国际法对生物燃料问题的多维规制
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摘要
现代生物燃料是一种新能源产业,生物燃料问题是国际政策和国际法领域的新问题,生物燃料问题的有效治理是各国和国际社会面临的新挑战。本文从国际关系和国际法中“安全”概念和“安全化”理论出发,判定生物燃料问题已成为和非传统安全相关的全球公共问题;国际社会逐步认识到生物燃料问题带来的多种威胁,提出了采取紧急治理行动的要求。国家和私人市场主体目前产业行为的性质、地位说明在生物燃料问题治理上存在政府干预失灵和市场失灵。国际法理性选择工具性作用和利益重塑的建构性作用降低治理的国际合作成本,促使国家发展生物燃料产业所要实现的利益和人类可持续发展相统一。《联合国气候变化框架公约》和《生物多样性公约》缔约方大会,联合国粮农组织自愿准则,经济、社会和文化权利委员会一般评论,食物权特别报告员机制,WTO部长会议和公共论坛,这些具体领域的国际法工具不断澄清生物燃料问题同气候变化、生物多样性、粮食安全和经济发展的关系,明确国际法规制的范围、问题。现有的减排和保护生物多样性流失的国际义务、资金技术援助义务,尊重、保护、实现食物权义务的框架和WTO关税、补贴、技术壁垒规则,为生物燃料产业朝可持续方向发展提供了治理框架和规则体系。
Technology progress and industry escalation is the power to the development of society, and meanwhile it may bring the risk or even dangers of the sustainable development. Biofuel industry which induces many kinds of security problems has come down from the Green Altar, and become the global biofuel issue which is needed to evaluate immediately. Global development of biofuel industry is irreversible. States and international community recognize the biofuel issue has not been the problem which is needed to decide to keep on going or not, and become the crucial sustainable development issue which has to choose the appropriate instrument to govern. As a kind of governance instrument to new global challenges for states and international community, international law provides governance framework and rules system to control risks, prevent damages, clarify responsibilities and advance benefits by its special doctrines, regimes and different mechanisms. The core of this thesis is the governance of international law to the biofuel issue. The thesis firstly analyzes the facts of the biofuel issue, and secondly explores the necessity and possibility of the governance of international law to the biofuel issue, and investigates the particular the fields of governance of international law and the responses from the different international law mechanisms in these areas, and specifically illustrates the application of the rules of international law to the biofuel issue and the effects from this kind of application to sustainable development of global biofuel industry.
Chapter 1 identifies the essential attribute of the biofuel issue. The biofuel issue is the global common public problem and is the nontraditional security problem too. The concept of security in international relations and international law has been evolving, the series of problems induced by biofuel industry have been the nontraditional security category including energy, environment, society, economy securities. The international actors including states, international organizations and other non-state actors have responded the global threats from biofuel industry developing and generate the needs to take urgent actions. The category of security relative to the biofuel issue and the tendency of securitization explain the global public common problem attribute of the biofuel issue. This means states, individuals and the whole human beings have the common benefit on the governance of the biofuel issue. This kind of benefit is in extension of time and space and it means the indivisibility of effects. Therefore, to govern the biofuel issue needs the positive actions of all kinds of shareholders and the associated actions based on the cooperation in order to reverse the status quo of biofuel industry.
Chapter 2 is“double failure”and the calling of international law. Governments and private enterprises are the main participants and promoters of biofuel industry, and the key governors of the biofuel issue. From the market share and the level of development, huge transnational agriculture and petrol enterprises penetrate into the biofuel market, which forms industry concentration. This leads to the market failure and success of political objectives. United States and European Union apply the important state intervention, which has the significant effects in the governance of the biofuel issue. Based on the theory of state intervention, both of their biofuel institutions have the large scope, poor coordination and non cost-effective. These facts explain the current operation of governmental intervention cannot accomplish the political objectives, and they are lack of rationality, so they are the government failure. The fact of this kind of“double failure”badly needs effective cooperation internationally and globally in order to govern the biofuel issue. But the global public common problem attribute of the biofuel issue and the non-governmental international system lead that the coordinated actions of governance of the biofuel issue cannot turn out automatically. The instrumental function of rational choice of international system illustrates in the process of governance of the biofuel issue, international law should play a role as follows: through defining the law framework of action responsibility, international law promotes the expectation of participants each others’action; through avoiding duplicating the negotiation and increasing the connections between different topics, international law affects transaction costs; through providing action standards sufficient to evaluate the performance of other states and the public discussing forum, international law promotes information symmetry. The more remote effects of international law to the governance of the biofuel issue are the value standards and sustainable development doctrine which is evolved by the way responding the changes of international system. This affects the attribute of state benefits in biofuel industry. Benefits remodeling and rational choice is just the governance mode by which international law deals with the proliferation of global public common problems. This sufficiently explains applying international law to govern the biofuel issue is possible, inevitable and realistic.
The biofuel issue is relative to the many fields of international laws. Institutions and mechanisms of these fields of international law may become effective instruments to govern the biofuel issue. This reflects the multi-dimension of international law that relating the biofuel issue. Chapter 3, 4 and 5 illustrate the regulation to the biofuel issue from multi-dimensional international law.
Chapter 3 is the first aspect of international law regulating the biofuel issue. That is the mechanisms of United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and Convention on Biological Diversity provide the governance framework to the problems induced by the development of biofuel industry. That United States and European Union control the global development of biofuel industry has been brought the negative effects towards climate change and biodiversity. Biofuel inevitablely generates the negative effects to environment. The key point of this is whether the bad products can be taken place by the sustainable biofuel. Developed countries have no comparative advantages from the natural conditions perspective. But they have the advanced technologies and money which is badly needed by the developing countries having comparative advantages. States have sovereignty to develop own biofuel industry and freely decide to the kind of method. But this power is limited by UNFCCC and CBD. Climate change and biodiversity affected by the development of biofuel industry has been the“common concern of mankind”protected and monitored by UNFCCC and CBD. This defines that contracting parties must obey the obligations of reducing emission and protecting biodiversity based on the common but distinct responsibilities principle. The conventions provide not only general system of technology and finance, but also provide new evolving mechanism such as clean development mechanism which gives developing countries possessing comparative advantages at biofuel industry more chances; against conference of contracting parties’responses, this mechanism of conventions can be the method to explore special rules regulating the biofuel issue and the forum to evaluate the biofuel industry behaviors of different actors. The function of COP must form the pressure of changing ineffective industry behaviors to promote the sustainable development of biofuel.
Chapter 4 discusses the issue regulating biofuel-global food crisis by the core approach of the right to food. The explosion globally of biofuel industry becomes one of the main elements which lead to food crisis, intensifies the global hunger problem. The essence of biofuel-global food crisis is affecting the right to food of the fundaments of global food security through pushing food price, competing agricultural resources and intensifying the risk of food safety. Universal Declaration of Human Rights and International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights have identified the concept of the right to food, but the content of it, the obligations of state and other actors and the approach of realizing it are clarified and complemented by general comments of Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, the Rapporteur to the right to food and Guidelines of the right to food of FAO. These international governance instruments of the right to food having different functions because of attributes have responded the international law relative the right to food regulate the biofuel issue; regional organizations and NGOs also have different responses. The regulating framework of the right to food which is consisted of respect, protection and realization provides the behaviors standards of states in biofuel industry. The regulating framework of the right to food provides the quasi-judicial remedy approach to avoid the obligations of the right to food based on the causality of biofuel-global food security.
