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唐五代宋初敦煌寺院会计制度研究
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摘要
敦煌文书自发现以来,受到国内和国际考古学、历史学以及文书所涉及的各学科领域研究者的高度关注。其中,敦煌寺院会计文书为研究唐五代宋初时期的社会经济文化生活提供了难得的历史资料和文献参考。中国的会计制度渊源流长,唐宋时代丰富的会计典籍代表着中国古代会计的世界领先地位,敦煌寺院会计文书的发现更是为这一地位提供了确凿的历史证据。敦煌会计文书的账目大都集中在唐五代宋初,正是单式簿记发展的重要时期,因此,研究敦煌寺院会计制度对探索我国单式簿记发展过程、分析古代的会计思想以及寺院非营利组织会计与财务管理制度等方面均有重要的理论价值和现实指导意义。
     以往的学者主要从历史的角度对敦煌寺院会计文书进行整理和研究,或根据敦煌会计文书的账目记录对当时的社会文化生活进行分析和考察,而鲜有从会计学的角度深入研究敦煌寺院会计制度形成发展过程与原因的研究成果。并且,敦煌寺院会计文书自发现以来,还没有人对这些二千多年前的账目进行系统整理和深入分析,这不仅是敦煌学的遗憾,也是会计学的缺失。
     本文首先系统整理了敦煌会计文书的类型,将其按现代会计账簿体系的要求进行了梳理,明确了当时的会计资料与现代账务系统的关系,更正了前人对部分文书类型的误解,为进一步研究敦煌寺院会计制度提供了严谨的文献依据。在此基础上,本文对敦煌寺院会计制度进行了全面而深入的分析,系统研究了敦煌寺院会计的记账要素、记账方法和账务系统,通过对寺院会计行为、会计要素、记账程序和账务系统的具体分析,进一步揭示出敦煌寺院会计文书中所蕴含的会计思想以及这些会计思想的形成对现代会计发展的作用和意义。
     本文重点研究了敦煌寺院会计文书的记账要素、记账方法和账务系统这三个方面的具体内容,并将其与现代会计制度的相关内容进行了比较。作为早期的单式簿记,敦煌寺院会计还没有形成具有抽象概括功能的记账符号,计量单位也以实物计量为主,会计核算期则与寺院僧官的职务轮换期一致,记账要素呈现出简单、直接的特点。而敦煌寺院的记账方法很特别,是介于三柱结账与四柱结账之间的五柱结账法。这种记账方法为唐五代宋初时期敦煌寺院所独有,且数量巨大,甚为普及。以此可以推断,唐五代宋初时期正是我国单式簿记由三柱结账法向四柱结账法的过渡时期,也是四柱结账法最终确立并形成的关键时期。凭证、账簿、报表是会计账务系统的核心和主要构成要素,敦煌寺院的凭证、账簿、报表呈现一体化的特点,相对凭证和报表,账簿的发展尤其是明细账显得最为突出,不仅分类明确,且要素齐全,与现代的明细账几无差异。会计思想的形成源于会计行为和会计意识的发展,敦煌寺院会计文书中的来去账目、应收账、结存账和借贷契约账等会计账簿中蕴含了早期的复式簿记思想、权责发生制思想、永续盘存思想和产权会计思想的萌芽,是现代会计思想起源和形成的历史证明。敦煌寺院文书的会计思想中所体现的宗教与世俗的盘结、宗教信仰与寺院非营利组织特征在精神品格方面的一致性,为现代宗教寺院非营利组织会计制度建设提供了很好的参考借鉴。
     本文在借鉴考古学和历史学领域对敦煌寺院会计文书掇合整理的基础上,第一次从会计学的角度对敦煌寺院的会计核算系统进行了全面分析与整理,揭示了五柱结账法对四柱结账法形成的重要意义,系统阐述了敦煌寺院会计账务系统,运用历史逻辑思维的方法,对敦煌寺院会计文书中蕴含的会计思想进行了分析与总结。本文的研究,不仅是会计史研究的新成果,也为敦煌学研究提供了的新视角和领域,对推动和拓展会计史研究的广度与深度,丰富会计学和敦煌学的研究成果,促进现代会计制度完善与发展具有重要的理论价值和深远的现实意义。
International and domestic researchers in the fields of archeology,history andothers involved have paid high attention to Dunhuang documents since it wasfound.Accounting documents of Dunhuang monasteries provide rarehistorical data and literature references for the study of socio-economic and culturallife during the late Tang,Five Dynasties and early Song periods. Accounting systemhas a long standing history in china,and the abundant accounting books and records inthe Tang and Song dynasties represent the world leading position that chineseaccounting had already taken in ancient times. In addition, the discovery of accountingdocuments in Dunhuang monasteries provides a solid historical evidence for thisposition. Studying the accounting documents in Dunhuang monasteries, we find thataccounts in Dunhuang monasteries mainly occurred in the period from late Tan to earlySong, when single-entry bookkeeping developed. Therefore, research on accountingsystem in Dunhuang monasteries has important theoretical value andpractical guidance significance for exploration to single-entry bookkeepingdevelopment process in china, analysis of ancient accounting thoughts and furtherstudy on accounting and financial management system of monasteries as non-profitorganizations.
