重庆市主城区空气中氡浓度调查与评价
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摘要
氡是由镭衰变产生的自然界唯一的无色、无味、无臭的天然放射性惰性气体,经科学家们的研究已经证实,在人的呼吸过程中,氡及其子体进入肺部并沉积下来对人体产生内照射,最终诱发肺癌。因此,环境中高浓度的氡被确定为引起肺癌的重要病因之一,世界卫生组织把它列为使人致癌的19种物质之一,也是我国规范控制的对人体健康影响较大的5种室内污染物之一,氡越来越受到世界各国的广泛关注。本论文课题来源于国家自然科学基金项目“地-空界面氡辐射场及其环境效应研究”(项目编号:40374051),也是重庆市辐射环境监督管理站技术服务课题“重庆市主城区氡浓度调查与评价”的研究成果。
重庆市位于中国西南部,幅员面积82400km2,以主城区为依托,各区县形如众星拱月,构成了大、中、小城市有机结合的组团式、网络化的现代城市群,是中国目前行政辖区最大、人口最多、管理行政单元最多的特大型城市。本次调查是为掌握重庆市主城区(渝中区、江北区、巴南区、南岸区、沙坪坝区、渝北区、九龙坡区、大渡口区、北碚区)面积约631km2已建成区域室内外氡浓度分布状况获取较全面氡浓度基础资料,弥补重庆市氡浓度分布状况空白,为开展城市建设放射性环境评价,政府决策、规划提供科学依据,创建良好的生活、居住、工作、学习的环境,对氡浓度较高的建筑物提出有效的防氡降氡措施,减少氡带给人们的危害,把重庆市建设成为发达、宜居的和谐城市。
本论文课题采用脉冲电离室法---美国Durridge公司的RAD7便携式测氡仪和核固体径迹法---北京博创特科技开展有限公司的BR-G2000全自动核固体径迹测量系统及CR-39径迹片,对重庆市主城区面积约631km2已建成区域室内外环境空气中氡浓度进行测量,根据工作任务与技术要求,室外环境空气中氡浓度设置10个点位,除了平行样点位测量48小时,其它点位测量24小时;室内环境空气中氡浓度测量则根据重庆市城市组团式建设特点,测区布点确定为在网格布点基础上采取不等密度布点方法,测区室内环境空气中氡浓度测量按2×2km2网格布点,每网格中心布置测点1个,确保设置的采样点在4km2范围内,总共布放径迹片210片,其中点位样品189片,平行样品21片;回收径迹片187片,其中点位样品168片,平行样品19片,总回收率为89.0%,平行样品占总回收样品10.2%,占点位样品的11.3%。调查室内包括居室、办公室、地下建筑。
通过对重庆市主城区室内外环境空气中氡浓度进行测量和实验室分析,获得了室外10个采样点24小时连续监测氡浓度值和室内连续70天测量的累积数据,分析评价得到结论如下:重庆市主城区环境氡浓度水平较低,室外氡浓度均值为14.9 Bq·m-3,与历史数据持平;室内均值为64.5 Bq·m-3,在国家标准范围以内。
(1)重庆市主城区10个室外采样点环境空气中氡浓度范围为0-58.1 Bq·m-3,室外氡浓度平均值为14.9 Bq·m-3,江北区、沙坪坝区和大渡口区室外环境氡浓度略高于另外6个区,分别为21.4 Bq·m-3、22.3 Bq·m-3和23.0 Bq·m-3;
(2)重庆市主城区室外环境空气中氡浓度测量值与国内外历史监测数据相比,仅仅高出1-2 Bq·m-3;
(3)重庆市主城区室外环境空气中氡浓度日变化趋势一致,整体上,上午氡浓度略高于下午;
(4)重庆市主城区室内环境空气中氡浓度的经验频率分布属于正态分布;
(5)重庆市主城区室内环境空气中氡浓度平均值为64.5 Bq·m-3,共调查168间建筑中超标建筑3间,仅占监测总数的1.8%,分别是北碚区2户和九龙坡区1户,经调查发现,这三间采样室内均是通风条件较差,经调查发现,这三户采样室内均是通风条件差,很少通风的储藏室或是闲置房屋;
(6)重庆市主城区各区县室内环境空气中氡浓度平均值整体水平较低,均小于国家标准中规定的室内氡浓度行动水平,其中,最高75.1 Bq·m-3,最低35.0 Bq·m-3,分别是北碚区和巴南区;
(7)根据不同因素讨论室内环境空气中氡浓度平均值,排序如下:不同年代室内环境空气中氡浓度水平排序,21世纪初<90年代<70年代<80年代;不同建筑材料室内环境空气中氡浓度水平排序,红砖>空心砖;不同建筑位置室内环境空气中氡浓度水平排序,地下建筑>地上建筑;不同房屋地面材料室内环境空气中氡浓度水平排序,石材地面>地板砖>水泥>木地板;不同房屋使用功能室内环境空气中氡浓度水平排序,办公室>地下建筑>居室;
(8)室内外环境空气中氡及其子体年均有效剂量范围是0.70-1.29 mSv/a,均远低于联合国原子辐射效应科学委员会(UNSCEAR)估计对公众的年有效剂量1.30 mSv/a。
Radon is an unique、colorless、tasteless、odorless radioactive inert gas produced by the decaying of radium in nature. Researches by scientists have confirmed that inhaling of radon and its daughter products can cause lung cancer when they are presented in enhanced levels at lungs. Therefore, the high concentration of radon in the environment has been identified as one of the important causes of disease to cause lung cancer. Radon is considered 1 of 19 carcinogenic substances to human being by World Health Organization. It is also 1of 5 indoor pollutants, impacting on human health, which are formally controlled in China Radon pollution has been paid more and more attention by many countries. The subject of this thesis is from the project "research of radon radiation field and environmental effects at air-ground interface"(project number:40374051) surpported by national natural science foundation,and also the research results of "survey and evaluation of the radon concentration in the main districts of Chongqing City",which is the technical service project from Chongqing supervision and management center of radiation environment.