The content of chapter 5 is the approach to the governance of the biofuel issue by which promote to the liberalization of sustainable biofuel trade in order to force the unsustainable products out of the market. That the comparative advantages of supply and the demands of sustainable biofuel in the future determines the huge potential of biofuel. The tendency of global biofuel industry can be irreversible. International trade system which takes WTO as the core promotes effective allocation of biofuel industry resources globally by international competition. Therefore that WTO regulates the biofuel issue is the key of effective governance of the biofuel issue, and achieving to sustainable development. But the institutions and systems which are applied by OECD countries in order to support unsustainable biofuel limit the liberalization of sustainable biofuel trade badly. They are tariff measure which is consisted of high tariff, tariff escalation and tariff quota, subsidies measure and the technical barrier in the form of sustainable certification system. Tariff reduction is the foundation of WTO. The effective operation of WTO tariff reduction system depends on HS system of world customs organization. The fact biofuel has no unified category in HS system prevents reducing tariff of biofuel. Amending HS, achieving new special biofuel agreement and unilateral measure based on transparency principle of WTO are the alternative approaches. The status of subsidies measure in national biofuel system determines the key point of regulation of WTO to the biofuel issue is application subsidies and countervailing rules. The four types of biofuel subsidies used by producers generally may apply different the subsidy disciplines in Agreement on Subsidies and Countervailing Measures in Agreement on Agriculture. To the kinds of challenges inducing by the current development of biofuel industry, international organizations, NGOs, transnational networks and developing countries make or have finished the different certification systems of sustainable biofuel. This new case in process of the governance of the biofuel issue bring new chance to the sustainable development of biofuel industry, on the other hand it may become the genuine obstacles of global uses of sustainable biofuel. The sustainable certification system is the PPMs issue in WTO. WTO should function as safe valve balancing the negative and positive of certification system, that is to control of the risk of preventing the trade liberalization of sustainable biofuel and acknowledge the ones in order to protect global environment and obey the obligations of stats’right to food.
The conclusive remarks of the thesis point out that biofuel is the new energy industry. The discussions about the attribute, scope and governance instruments of the biofuel issue just rise of states and international community. Against this situation, the research on governance of international law to the biofuel issue in the thesis is some kind of framework and tentative. The factual effects of the regulation of international law will be clarified in the process of more demands from international actors of responses. Special rules system of biofuel and governance framework can also form, establish and be applied widely, thus it gives due contributes to the sustainable development of global biofuel industry.
Technology progress and industry escalation is the power to the development of society, and meanwhile it may bring the risk or even dangers of the sustainable development. Biofuel industry which induces many kinds of security problems has come down from the Green Altar, and become the global biofuel issue which is needed to evaluate immediately. Global development of biofuel industry is irreversible. States and international community recognize the biofuel issue has not been the problem which is needed to decide to keep on going or not, and become the crucial sustainable development issue which has to choose the appropriate instrument to govern. As a kind of governance instrument to new global challenges for states and international community, international law provides governance framework and rules system to control risks, prevent damages, clarify responsibilities and advance benefits by its special doctrines, regimes and different mechanisms. The core of this thesis is the governance of international law to the biofuel issue. The thesis firstly analyzes the facts of the biofuel issue, and secondly explores the necessity and possibility of the governance of international law to the biofuel issue, and investigates the particular the fields of governance of international law and the responses from the different international law mechanisms in these areas, and specifically illustrates the application of the rules of international law to the biofuel issue and the effects from this kind of application to sustainable development of global biofuel industry.
Chapter 1 identifies the essential attribute of the biofuel issue. The biofuel issue is the global common public problem and is the nontraditional security problem too. The concept of security in international relations and international law has been evolving, the series of problems induced by biofuel industry have been the nontraditional security category including energy, environment, society, economy securities. The international actors including states, international organizations and other non-state actors have responded the global threats from biofuel industry developing and generate the needs to take urgent actions. The category of security relative to the biofuel issue and the tendency of securitization explain the global public common problem attribute of the biofuel issue. This means states, individuals and the whole human beings have the common benefit on the governance of the biofuel issue. This kind of benefit is in extension of time and space and it means the indivisibility of effects. Therefore, to govern the biofuel issue needs the positive actions of all kinds of shareholders and the associated actions based on the cooperation in order to reverse the status quo of biofuel industry.
Chapter 2 is“double failure”and the calling of international law. Governments and private enterprises are the main participants and promoters of biofuel industry, and the key governors of the biofuel issue. From the market share and the level of development, huge transnational agriculture and petrol enterprises penetrate into the biofuel market, which forms industry concentration. This leads to the market failure and success of political objectives. United States and European Union apply the important state intervention, which has the significant effects in the governance of the biofuel issue. Based on the theory of state intervention, both of their biofuel institutions have the large scope, poor coordination and non cost-effective. These facts explain the current operation of governmental intervention cannot accomplish the political objectives, and they are lack of rationality, so they are the government failure. The fact of this kind of“double failure”badly needs effective cooperation internationally and globally in order to govern the biofuel issue. But the global public common problem attribute of the biofuel issue and the non-governmental international system lead that the coordinated actions of governance of the biofuel issue cannot turn out automatically. The instrumental function of rational choice of international system illustrates in the process of governance of the biofuel issue, international law should play a role as follows: through defining the law framework of action responsibility, international law promotes the expectation of participants each others’action; through avoiding duplicating the negotiation and increasing the connections between different topics, international law affects transaction costs; through providing action standards sufficient to evaluate the performance of other states and the public discussing forum, international law promotes information symmetry. The more remote effects of international law to the governance of the biofuel issue are the value standards and sustainable development doctrine which is evolved by the way responding the changes of international system. This affects the attribute of state benefits in biofuel industry. Benefits remodeling and rational choice is just the governance mode by which international law deals with the proliferation of global public common problems. This sufficiently explains applying international law to govern the biofuel issue is possible, inevitable and realistic.
The biofuel issue is relative to the many fields of international laws. Institutions and mechanisms of these fields of international law may become effective instruments to govern the biofuel issue. This reflects the multi-dimension of international law that relating the biofuel issue. Chapter 3, 4 and 5 illustrate the regulation to the biofuel issue from multi-dimensional international law.
Chapter 3 is the first aspect of international law regulating the biofuel issue. That is the mechanisms of United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and Convention on Biological Diversity provide the governance framework to the problems induced by the development of biofuel industry. That United States and European Union control the global development of biofuel industry has been brought the negative effects towards climate change and biodiversity. Biofuel inevitablely generates the negative effects to environment. The key point of this is whether the bad products can be taken place by the sustainable biofuel. Developed countries have no comparative advantages from the natural conditions perspective. But they have the advanced technologies and money which is badly needed by the developing countries having comparative advantages. States have sovereignty to develop own biofuel industry and freely decide to the kind of method. But this power is limited by UNFCCC and CBD. Climate change and biodiversity affected by the development of biofuel industry has been the“common concern of mankind”protected and monitored by UNFCCC and CBD. This defines that contracting parties must obey the obligations of reducing emission and protecting biodiversity based on the common but distinct responsibilities principle. The conventions provide not only general system of technology and finance, but also provide new evolving mechanism such as clean development mechanism which gives developing countries possessing comparative advantages at biofuel industry more chances; against conference of contracting parties’responses, this mechanism of conventions can be the method to explore special rules regulating the biofuel issue and the forum to evaluate the biofuel industry behaviors of different actors. The function of COP must form the pressure of changing ineffective industry behaviors to promote the sustainable development of biofuel.