     Previous scholars mainly studied accounting documents of Dunhuang monasteriesfrom the historical perspective, or analyzed and examined the prevailing social andcultural life according to accounts records of Dunhuang monasteries. There is fewresearch achievement of Dunhuang monasterie·s documents which study and analyzethe development process of Dunhuang monasteries accounting system and its formreasons from the accounting perspective.What's more, none has done systematicorganization and deep analysis on these accounts two thousand years ago sinceDuhuang accounting documents was found. And it is not only the regret of Dunhuangstudies, but also the loss to accounting studies.
     This paper firstly systematically compiled the types of Dunhuang accountingdocuments according to requirements of modern accounting books system, makingexplicit relationship between accounting data at that time and modern accountsystem,correcting misunderstandings on part types of accounting documents by theprevious researchers.The article makes corrections and provides rigorous literature for the further study. On the basis, the paper gives a comprehensive andin-depth argument about accounting system of Dunhuang monasteries, and analyzesaccounting elements, accounting methods and account system systematically. Byspecific analysis of accounting practice, accounting elements, bookkeeping procedureand account system in Dunhuang monasteries, it becomes easier to further reveal theaccounting thoughts of Dunhuang monasteries and the effects that these thoughts hadupon the development of modern accounting.
     Accounting elements, accounting methods and account system relationship arethe main aspects formed accounting system; thus, the paper focuses on the specificcontent of these aspects in accounting documents of Dunhuang monasteries andcompares with the relative content in modern accounting s ystem. As the earlysingle-entry booking, accounting of Dunhuang monasteries had not form accountingsymbols that had the function of abstract generalization, and practicality measurementwas used as the main measurement unit. Then at the time accounting period wasalways consistent with the rotation of monastery monks, and accounting elementsdeveloped simple and direct. When it came to bookkeeping method,Dunhuang monasteries used neither early three column settlement method, nor typicalfour column settlement method, but a more special method-five column settlementmethod which lied between three column settlement method and four columnsettlement method.The special method was unique in Dunhuang monasteries duringthe late Tang, Five dynasties and early Song, and was so popular that there was a largequantity of relative records in accounting documents. It could be inferred that theperiods from the late Tang,Five dynasties to early Song be the transition period whenthree column settlement method trended towards four column settlement method,andbe also the critical period when four column settlement method developed and finallyformed. As is known,accounting voucher,accounting books and accounting statementwere the core and main elements of accounting system. The above elements in theaccounting system of Dunhuang monasteries showed to be integrative.Compared withvoucher and statement, accounting books experienced a rapid development andespecially the detail account with clear classification and complete elements had nosignificant difference with modern detail account. The formation of accountingthoughts was originated from the development of accounting behavior and accountingawareness. Likewise, account books such as current account, receivable account,balance account and business contract account etc.existed in the Dunhuangaccounting documents of Dunhuang monasteries contained the thoughts of early double-entry bookkeeping,thoughts of accrual basis, thoughts of perpetual inventoryand thoughts of property rights accounting. And these accounting thoughts con tainedcould be considered as the historical proof of the origin and formation of modernaccounting thoughts. Accounting thoughts implied in Dunhuang Documents embodiedthe twine of religion and secular, the consistency of religious belief withcharacteristics of non profit organizations in temples in terms of spiritual character,providing good references for the construction of accounting system of non profitorganizations in modern religious temples.
     Based on achievements of textual research and interpretation on Dunhuangacco-unting documents in the fields of archaeology and history for reference, the paperprovides a comprehensive analysis and research on the accounting system of Dunhuang
     monasteries first from the perspective of accounting studies. It reveals thesignificance of five column settlement method in relation to the formation of fourcolumn settlement method, followed by a systematic exposition made of accountingtransaction system of Dunhuang monasteries. Using the historical logical thinkingmethod, the paper analyzes and summaries the accounting thoughts contained in theaccounting documents of Dunhuang monasteries. This research is a new achievementobtained in accounting history studies, and provides a new perspective and field forDunhuang Studies as well. It has important implications for theorizing accounting andleads to profound practical significance by contributed to expand the breadth and depthof accounting history studies, rich research achievements in the fields of bothaccounting history studies and Dunhuang studies, and finally promote the perfectionand development of modern accounting system.
引文
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