The Chongqing city is located in the southwest of China, covering an area of 82 400 km2, which is supported by the main urban districts and the other counties liking a myriad of stars surrounding the moon, constituting a combined and network modern city group of the organic combination of the large, medium and small cities. Currently, Chongqing city is the largest city in China with the largest administrative area, the largest population and the most management units. This investigation is to grasp the distribution of indoor and outdoor radon concentration in the main districts of Chongqing City(Yu Zhong District,Jiang Bei District , Ba Nan district , Nan An District , Sha Pingba District , Yu Bei District , Jiu Longpo District , Da Dukou District , Beibei district), covering a completed regional area of 631 km2 or so. Then we can obtain the overall basic data of radon concentration to make up the blank of the distribution of radon concentration in Chongqing and provide scientific basis for carrying out radioactive environmental assessment of urban development, government decision-making, and establishing a good environment to live, dwell, work and study. To turn Chongqing into a developed, harmonious and livable city, we must reduce the harm, made by radon, to people by making effective measures to reduce radon concentration for the high radon concentration buildings.
In the study we have measured the indoor and outdoor ambient air radon concentration in the main city of Chongqing with about 631 km2 completed regional area by pulse ionization chamber using RAD7 radonα-spectrometry detector from U.S. Durridge and method of nuclear solid track record using the BR-G2000 automatic nuclear solid track measuring system and CR-39 track pieces from Beijing Expo Special Science and Technology Co., Ltd.. According to mandate and technical requirements, we set 10 sampling points to monitor outdoor air radon concentration. It should be measured for 48 hours at the parallel sampling point, 24 hours at the other points. To measure the indoor air radon concentration we set the sampling points by means of different density distribution method based on mesh distribution according to the tour-style building features of Chongqing city. The indoor air radon concentration in the measured areas was performed by 2×2 km2 grid distribution, with a measuring point in the center of each grid, making sure to set the sampling points within 4 km2. We laid out 210 pieces of track piece, including 189 pieces of point position samples, 21 pieces of parallel samples; We were recycled 187 pieces of track piece, including 168 pieces of point position samples, 19 pieces of parallel samples; the total recovery rate was 89.0%, parallel samples occupies the 10.2% of the the total recovery samples, and accounts for 12.3% of the point position samples,which included bedroom, office, underground construction.