Chapter 4 discusses the issue regulating biofuel-global food crisis by the core approach of the right to food. The explosion globally of biofuel industry becomes one of the main elements which lead to food crisis, intensifies the global hunger problem. The essence of biofuel-global food crisis is affecting the right to food of the fundaments of global food security through pushing food price, competing agricultural resources and intensifying the risk of food safety. Universal Declaration of Human Rights and International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights have identified the concept of the right to food, but the content of it, the obligations of state and other actors and the approach of realizing it are clarified and complemented by general comments of Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, the Rapporteur to the right to food and Guidelines of the right to food of FAO. These international governance instruments of the right to food having different functions because of attributes have responded the international law relative the right to food regulate the biofuel issue; regional organizations and NGOs also have different responses. The regulating framework of the right to food which is consisted of respect, protection and realization provides the behaviors standards of states in biofuel industry. The regulating framework of the right to food provides the quasi-judicial remedy approach to avoid the obligations of the right to food based on the causality of biofuel-global food security.
The content of chapter 5 is the approach to the governance of the biofuel issue by which promote to the liberalization of sustainable biofuel trade in order to force the unsustainable products out of the market. That the comparative advantages of supply and the demands of sustainable biofuel in the future determines the huge potential of biofuel. The tendency of global biofuel industry can be irreversible. International trade system which takes WTO as the core promotes effective allocation of biofuel industry resources globally by international competition. Therefore that WTO regulates the biofuel issue is the key of effective governance of the biofuel issue, and achieving to sustainable development. But the institutions and systems which are applied by OECD countries in order to support unsustainable biofuel limit the liberalization of sustainable biofuel trade badly. They are tariff measure which is consisted of high tariff, tariff escalation and tariff quota, subsidies measure and the technical barrier in the form of sustainable certification system. Tariff reduction is the foundation of WTO. The effective operation of WTO tariff reduction system depends on HS system of world customs organization. The fact biofuel has no unified category in HS system prevents reducing tariff of biofuel. Amending HS, achieving new special biofuel agreement and unilateral measure based on transparency principle of WTO are the alternative approaches. The status of subsidies measure in national biofuel system determines the key point of regulation of WTO to the biofuel issue is application subsidies and countervailing rules. The four types of biofuel subsidies used by producers generally may apply different the subsidy disciplines in Agreement on Subsidies and Countervailing Measures in Agreement on Agriculture. To the kinds of challenges inducing by the current development of biofuel industry, international organizations, NGOs, transnational networks and developing countries make or have finished the different certification systems of sustainable biofuel. This new case in process of the governance of the biofuel issue bring new chance to the sustainable development of biofuel industry, on the other hand it may become the genuine obstacles of global uses of sustainable biofuel. The sustainable certification system is the PPMs issue in WTO. WTO should function as safe valve balancing the negative and positive of certification system, that is to control of the risk of preventing the trade liberalization of sustainable biofuel and acknowledge the ones in order to protect global environment and obey the obligations of stats’right to food.
The conclusive remarks of the thesis point out that biofuel is the new energy industry. The discussions about the attribute, scope and governance instruments of the biofuel issue just rise of states and international community. Against this situation, the research on governance of international law to the biofuel issue in the thesis is some kind of framework and tentative. The factual effects of the regulation of international law will be clarified in the process of more demands from international actors of responses. Special rules system of biofuel and governance framework can also form, establish and be applied widely, thus it gives due contributes to the sustainable development of global biofuel industry.
引文
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①史济春、曹湘洪:《生物燃料与可持续发展》,中国石化出版社2007年版,第2页。
①[英]霍恩比:《牛津高阶英汉双解词典》(第四版增补本),李北达译,商务印书馆2002年版,第1357页。
②中国社会科学院语言研究所词典编辑室:《现代汉语词典》,商务印书馆1994年版,第6页。
①秦亚青:《译者前言》,载[美]彼得·卡赞斯坦、罗伯特·基欧汉、斯蒂芬·克拉斯纳编:《世界政治理论的探索与争鸣》,秦亚青、苏长和、门洪华等译,上海人民出版社2006版,第14-15页。
②Barry Buzan, People, State and Fear: An Agenda for International Security Studies in the Post-Cold War Era, Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1991. p364.
③Ibid, p19.
①Ken Booth, Security and Emancipation, Review of International Studies, 1991(17), p320.
②“安全困境”是国际关系文献中最为重要的概念之一,这一概念由约翰·赫兹于1950年首次提出,含义是为了获得安全各国力图获取军事上的优势以改善自己的安全状态,但由于军备竞赛是互动无止境的,一国的军事优势很快被其它国家同样的扩军努力所打破,因此绝对的安全是不可能获得的,各国陷入一种无法解脱的困境之中。转引自李学保:《全球化进程中的国际安全合作:理论证明与实践探索》,华中师范大学2006博士学位论文,第50页。
③Ken Booth, Security and Emancipation, Review of International Studies, 1991(17), p317.
④最早使用“非传统安全”概念的著作是1998年保罗·斯塔尔主编的《新安全议程:一份全球调查》。国内学术界和媒体是在“911事件”后开始使用“非传统安全”一词的。参见傅勇:《非传统安全研究与中国》,复旦大学2005年博士学位论文,第26页。
⑤刘志云:《现代国际关系理论视野下的国际法》,法律出版社2006年版,第1页。
①[美]路易斯·亨金著:《国际法:政治与价值》,张乃根等译,中国政法大学出版社2005年版,第168页。
②同上,第256页。
③何志鹏:《人权国际化基本理论研究》,吉林大学2004年博士学位论文,第84页。以及[美]路易斯·亨金著:《国际法:政治与价值》,张乃根等译,中国政法大学出版社2005年版,第261页。
①《只有一个地球》这份报告是联合国委托一个来自58个国家,152位成员组成的一个委员会为斯德哥尔摩人类环境会议准备的一份非官方报告。
②联合国:《人类环境宣言》,载周洪钧等编:《国际公约与惯例(国际公法卷)》,法律出版社1988年版,第309-313页。
①[英]巴瑞·布赞、[丹麦]奥利·维夫、迪·怀尔德:《新安全论》,朱宁译,浙江人民出版社2003年版,第32-36页。
②同上,第36页。
③丁一:《生物质液体燃料对我国石油安全的贡献》,河南农业大学2007年博士学位论文,第4页。
④以石油为例,分布集中体现在石油主要分布在中东、俄罗斯——中亚、南美、北非等4个地区,而主要消费地区和缺口在北美、缺口最大的亚洲和大洋洲。同上,第9-11页。
⑤人类目前已经经历的三次石油危机分别为:由于欧佩克组织的价格控制以及第四次中东战争促发的1973年石油危机,1978年伊朗的政权更迭和1980年的两伊战争促发了1980年的第二次石油危机,1990年伊拉克入侵科威特促使1990年第三次石油危机爆发,从对世界经济影响的程度而言在没有石油危机国际合作机制的情况下爆发的第一次石油危机对全球经济尤其是发达国家影响最为巨大。
⑥任娜:《能源安全与当代大国关系——以中日关系为例》,山东大学2007年博士学位论文,第34页。
①石元春、李十中:《生物燃料良机莫失,走出观望谋大局》,2009-01-04,http://news.xinhuanet.com/energy/2009-01/04/content_10600696_1.htm,2009-02-10.
