Journal of Development Economics, 2002,68(1):65一88, 6.
(124) Yao, Y. Rural industry and labor market integration in eastern China[J]. Journalof Development Economics,1999,59(2): 463-496.
(125) Zeng, T.&Goodwin, B.K. Chinese farm household crop production technical efficiency and off-farm labor supply: a stochastic frontier approach. Chinese Economists Society 2005 Annual Conference. International Symposium on Sustainable Economic Growth in China:Investing in Human Capital and Environment. Chongqing, 2005.
(126) Zhang, J.S. Does education pay in urban China? Estimating returns to education using Chinese twins. Human Capital Investment and Regional Economic Development International Conference. Hangzhou, 2005.
(127) Zhang, J. S.&Zhao, Y. H. Economic returns to schooling in China,1988一1999. World Bank Discussion Draft, 2002, presented at the 5th annual NBER-CCER conference, June 30July 2, Beijing, 2002. [EB/OL]. http://econ.pku.edu.cn/ccissr/resume/zhaoyaohui.htm,2006-02-12.
(128) Zhang, L.X., Huang, J.K.&Rozelle,S. Employment, emerging labor markets and the role of education in China[J].China Economic Review, 2002,13(2-3): 313-328.
(129) Zhao, W.&Zhou, X.G. Institutional transformation and returns to education in urban China: an empirical assessment,In The Future of Market Transition[M].edited by K. T. Leicht. Kidlington: Elsevier Science.2001:339-375.
(130) Zhao, Y H. Labor mobility and migration and returns to education in rural China[D]. Ph.D. Dissertation,University of Chicago, 1995.
(131) Zhao, Y H. Labor migration and earnings differences: the case of rural China[J]. Economic Development and Cultural Change, 1999,47(4):767-782.