Through measuring the radon concentration in the indoor and outdoor air in the main city of Chongqing and laboratory analysis, we have obtained the radon concentration from 10 outside sampling points by 24 hours continuously monitoring and the cumulative radon concentration data from indoor sampling points by 70 days continuous measurement. Results after analyzed and evaluated showed that the average air radon concentration standard is lower in the main districts of Chongqing City, the outdoor average is 14.9Bq·m-3 and historical data unchanged; the indoor average is 64.5 Bq·m-3, which are both below the national standard.
(1) The air radon concentration at 10 outdoor sampling points are in the range of 0 ~ 58.1 Bq·m-3 in the main districts of Chongqing City. The average value of air radon concentration outdoor is 14.9Bq·m-3. The radon concentration values outdoor in Jiang Bei District、Sha Pingba District and Da Dukou District are slightly higher than the other six districts. They are respectively 21.4Bq·m-3、22.3Bq·m-3 and 23.0Bq·m-3.
(2) The measuring value of air radon concentration outdoor in the main districts of Chongqing City is just above 1-2Bq·m-3 compared with the domestic and foreign historical monitoring data.
(3) The outdoor air radon concentration is basically coincident with total change trend. From the whole aspect, radon concentration in the morning is slightly higher than that in the afternoon.
(4) The empirical frequency distribution of the air radon concentration indoor in the main districts of Chongqing City is normal distribution.
(5) The average value of air radon concentration indoor is 64.5 Bq·m-3 in the main districts of Chongqing City. There are only 3 house radon concentration exceed the standard in the totally 168 houses investigated. Two houses are in Beibei District and one is in Jiulongpo District, just accounted 1.8% on the all monitoring points. After surveying we found that this three sampling indoors are storage rooms or unused houses with poor ventilation condition.
(6) The overall average values of air radon concentration indoor were quite low in the main districts and all counties of Chongqing City. They were all lower than the action level of radon indoor provided by the national standards. Among them the maximum was 75.1 Bq·m-3and the minimum is 35 Bq·m-3 respectively in Bei Bei District and Ba Nan District.
(7) According to different factors we discussed the average values of air radon concentration indoor. They were sorted as follows: According to different times the order of the average air radon concentration levels indoor is the early of 21th Centuryhollow brick; According to different building positions the order of air radon concentration level indoor is underground structure>building on the grounds; According to different building floor material the order of air radon concentration level indoor is stone floor>floor tile>cement>wood floor; According to different building function the order of air radon concentration level indoor is office> underground structure>room.
(8) The annual effective dose range from the outdoor and indoor air radon and its progenies is 0.70-1.29mSv/a, which is far lower than the annual effective dose 1.30mSv/a, estimated to the public by the United Nations Scientific Committee on Effects of Atomic Radiation.