②任娜:《能源安全与当代大国关系——以中日关系为例》,山东大学2007年博士学位论文,第23页。以及丁一:《生物质液体燃料对我国石油安全的贡献》,河南农业大学2007年博士学位论文,第3、4页。
③ICTSD, Biofuel Production, Trade and Sustainable Development, Geneva: ICTSD, 2008, p45, http//:www.ictsd.net, 2009-02-02.
①ICTSD, Biofuel Production, Trade and Sustainable Development, Geneva: ICTSD, 2008, pp.58-59, http//:www.ictsd.net, 2009-02-02.
②苏长和:《全球公共问题与国际合作:一种制度的分析》,上海人民出版社2009年版,第1页。
①苏长和:《全球公共问题与国际合作:一种制度的分析》,上海人民出版社2009年版,第7页。
①[英]亚当·斯密:《国富论(下卷)》,北京商务印书馆1988年版,第29页。
②对于欧美生物燃料产业对气候变化和农民利益等方面的影响在论文第三、四、五章有具体论述。
①苏长和:《全球公共问题与国际合作:一种制度的分析》,上海人民出版社2009年版,第95-96页。
①Robert O.Keohane, International Institutions and State Power: Essays in International Relations Theory, 2nd ed, Boulder: Westview, 1989, p3.
②[美]罗伯特·基欧汉、约瑟夫·奈:《权力与相互依赖》(第3版),门洪华译,北京大学出版社2002年版,第321页。
③[美]乔·史蒂文斯:《集体选择经济学》,杨晓维等译,上海三联书店、上海人民出版社1999年版,第89-92页。
④[美]罗伯特·基欧汉:《霸权之后:世界政治经济中的合作与纷争》,苏长和等译,上海世纪出版集团2006年版,第83页。
①[美]罗伯特·基欧汉:《霸权之后:世界政治经济中的合作与纷争》,苏长和等译,上海世纪出版集团2006年版,第90页。
②同上,第91-92页。
③同上,第95页。
①转引自李钢:《西方国际制度理论探析》,《世界经济与政治》,2000年第2期,第26页。
②[美]熊价(Hsiung,.c.):《无政府状态与世界秩序》,余逊达、张铁军译,浙江人民出版社2001年版,第37页。
③[美]路易斯·亨金著:《国际法:政治与价值》,张乃根等译,中国政法大学出版社2005年版,第400-401页。
①对于“国家理论”一般认为有韦伯派的组织行为体理论、多元主义派的社会中心理论以及新马克思主义结构功能理论。这三种国家理论参见吴惕安、俞可平编:《当代西方国家理论评析》,陕西人民出版社1999年版,第6-9页。
②李少军:《论国家利益》,《世界经济与政治》2003年第1期,第4页。
③方长平:《国家利益的建构主义分析》,当代世界出版社2002年版,第99-100页。
①何志鹏:《国家观念的重塑与国际法治的可能》,《吉林大学社会科学学报》2009年第4期,第17页。
①转引自Mostafa K. Tolba, The Implicationas of the“Common Concern of Mankind”Concept on Global Environmental Issues, Revista IIDH, Vol.13,1990, p244.
②Ibid.
①UNFCCC第1条规定了“气候变化”的定义,指人类的行为,既包括直接又包括间接行为改变地球大气的组成而引起气候发生变化,但排除在类似时期内所观测的自然变异。
②转引自龚向前:《气候变化背景下能源法的变革》,中国民主法制出版社2008年版,第5页。
③国际能源署:《世界能源展望2007:中国选萃》,国际能源署2007年版,第62页。
④转引自UN, Sustainable Bioenergy: A Framework for Decision Makers, 2007, p48, http//:www.un.org/un-energy/pdf/,2009-03-02.
①FAO, The State of Food and Agriculture 2008-Biofuels: Prospects, Risks and Opportunities, Rome: FAO, 2008, p16.
②Annie Dufey, Biofuels Production, Trade and Sustainable Development: Emerging Issues, London: IIED, 2006, p40.
③转引自Annie Dufey. Biofuels Production, Trade and Sustainable Development: Emerging Issues, London: IIED, 2006, p40.以及Worldwatch Institute, Biofuels for Transportation: Global Potential and Implications for Sustainable Agriculture and Energy in the 21st Century, 2006, http://www.infobrazil.com/Conteudo/Front_Page/Opinion/Conteudo.asp?ID_Noticias=972&I D_Area=2&ID_Grupo=9, 2009-03-01.
④IEA, 2004‘Biofuels for Transport an International Perspective, Paris: IEA, 2004, p30.
⑤Ibid.
⑥FAO, The State of Food and Agriculture 2008-Biofuels: Prospects, Risks and Opportunities, Rome: FAO, 2008, p15.
①FAO, The State of Food and Agriculture 2008-Biofuels: Prospects, Risks and Opportunities, Rome: FAO, 2008, p55.
②Ibid, p56.
③Ibid, p57.
④Ibid, p55.Document 01/08,London: RS.以及Sarchinger, T. The Impacts of Biofuels on Greenhouse Gases: How Land Use Change Alters the Equation. Policy Brief, The German Marshall Fund of the United States, 2008.
①FAO,The State of Food and Agriculture 2008-Biofuels: Prospects, Risks and Opportunities, Rome: FAO Press, 2008, p60.
②Ibid, p62.
①《CBD/COP9生物燃料对生物多样性的潜在影响——由科咨机构第Ⅻ/17号建议产生的事项——执行秘书说明》,http://www.cbd.int, 2009-03-05。
①[英]帕特莎·波尼、埃伦·波义尔:《国际法与环境》,那力等译,高等教育出版社2007年版,第95页。
①《生物安全议定书》第12条的规定。
②《生物安全议定书》第15和16条以及附件3关于风险评估的规定。
③《生物安全议定书》第17条的规定。
④《生物安全议定书》第18条的规定。
⑤《生物安全议定书》第20条的规定。
⑥《COP5第Ⅵ/23号决议》,http://www.cbd.int, 2009-03-10。
①王曦主编/译:《联合国环境规划署环境法教程》,法律出版社2002年版,第192页。
②《气候变化框架公约》第21条第3款和《生物多样性公约》第39条。
①《气候变化框架公约》第11条第3款、《京都议定书》第11条第2款和《生物多样性公约》第20条第2款、第21条第1款。
②《哥本哈根协定》第8段,http://unfccc.int/files/meetings/cop_15/application/pdf/cop15_cph_auv.pdf,2009-03-11。
③《CBD/COP9第9/31号决议——资金来源和资金机制以及资金机制指引》,http://www.cbd.int,2009-03-11。
④《气候变化框架公约》第4条第7款和《生物多样性公约》第20条第4款。
①朱谦:《全球温室气体减排的清洁发展机制研究——以行政许可为中心》,苏州大学2006年博士学位论文,第101-107。
①CDM-Executive Board, Approved Consolidated Baseline and Monitoring Methodology ACM0017, http://cdm.unfccc.int/goto/MPappmeth, 2009-12-01.
②FirstClimate, First Climate Receives Approval for New CDM Methodology and Opens Up Market for Sustainable Biofuel Projects, http://www.firstclimate.com/en/company.html,2009-12-01.
①FAO,More People than Ever are Victims of Hunger, 2009-09-04, http://www.fao.org/news/story/en/item/20568/icode/, 2009-10-11.
②根据FAO《2005年世界粮食不安全状况》的统计每年有600万儿童直接或间接由于营养不良而死亡,也就是每5秒钟就有一个孩子死于饥饿。参见世界粮农组织:《2005年世界粮食不安全状况消除世界饥饿——实现<千年发展目标>的关键》,世界粮农组织2005版,第20页。
①梅方权:《关于食物安全保障概念的发展分析》,《中国食物与营养》2002年第5期,第5页。
②世界粮农组织:《2009世界粮食不安全状况经济危机——影响及获得的经验教训》,世界粮农组织2009版,第44页。
③同上,第45页。
①林沈节:《食物权及其解释》,《太平洋学报》2009年第9期,第61页,注释31。以及Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, General Comment12, E/C.12/1999/5, para. 3。
②Ibid, para. 4.
③Ibid, para. 5.
④联合国大会在2006年5月15日的联合国大会做出决定成立新的人权理事会(The Human Rights Council, HRC)代替上述人权委员会,HRC直接向联合国大会负责,向联大报告。Right to Food, Boston: Nijhoff Publishers, 1984, p167.
①转引自Christophe Golay, The Right to Food and Access to Justice: Examples at the National, Regional and International Levels, Rome: FAO, 2009, p13.
②Jean Ziegler, Interim Report by the UN Special Rapporteur on the Right to Food by Jean Ziegler( UN report A/62/289) , New York: United Nations, 2007, para. 2.
③世界粮农组织:《2009世界粮食不安全状况经济危机——影响及获得的经验教训》,罗马:世界粮农组织2009版,第4页。
④张勇:《粮食危机可能卷土重来》,《世界知识》2009年第10期,第51页。道德和科技四个角度探讨如何应对粮食危机,2009-04-07, http://news.xinhuanet.com/world/2009-04/07/content_11141981.htm,2009-10-11。
①David Mitchell, A Note on Rising Food Prices, 2008-07-10, http://image.guardian.co.uk/sys-files/environment/documents/2008/07/10/biofuels.pdf, 2009-10-11.
②转引自Jean Ziegler, Interim Report by the UN Special Rapporteur on the Right to Food by Jean Ziegler( UN report A/62/289), New York: United Nations, 2007, para. 12.
③海外投资和生物燃料产业集中的问题分别在第1章和第2章中进行了论述,可参见本文第9页和第48页。
①Jean Ziegler, Interim Report by the UN Special Rapporteur on the Right to Food by Jean Ziegler( UN report A/62/289) , New York: General Assembly, 2007, para.13.
②转引自森林:《富国在穷国买地种粮专家齐指“新殖民主义”》,《中国贸易报》2009-7-23(H04)。
①Jean Ziegler, Final Report by the UN Special Rapporteur on the Right to Food by Jean Ziegler( A/HRC/7/5.10 ), New York: General Assembly, 2008, para.17.
②FAO, The State of Food and Agriculture 2008-Biofuels: Prospects, Risks and Opportunities, Rome: FAO, 2008, p66.
③Asbj?rn Eide, The Right to Food and the Impact of Liquid Biofuels(Agrofuels), Rome: FAO, 2008, p13.
④转引自Jean Ziegler, Interim Report by the UN Special Rapporteur on the Right to Food by Jean Ziegler( UN report A/62/289), New York: General Assembly, 2007, para.12.
①Asbj?rn Eide, The Right to Food and the Impact of Liquid Biofuels(Agrofuels), Rome: FAO, 2008, p17.
①Jean Ziegler, Interim Report by the UN Special Rapporteur on the Right to Food by Jean Ziegler( UNreport A/62/289) , New York: General Assembly, 2007, para. 2.
①一半以上的非洲干旱地区都适于麻疯树的生长,不仅可以生产生物燃料还能扭转土地退化和沙化的状况。Jean Ziegler, Interim Report by the UN Special Rapporteur on the Right to Food by Jean Ziegler( UN report A/62/289) , New York: General Assembly, 2007, para. 15.
②Jean Ziegler, Interim Report by the UN Special Rapporteur on the Right to Food by Jean Ziegler( UN report A/62/289) , New York: General Assembly, 2007, para. 15.
③食物权特别报告员不仅要向联大递交年度报告,同时也须向人权理事会递交报告。
④Jean Ziegler, Final Report by the UN Special Rapporteur on the Right to Food by Jean Ziegler( A/HRC/7/5), New York: General Assembly, 2008, para. 22-24.
⑤HRC第7次特别会议决议案第3段,A/HRC/S-7/2.p.4.
⑥FAO进行的与此相关的活动许多都是在世界粮食计划署的支持下完成的。
⑦FAO, High-Level Conferences on World Food Security and Global Challenges, Thirty-fourth Session, Rome: FAO, 17-24 Novermber 2007, C2007/INF/22.
①联合国全球粮食危机高级别工作队:《全面行动计划》,联合国2008年,第31页。
①Alston, P, The Right to Food, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1984, p.167.
②Committee on Economic , Social and Cultural Rights, General Comment12, E/C.12/1999/5 , para.14,
①FAO, Report of the World Food Summit: Appendix, Rome: FAO, 1997.
①Committee on Economic , Social and Cultural Rights, General Comment12, E/C.12/1999/5, para.18.
②Committee on Economic , Social and Cultural Rights.General Comment12, E/C.12/1999/5, para.9.
③Ibid, para.17.
④A. Eide, The Right to Adequate Food and to be Free from Hunger Updated Study on the Right to Food, (28 June 1999), Commission on Human Right,E/CN.4/Sub.2/1999/12.
①Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, General Comment12, E/C.12/1999/5, para.15以及《食物权自愿准则》引言部分。
②Jean Ziegler, The Right to Food. Report by the Special Rapporteur for the Right to Food, 16 March 2006, Commission on Human Rights, Doc.U.N. E/CN.4/2006/44, para. 22.
③Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, General Comment12, E/C.12/1999/5, para.15.
④Ibid以及《食物权准则》准则14。
⑤FAO, Safety Nets and the Right to Food, Rome: FAO, 2006, pp.141-151.
⑥Ibid, pp. 5-24.
①万鄂湘、毛俊响:《经济、社会和文化权利保护领域的重大突破<经济、社会和文化权利国际公约任择议定书草案>述评》,《法律适用》2008年第11期,第32页。
①Masami Kojima, Donald Mitchell, William Ward, Considering Trade Policies for Liquid Biofuels, Washington, DC: World Bank, 2007, p77.
②Ibid, p.78.以及Mahesh Sugathan. Enhancing Market Access for Biofuels: What Role for Environmental Goods Negotiations?, Trade& Environment Review, 2008, 2(4), p8.
③Mahesh Sugathan. Enhancing Market Access for Biofuels: What Role for Environmental Goods Negotiations?, Trade& Environment Review, 2008, 2(4), p8以及WTO, 2007 WTO Public Forum“How Can the WTO Help Harness Globalization?”, Geneva: WTO, 2008, p143, http://www.wto.org, 2009-10-01.