重庆市位于中国西南部,幅员面积82400km2,以主城区为依托,各区县形如众星拱月,构成了大、中、小城市有机结合的组团式、网络化的现代城市群,是中国目前行政辖区最大、人口最多、管理行政单元最多的特大型城市。本次调查是为掌握重庆市主城区(渝中区、江北区、巴南区、南岸区、沙坪坝区、渝北区、九龙坡区、大渡口区、北碚区)面积约631km2已建成区域室内外氡浓度分布状况获取较全面氡浓度基础资料,弥补重庆市氡浓度分布状况空白,为开展城市建设放射性环境评价,政府决策、规划提供科学依据,创建良好的生活、居住、工作、学习的环境,对氡浓度较高的建筑物提出有效的防氡降氡措施,减少氡带给人们的危害,把重庆市建设成为发达、宜居的和谐城市。
本论文课题采用脉冲电离室法---美国Durridge公司的RAD7便携式测氡仪和核固体径迹法---北京博创特科技开展有限公司的BR-G2000全自动核固体径迹测量系统及CR-39径迹片,对重庆市主城区面积约631km2已建成区域室内外环境空气中氡浓度进行测量,根据工作任务与技术要求,室外环境空气中氡浓度设置10个点位,除了平行样点位测量48小时,其它点位测量24小时;室内环境空气中氡浓度测量则根据重庆市城市组团式建设特点,测区布点确定为在网格布点基础上采取不等密度布点方法,测区室内环境空气中氡浓度测量按2×2km2网格布点,每网格中心布置测点1个,确保设置的采样点在4km2范围内,总共布放径迹片210片,其中点位样品189片,平行样品21片;回收径迹片187片,其中点位样品168片,平行样品19片,总回收率为89.0%,平行样品占总回收样品10.2%,占点位样品的11.3%。调查室内包括居室、办公室、地下建筑。
通过对重庆市主城区室内外环境空气中氡浓度进行测量和实验室分析,获得了室外10个采样点24小时连续监测氡浓度值和室内连续70天测量的累积数据,分析评价得到结论如下:重庆市主城区环境氡浓度水平较低,室外氡浓度均值为14.9 Bq·m-3,与历史数据持平;室内均值为64.5 Bq·m-3,在国家标准范围以内。
(1)重庆市主城区10个室外采样点环境空气中氡浓度范围为0-58.1 Bq·m-3,室外氡浓度平均值为14.9 Bq·m-3,江北区、沙坪坝区和大渡口区室外环境氡浓度略高于另外6个区,分别为21.4 Bq·m-3、22.3 Bq·m-3和23.0 Bq·m-3;
(2)重庆市主城区室外环境空气中氡浓度测量值与国内外历史监测数据相比,仅仅高出1-2 Bq·m-3;
(3)重庆市主城区室外环境空气中氡浓度日变化趋势一致,整体上,上午氡浓度略高于下午;
(4)重庆市主城区室内环境空气中氡浓度的经验频率分布属于正态分布;
(5)重庆市主城区室内环境空气中氡浓度平均值为64.5 Bq·m-3,共调查168间建筑中超标建筑3间,仅占监测总数的1.8%,分别是北碚区2户和九龙坡区1户,经调查发现,这三间采样室内均是通风条件较差,经调查发现,这三户采样室内均是通风条件差,很少通风的储藏室或是闲置房屋;
(6)重庆市主城区各区县室内环境空气中氡浓度平均值整体水平较低,均小于国家标准中规定的室内氡浓度行动水平,其中,最高75.1 Bq·m-3,最低35.0 Bq·m-3,分别是北碚区和巴南区;
(7)根据不同因素讨论室内环境空气中氡浓度平均值,排序如下:不同年代室内环境空气中氡浓度水平排序,21世纪初<90年代<70年代<80年代;不同建筑材料室内环境空气中氡浓度水平排序,红砖>空心砖;不同建筑位置室内环境空气中氡浓度水平排序,地下建筑>地上建筑;不同房屋地面材料室内环境空气中氡浓度水平排序,石材地面>地板砖>水泥>木地板;不同房屋使用功能室内环境空气中氡浓度水平排序,办公室>地下建筑>居室;
(8)室内外环境空气中氡及其子体年均有效剂量范围是0.70-1.29 mSv/a,均远低于联合国原子辐射效应科学委员会(UNSCEAR)估计对公众的年有效剂量1.30 mSv/a。
Radon is an unique、colorless、tasteless、odorless radioactive inert gas produced by the decaying of radium in nature. Researches by scientists have confirmed that inhaling of radon and its daughter products can cause lung cancer when they are presented in enhanced levels at lungs. Therefore, the high concentration of radon in the environment has been identified as one of the important causes of disease to cause lung cancer. Radon is considered 1 of 19 carcinogenic substances to human being by World Health Organization. It is also 1of 5 indoor pollutants, impacting on human health, which are formally controlled in China Radon pollution has been paid more and more attention by many countries. The subject of this thesis is from the project "research of radon radiation field and environmental effects at air-ground interface"(project number:40374051) surpported by national natural science foundation,and also the research results of "survey and evaluation of the radon concentration in the main districts of Chongqing City",which is the technical service project from Chongqing supervision and management center of radiation environment.