④在WTO官方网站关于WTO应对气候变化的挑战做出的行动专门提到了生物燃料贸易的增长问题, http://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/envir_e/climate_challenge_e.htm#climate, 2010-02-04.
①WTO, 2007 WTO Public Forum“How Can the WTO Help Harness Globalization?”, Geneva: WTO, 2008, pp.255-256, http://www.wto.org, 2009-10-01.
②Ibid, p309.
③Isabelle Van Damme, Eighth Annual WTO Conference: an Overview, Journal of International Economic Law, 2009, 12, pp.175-193.
④WTO, UNEP, Trade and Climate Change, WTO-UNEP Report, Geneva: WTO, 2009, p123, http//:www.wto.org, 2009-10-01.
⑤WTO, Activities of the WTO and the Challenge of Climate Change, http://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/envir_e/climate_challenge_e.htm#climate, 2009-10-01.
①转引自Annie Dufey, Biofuels Production, Trade and Sustainable Development: Emerging Issues, London: IIED, 2006, p25.
②Cernat L, S. Laird, A. Turrini, Back to Basics: Market Access Issues in the Doha Agenda, New York and Geneva: United Nations, 2002, p46.
③上述数据参考Annie Dufey, Biofuels Production, Trade and Sustainable Development: Emerging Issues, London: IIED, 2006, p26.
①转引自IPC, REIL, WTO Disciplines and Biofuels: Opportunities and Constraints in the Creation of a Global Marketplace, Washingto,DC:IPC, 2006, Endnotes27, http://www.agritrade.org/Publications/wto_biofuels.html, 2008-02-02.
②United States– Domestic Support and Export Credit Guarantees for Agricultural Products, Request for Consultations by Brazil, WT/DS365/1.以及United States– Subsidies and Other Domestic Support for Corn and Other Agricultural Products, Request for Consultations by Canada, WT/DS/357/1.
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①史济春、曹湘洪:《生物燃料与可持续发展》,中国石化出版社2007年版,第2页。
①[英]霍恩比:《牛津高阶英汉双解词典》(第四版增补本),李北达译,商务印书馆2002年版,第1357页。
②中国社会科学院语言研究所词典编辑室:《现代汉语词典》,商务印书馆1994年版,第6页。
①秦亚青:《译者前言》,载[美]彼得·卡赞斯坦、罗伯特·基欧汉、斯蒂芬·克拉斯纳编:《世界政治理论的探索与争鸣》,秦亚青、苏长和、门洪华等译,上海人民出版社2006版,第14-15页。
②Barry Buzan, People, State and Fear: An Agenda for International Security Studies in the Post-Cold War Era, Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1991. p364.
③Ibid, p19.
①Ken Booth, Security and Emancipation, Review of International Studies, 1991(17), p320.
②“安全困境”是国际关系文献中最为重要的概念之一,这一概念由约翰·赫兹于1950年首次提出,含义是为了获得安全各国力图获取军事上的优势以改善自己的安全状态,但由于军备竞赛是互动无止境的,一国的军事优势很快被其它国家同样的扩军努力所打破,因此绝对的安全是不可能获得的,各国陷入一种无法解脱的困境之中。转引自李学保:《全球化进程中的国际安全合作:理论证明与实践探索》,华中师范大学2006博士学位论文,第50页。
③Ken Booth, Security and Emancipation, Review of International Studies, 1991(17), p317.
④最早使用“非传统安全”概念的著作是1998年保罗·斯塔尔主编的《新安全议程:一份全球调查》。国内学术界和媒体是在“911事件”后开始使用“非传统安全”一词的。参见傅勇:《非传统安全研究与中国》,复旦大学2005年博士学位论文,第26页。
⑤刘志云:《现代国际关系理论视野下的国际法》,法律出版社2006年版,第1页。
①[美]路易斯·亨金著:《国际法:政治与价值》,张乃根等译,中国政法大学出版社2005年版,第168页。
②同上,第256页。
③何志鹏:《人权国际化基本理论研究》,吉林大学2004年博士学位论文,第84页。以及[美]路易斯·亨金著:《国际法:政治与价值》,张乃根等译,中国政法大学出版社2005年版,第261页。
①《只有一个地球》这份报告是联合国委托一个来自58个国家,152位成员组成的一个委员会为斯德哥尔摩人类环境会议准备的一份非官方报告。
②联合国:《人类环境宣言》,载周洪钧等编:《国际公约与惯例(国际公法卷)》,法律出版社1988年版,第309-313页。
①[英]巴瑞·布赞、[丹麦]奥利·维夫、迪·怀尔德:《新安全论》,朱宁译,浙江人民出版社2003年版,第32-36页。
②同上,第36页。
③丁一:《生物质液体燃料对我国石油安全的贡献》,河南农业大学2007年博士学位论文,第4页。
④以石油为例,分布集中体现在石油主要分布在中东、俄罗斯——中亚、南美、北非等4个地区,而主要消费地区和缺口在北美、缺口最大的亚洲和大洋洲。同上,第9-11页。
⑤人类目前已经经历的三次石油危机分别为:由于欧佩克组织的价格控制以及第四次中东战争促发的1973年石油危机,1978年伊朗的政权更迭和1980年的两伊战争促发了1980年的第二次石油危机,1990年伊拉克入侵科威特促使1990年第三次石油危机爆发,从对世界经济影响的程度而言在没有石油危机国际合作机制的情况下爆发的第一次石油危机对全球经济尤其是发达国家影响最为巨大。
⑥任娜:《能源安全与当代大国关系——以中日关系为例》,山东大学2007年博士学位论文,第34页。
①石元春、李十中:《生物燃料良机莫失,走出观望谋大局》,2009-01-04,http://news.xinhuanet.com/energy/2009-01/04/content_10600696_1.htm,2009-02-10.
②任娜:《能源安全与当代大国关系——以中日关系为例》,山东大学2007年博士学位论文,第23页。以及丁一:《生物质液体燃料对我国石油安全的贡献》,河南农业大学2007年博士学位论文,第3、4页。
③ICTSD, Biofuel Production, Trade and Sustainable Development, Geneva: ICTSD, 2008, p45, http//:www.ictsd.net, 2009-02-02.
①ICTSD, Biofuel Production, Trade and Sustainable Development, Geneva: ICTSD, 2008, pp.58-59, http//:www.ictsd.net, 2009-02-02.
②苏长和:《全球公共问题与国际合作:一种制度的分析》,上海人民出版社2009年版,第1页。
①苏长和:《全球公共问题与国际合作:一种制度的分析》,上海人民出版社2009年版,第7页。
①[英]亚当·斯密:《国富论(下卷)》,北京商务印书馆1988年版,第29页。
②对于欧美生物燃料产业对气候变化和农民利益等方面的影响在论文第三、四、五章有具体论述。
①苏长和:《全球公共问题与国际合作:一种制度的分析》,上海人民出版社2009年版,第95-96页。
①Robert O.Keohane, International Institutions and State Power: Essays in International Relations Theory, 2nd ed, Boulder: Westview, 1989, p3.
②[美]罗伯特·基欧汉、约瑟夫·奈:《权力与相互依赖》(第3版),门洪华译,北京大学出版社2002年版,第321页。
③[美]乔·史蒂文斯:《集体选择经济学》,杨晓维等译,上海三联书店、上海人民出版社1999年版,第89-92页。
④[美]罗伯特·基欧汉:《霸权之后:世界政治经济中的合作与纷争》,苏长和等译,上海世纪出版集团2006年版,第83页。
①[美]罗伯特·基欧汉:《霸权之后:世界政治经济中的合作与纷争》,苏长和等译,上海世纪出版集团2006年版,第90页。
②同上,第91-92页。
③同上,第95页。
①转引自李钢:《西方国际制度理论探析》,《世界经济与政治》,2000年第2期,第26页。
②[美]熊价(Hsiung,.c.):《无政府状态与世界秩序》,余逊达、张铁军译,浙江人民出版社2001年版,第37页。
③[美]路易斯·亨金著:《国际法:政治与价值》,张乃根等译,中国政法大学出版社2005年版,第400-401页。
①对于“国家理论”一般认为有韦伯派的组织行为体理论、多元主义派的社会中心理论以及新马克思主义结构功能理论。这三种国家理论参见吴惕安、俞可平编:《当代西方国家理论评析》,陕西人民出版社1999年版,第6-9页。
②李少军:《论国家利益》,《世界经济与政治》2003年第1期,第4页。
③方长平:《国家利益的建构主义分析》,当代世界出版社2002年版,第99-100页。
①何志鹏:《国家观念的重塑与国际法治的可能》,《吉林大学社会科学学报》2009年第4期,第17页。
①转引自Mostafa K. Tolba, The Implicationas of the“Common Concern of Mankind”Concept on Global Environmental Issues, Revista IIDH, Vol.13,1990, p244.
②Ibid.
①UNFCCC第1条规定了“气候变化”的定义,指人类的行为,既包括直接又包括间接行为改变地球大气的组成而引起气候发生变化,但排除在类似时期内所观测的自然变异。
②转引自龚向前:《气候变化背景下能源法的变革》,中国民主法制出版社2008年版,第5页。
③国际能源署:《世界能源展望2007:中国选萃》,国际能源署2007年版,第62页。
④转引自UN, Sustainable Bioenergy: A Framework for Decision Makers, 2007, p48, http//:www.un.org/un-energy/pdf/,2009-03-02.
①FAO, The State of Food and Agriculture 2008-Biofuels: Prospects, Risks and Opportunities, Rome: FAO, 2008, p16.
②Annie Dufey, Biofuels Production, Trade and Sustainable Development: Emerging Issues, London: IIED, 2006, p40.
③转引自Annie Dufey. Biofuels Production, Trade and Sustainable Development: Emerging Issues, London: IIED, 2006, p40.以及Worldwatch Institute, Biofuels for Transportation: Global Potential and Implications for Sustainable Agriculture and Energy in the 21st Century, 2006, http://www.infobrazil.com/Conteudo/Front_Page/Opinion/Conteudo.asp?ID_Noticias=972&I D_Area=2&ID_Grupo=9, 2009-03-01.
④IEA, 2004‘Biofuels for Transport an International Perspective, Paris: IEA, 2004, p30.
⑤Ibid.
⑥FAO, The State of Food and Agriculture 2008-Biofuels: Prospects, Risks and Opportunities, Rome: FAO, 2008, p15.
①FAO, The State of Food and Agriculture 2008-Biofuels: Prospects, Risks and Opportunities, Rome: FAO, 2008, p55.
②Ibid, p56.
③Ibid, p57.
④Ibid, p55.Document 01/08,London: RS.以及Sarchinger, T. The Impacts of Biofuels on Greenhouse Gases: How Land Use Change Alters the Equation. Policy Brief, The German Marshall Fund of the United States, 2008.
①FAO,The State of Food and Agriculture 2008-Biofuels: Prospects, Risks and Opportunities, Rome: FAO Press, 2008, p60.
②Ibid, p62.
①《CBD/COP9生物燃料对生物多样性的潜在影响——由科咨机构第Ⅻ/17号建议产生的事项——执行秘书说明》,http://www.cbd.int, 2009-03-05。
①[英]帕特莎·波尼、埃伦·波义尔:《国际法与环境》,那力等译,高等教育出版社2007年版,第95页。
①《生物安全议定书》第12条的规定。
②《生物安全议定书》第15和16条以及附件3关于风险评估的规定。
③《生物安全议定书》第17条的规定。
④《生物安全议定书》第18条的规定。
⑤《生物安全议定书》第20条的规定。
⑥《COP5第Ⅵ/23号决议》,http://www.cbd.int, 2009-03-10。
①王曦主编/译:《联合国环境规划署环境法教程》,法律出版社2002年版,第192页。
②《气候变化框架公约》第21条第3款和《生物多样性公约》第39条。
①《气候变化框架公约》第11条第3款、《京都议定书》第11条第2款和《生物多样性公约》第20条第2款、第21条第1款。
②《哥本哈根协定》第8段,http://unfccc.int/files/meetings/cop_15/application/pdf/cop15_cph_auv.pdf,2009-03-11。
③《CBD/COP9第9/31号决议——资金来源和资金机制以及资金机制指引》,http://www.cbd.int,2009-03-11。
④《气候变化框架公约》第4条第7款和《生物多样性公约》第20条第4款。
①朱谦:《全球温室气体减排的清洁发展机制研究——以行政许可为中心》,苏州大学2006年博士学位论文,第101-107。
①CDM-Executive Board, Approved Consolidated Baseline and Monitoring Methodology ACM0017, http://cdm.unfccc.int/goto/MPappmeth, 2009-12-01.
②FirstClimate, First Climate Receives Approval for New CDM Methodology and Opens Up Market for Sustainable Biofuel Projects, http://www.firstclimate.com/en/company.html,2009-12-01.
①FAO,More People than Ever are Victims of Hunger, 2009-09-04, http://www.fao.org/news/story/en/item/20568/icode/, 2009-10-11.
②根据FAO《2005年世界粮食不安全状况》的统计每年有600万儿童直接或间接由于营养不良而死亡,也就是每5秒钟就有一个孩子死于饥饿。参见世界粮农组织:《2005年世界粮食不安全状况消除世界饥饿——实现<千年发展目标>的关键》,世界粮农组织2005版,第20页。
①梅方权:《关于食物安全保障概念的发展分析》,《中国食物与营养》2002年第5期,第5页。
②世界粮农组织:《2009世界粮食不安全状况经济危机——影响及获得的经验教训》,世界粮农组织2009版,第44页。
③同上,第45页。
①林沈节:《食物权及其解释》,《太平洋学报》2009年第9期,第61页,注释31。以及Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, General Comment12, E/C.12/1999/5, para. 3。
②Ibid, para. 4.
③Ibid, para. 5.
④联合国大会在2006年5月15日的联合国大会做出决定成立新的人权理事会(The Human Rights Council, HRC)代替上述人权委员会,HRC直接向联合国大会负责,向联大报告。Right to Food, Boston: Nijhoff Publishers, 1984, p167.
①转引自Christophe Golay, The Right to Food and Access to Justice: Examples at the National, Regional and International Levels, Rome: FAO, 2009, p13.
②Jean Ziegler, Interim Report by the UN Special Rapporteur on the Right to Food by Jean Ziegler( UN report A/62/289) , New York: United Nations, 2007, para. 2.