The Chongqing city is located in the southwest of China, covering an area of 82 400 km2, which is supported by the main urban districts and the other counties liking a myriad of stars surrounding the moon, constituting a combined and network modern city group of the organic combination of the large, medium and small cities. Currently, Chongqing city is the largest city in China with the largest administrative area, the largest population and the most management units. This investigation is to grasp the distribution of indoor and outdoor radon concentration in the main districts of Chongqing City(Yu Zhong District,Jiang Bei District , Ba Nan district , Nan An District , Sha Pingba District , Yu Bei District , Jiu Longpo District , Da Dukou District , Beibei district), covering a completed regional area of 631 km2 or so. Then we can obtain the overall basic data of radon concentration to make up the blank of the distribution of radon concentration in Chongqing and provide scientific basis for carrying out radioactive environmental assessment of urban development, government decision-making, and establishing a good environment to live, dwell, work and study. To turn Chongqing into a developed, harmonious and livable city, we must reduce the harm, made by radon, to people by making effective measures to reduce radon concentration for the high radon concentration buildings.
In the study we have measured the indoor and outdoor ambient air radon concentration in the main city of Chongqing with about 631 km2 completed regional area by pulse ionization chamber using RAD7 radonα-spectrometry detector from U.S. Durridge and method of nuclear solid track record using the BR-G2000 automatic nuclear solid track measuring system and CR-39 track pieces from Beijing Expo Special Science and Technology Co., Ltd.. According to mandate and technical requirements, we set 10 sampling points to monitor outdoor air radon concentration. It should be measured for 48 hours at the parallel sampling point, 24 hours at the other points. To measure the indoor air radon concentration we set the sampling points by means of different density distribution method based on mesh distribution according to the tour-style building features of Chongqing city. The indoor air radon concentration in the measured areas was performed by 2×2 km2 grid distribution, with a measuring point in the center of each grid, making sure to set the sampling points within 4 km2. We laid out 210 pieces of track piece, including 189 pieces of point position samples, 21 pieces of parallel samples; We were recycled 187 pieces of track piece, including 168 pieces of point position samples, 19 pieces of parallel samples; the total recovery rate was 89.0%, parallel samples occupies the 10.2% of the the total recovery samples, and accounts for 12.3% of the point position samples,which included bedroom, office, underground construction.
Through measuring the radon concentration in the indoor and outdoor air in the main city of Chongqing and laboratory analysis, we have obtained the radon concentration from 10 outside sampling points by 24 hours continuously monitoring and the cumulative radon concentration data from indoor sampling points by 70 days continuous measurement. Results after analyzed and evaluated showed that the average air radon concentration standard is lower in the main districts of Chongqing City, the outdoor average is 14.9Bq·m-3 and historical data unchanged; the indoor average is 64.5 Bq·m-3, which are both below the national standard.
(1) The air radon concentration at 10 outdoor sampling points are in the range of 0 ~ 58.1 Bq·m-3 in the main districts of Chongqing City. The average value of air radon concentration outdoor is 14.9Bq·m-3. The radon concentration values outdoor in Jiang Bei District、Sha Pingba District and Da Dukou District are slightly higher than the other six districts. They are respectively 21.4Bq·m-3、22.3Bq·m-3 and 23.0Bq·m-3.
(2) The measuring value of air radon concentration outdoor in the main districts of Chongqing City is just above 1-2Bq·m-3 compared with the domestic and foreign historical monitoring data.
(3) The outdoor air radon concentration is basically coincident with total change trend. From the whole aspect, radon concentration in the morning is slightly higher than that in the afternoon.
(4) The empirical frequency distribution of the air radon concentration indoor in the main districts of Chongqing City is normal distribution.
(5) The average value of air radon concentration indoor is 64.5 Bq·m-3 in the main districts of Chongqing City. There are only 3 house radon concentration exceed the standard in the totally 168 houses investigated. Two houses are in Beibei District and one is in Jiulongpo District, just accounted 1.8% on the all monitoring points. After surveying we found that this three sampling indoors are storage rooms or unused houses with poor ventilation condition.
(6) The overall average values of air radon concentration indoor were quite low in the main districts and all counties of Chongqing City. They were all lower than the action level of radon indoor provided by the national standards. Among them the maximum was 75.1 Bq·m-3and the minimum is 35 Bq·m-3 respectively in Bei Bei District and Ba Nan District.
(7) According to different factors we discussed the average values of air radon concentration indoor. They were sorted as follows: According to different times the order of the average air radon concentration levels indoor is the early of 21th Century
(8) The annual effective dose range from the outdoor and indoor air radon and its progenies is 0.70-1.29mSv/a, which is far lower than the annual effective dose 1.30mSv/a, estimated to the public by the United Nations Scientific Committee on Effects of Atomic Radiation.
引文
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[8]戈立新,汪名侠,李传琛.上海地区空气中氡水平调查[J].辐射防护,2002(4):246-252.
[9]刘坚,楼汝洪,赵尧贤等.浙江省室内外氡和氡子体水平及所致居民剂量的研究[J].浙江预防医学,1989 (1):20-26.
[10]徐美奕.湛江市部分住房室内外空气中氡浓度测定[J].微量元素与健康研究,2003 (4):38-40.
[11]习仁平.云南城市大气氡浓度测量[J].云南环境科学,1990(1):57-60.
[12]程林,程贤义.徐州市环境氡及其子体水平分析[J].江苏环境科技,1993(3):11-13.
[13]郁会莲,常峰,陈萍等.西安市区居民住宅室内氡浓度水平调查[J].浙江预防医学,2008(8):45-46.
[14]侯祖洪,杨想军,秦俊等.武汉市居室内放射性水平调查[J].公共卫生与预防医学,2005(3):1-2.
[15]高建政,马海卫,田义宗等.天津市部分新建楼房室内氡浓度水平调查[J].中国辐射卫生,2006(3):338-339.
[16]涂彧，张兵波，俞荣生等．苏州市区居民住宅内氡水平及其影响因素分析[J].中国辐射卫生,2003(4):222-223.
[17]张传富,周致熙.四川省阿坝州室内氡及子体水平与剂量估算[J].现代预防医学,1991(3):153-156.
[18]雷家荣,王拓,刘浩才等.四川省科学城地区室内氡浓度的调查与评价[J].四川环境,1999(1):45-48.
[19]孙小娜,库德热提,张聚敬等.2002至2004年乌鲁木齐市环境放射性调查与评价[J].中华放射医学与防护杂志,2006(2):172-173.
[20]王玉文.新疆部分地区室内外氡水平及卫生学评价[D].新疆:新疆医科大学,2003.
[21]关祖杰,余君岳,杨健明等.香港室内氡水平及其与建筑物表面氡析出率的关系[J].中山大学学报(自然科学版),1991(4):51-55.
[22]辛至秀.台湾夏季氡及其子体与环境γ剂量率的测量[J].国外铀金地质,2002(2):90-94.
[23]重庆市辐射环境监督管理站.重庆市辐射环境质量报告书[R].重庆:重庆市辐射环境监督管理站,2005.
[24]重庆市辐射环境监督管理站.重庆市辐射环境质量报告书[R].重庆:重庆市辐射环境监督管理站,2006.