③世界粮农组织:《2009世界粮食不安全状况经济危机——影响及获得的经验教训》,罗马:世界粮农组织2009版,第4页。
④张勇:《粮食危机可能卷土重来》,《世界知识》2009年第10期,第51页。道德和科技四个角度探讨如何应对粮食危机,2009-04-07, http://news.xinhuanet.com/world/2009-04/07/content_11141981.htm,2009-10-11。
①David Mitchell, A Note on Rising Food Prices, 2008-07-10, http://image.guardian.co.uk/sys-files/environment/documents/2008/07/10/biofuels.pdf, 2009-10-11.
②转引自Jean Ziegler, Interim Report by the UN Special Rapporteur on the Right to Food by Jean Ziegler( UN report A/62/289), New York: United Nations, 2007, para. 12.
③海外投资和生物燃料产业集中的问题分别在第1章和第2章中进行了论述,可参见本文第9页和第48页。
①Jean Ziegler, Interim Report by the UN Special Rapporteur on the Right to Food by Jean Ziegler( UN report A/62/289) , New York: General Assembly, 2007, para.13.
②转引自森林:《富国在穷国买地种粮专家齐指“新殖民主义”》,《中国贸易报》2009-7-23(H04)。
①Jean Ziegler, Final Report by the UN Special Rapporteur on the Right to Food by Jean Ziegler( A/HRC/7/5.10 ), New York: General Assembly, 2008, para.17.
②FAO, The State of Food and Agriculture 2008-Biofuels: Prospects, Risks and Opportunities, Rome: FAO, 2008, p66.
③Asbj?rn Eide, The Right to Food and the Impact of Liquid Biofuels(Agrofuels), Rome: FAO, 2008, p13.
④转引自Jean Ziegler, Interim Report by the UN Special Rapporteur on the Right to Food by Jean Ziegler( UN report A/62/289), New York: General Assembly, 2007, para.12.
①Asbj?rn Eide, The Right to Food and the Impact of Liquid Biofuels(Agrofuels), Rome: FAO, 2008, p17.
①Jean Ziegler, Interim Report by the UN Special Rapporteur on the Right to Food by Jean Ziegler( UNreport A/62/289) , New York: General Assembly, 2007, para. 2.
①一半以上的非洲干旱地区都适于麻疯树的生长,不仅可以生产生物燃料还能扭转土地退化和沙化的状况。Jean Ziegler, Interim Report by the UN Special Rapporteur on the Right to Food by Jean Ziegler( UN report A/62/289) , New York: General Assembly, 2007, para. 15.
②Jean Ziegler, Interim Report by the UN Special Rapporteur on the Right to Food by Jean Ziegler( UN report A/62/289) , New York: General Assembly, 2007, para. 15.
③食物权特别报告员不仅要向联大递交年度报告,同时也须向人权理事会递交报告。
④Jean Ziegler, Final Report by the UN Special Rapporteur on the Right to Food by Jean Ziegler( A/HRC/7/5), New York: General Assembly, 2008, para. 22-24.
⑤HRC第7次特别会议决议案第3段,A/HRC/S-7/2.p.4.
⑥FAO进行的与此相关的活动许多都是在世界粮食计划署的支持下完成的。
⑦FAO, High-Level Conferences on World Food Security and Global Challenges, Thirty-fourth Session, Rome: FAO, 17-24 Novermber 2007, C2007/INF/22.
①联合国全球粮食危机高级别工作队:《全面行动计划》,联合国2008年,第31页。
①Alston, P, The Right to Food, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1984, p.167.
②Committee on Economic , Social and Cultural Rights, General Comment12, E/C.12/1999/5 , para.14,
①FAO, Report of the World Food Summit: Appendix, Rome: FAO, 1997.
①Committee on Economic , Social and Cultural Rights, General Comment12, E/C.12/1999/5, para.18.
②Committee on Economic , Social and Cultural Rights.General Comment12, E/C.12/1999/5, para.9.
③Ibid, para.17.
④A. Eide, The Right to Adequate Food and to be Free from Hunger Updated Study on the Right to Food, (28 June 1999), Commission on Human Right,E/CN.4/Sub.2/1999/12.
①Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, General Comment12, E/C.12/1999/5, para.15以及《食物权自愿准则》引言部分。
②Jean Ziegler, The Right to Food. Report by the Special Rapporteur for the Right to Food, 16 March 2006, Commission on Human Rights, Doc.U.N. E/CN.4/2006/44, para. 22.
③Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, General Comment12, E/C.12/1999/5, para.15.
④Ibid以及《食物权准则》准则14。
⑤FAO, Safety Nets and the Right to Food, Rome: FAO, 2006, pp.141-151.
⑥Ibid, pp. 5-24.
①万鄂湘、毛俊响:《经济、社会和文化权利保护领域的重大突破<经济、社会和文化权利国际公约任择议定书草案>述评》,《法律适用》2008年第11期,第32页。
①Masami Kojima, Donald Mitchell, William Ward, Considering Trade Policies for Liquid Biofuels, Washington, DC: World Bank, 2007, p77.
②Ibid, p.78.以及Mahesh Sugathan. Enhancing Market Access for Biofuels: What Role for Environmental Goods Negotiations?, Trade& Environment Review, 2008, 2(4), p8.
③Mahesh Sugathan. Enhancing Market Access for Biofuels: What Role for Environmental Goods Negotiations?, Trade& Environment Review, 2008, 2(4), p8以及WTO, 2007 WTO Public Forum“How Can the WTO Help Harness Globalization?”, Geneva: WTO, 2008, p143, http://www.wto.org, 2009-10-01.
④在WTO官方网站关于WTO应对气候变化的挑战做出的行动专门提到了生物燃料贸易的增长问题, http://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/envir_e/climate_challenge_e.htm#climate, 2010-02-04.
①WTO, 2007 WTO Public Forum“How Can the WTO Help Harness Globalization?”, Geneva: WTO, 2008, pp.255-256, http://www.wto.org, 2009-10-01.
②Ibid, p309.
③Isabelle Van Damme, Eighth Annual WTO Conference: an Overview, Journal of International Economic Law, 2009, 12, pp.175-193.
④WTO, UNEP, Trade and Climate Change, WTO-UNEP Report, Geneva: WTO, 2009, p123, http//:www.wto.org, 2009-10-01.
⑤WTO, Activities of the WTO and the Challenge of Climate Change, http://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/envir_e/climate_challenge_e.htm#climate, 2009-10-01.
①转引自Annie Dufey, Biofuels Production, Trade and Sustainable Development: Emerging Issues, London: IIED, 2006, p25.
②Cernat L, S. Laird, A. Turrini, Back to Basics: Market Access Issues in the Doha Agenda, New York and Geneva: United Nations, 2002, p46.
③上述数据参考Annie Dufey, Biofuels Production, Trade and Sustainable Development: Emerging Issues, London: IIED, 2006, p26.
①转引自IPC, REIL, WTO Disciplines and Biofuels: Opportunities and Constraints in the Creation of a Global Marketplace, Washingto,DC:IPC, 2006, Endnotes27, http://www.agritrade.org/Publications/wto_biofuels.html, 2008-02-02.
②United States– Domestic Support and Export Credit Guarantees for Agricultural Products, Request for Consultations by Brazil, WT/DS365/1.以及United States– Subsidies and Other Domestic Support for Corn and Other Agricultural Products, Request for Consultations by Canada, WT/DS/357/1.