[25]重庆市辐射环境监督管理站.重庆市辐射环境质量报告书[R].重庆:重庆市辐射环境监督管理站,2007.
[26]重庆市辐射环境监督管理站.重庆市辐射环境质量报告书[R].重庆:重庆市辐射环境监督管理站,2008.
[27]潘纯珍,刘嘉烈,杜恒雁等.重庆市氡浓度水平调查[J].辐射防护,2009(2):111-114.
[28]吴慧山,林玉飞,白云生等.氡测量方法与应用[M].北京:原子能出版社,1995
[29]李利红.地-空界面放射性氡析出率的研究[D].四川:成都理工大学,2007.
[30]田丽霞.地-空界面壤中氡浓度变化研究[D].四川:成都理工大学,2007.
[31]孙凯男.土壤氡析出率的研究[M].北京:清华大学,2004.
[32]张智慧.空气中氡及其子体的测量方法[M].北京:原子能出版社,1994.
[33] Fry R.M.,Radiation hazards of uranium mining and milling,AAEC/IP-9,1975.
[34] http://www.raydetect.com/article/080516160837.html
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[36]尚兵,唐莉,曾力等.北京市地下铁道环境放射性水平及其工作人员受照剂量评价.中华放射医学与防护杂志,1994,14(6):401-404.
[37]刘英俊等.元素地球化学[M].北京:科学出版社.1984.
[38] Fry R.M.,Radon and its hazards,Proceeding of the NEA specialist meeting,P.13,Canad.,4-8 Oct.1976.
[39]耿世彬,连慧亮.氡与室内空气环境[J].建筑热能通风孔天.2001(6):49-51.
[40]丘寿康.有关氡危害与评价的认识问题[J].辐射防护通讯,2001(6):3-7.
[41]郭秋菊,许寿元.氡的危害及剂量估算[J].中华放射医学与防护杂志,2004(24):85-87.
[42]李晓燕.中国地下工程氡污染及其健康危害评价[D].北京:中国科学院地球化学研究所,2005.
[43]胡国辉,孔令丰,张春舞.居民住房内的氡气辐射污染问题[J].广州环境科学.2002,17(l):28-30.
[44]常桂兰.氡及氡的危害[J].铀矿地质,2002(18):122-128.
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[48]商迎庆.室内氡的危害研究进展[J].环境与健康杂志,2002(19):350-352.
[49]曹振国,段继刚.室内氡的危害及防治[J].环境经纬,2004(9):50-51.
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[51]商迎庆.室内氡的危害研究进展[J].环境与健康杂志,2002(19):350-352.
[52]王利军,贡建伟,耿世彬,等.室内氡的危害及控制措施[J].洁净与空调技术,2005(4):65-68.
[53]陈光明,何永金.室内氡的危害及防氡降氡措施[J].环境工程,1998(16):29-32.
[54]赵亚民译.美国国家环保局.氡的居民指南[M].北京:中国环境科学出版社,1990:46-47.
[55] MorganKZ.Risk assessment of exposure to ionrzing radiation:another view[A],Florida:Proceedings American Nuclear Society,1981.50-52.
[56] National Research Council.Committeeon the biological effects of ionizing radiation.Health Effects of Exposure to Radon(BEIRVI)[M].Washungton,DC:National Academy Press,1998.200-203.
[57] USEPA.Radon health risks[R].2000(22):50-51.
[58]国际辐射防护委员会.住宅和工作场所氡-222的防护[M].北京:原子能出版社,1997.12.
[59]吴慧山.室内环境氡的危害及其防治对策[A].面向21世纪全国首届室内环境质量研讨会论文集,2001.52.
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[61]孟文斌.辽宁室内氡浓度及其分布[A].面向21世纪全国首届室内环境质量研讨会论文集,2001.145.
[62]朱昌寿.居室内电离辐射源记对健康影响评价[A].面向21世纪全国首届室内环境质量研讨会论文集,2001.21.
[63]贾成铁.居室放射性水平监测及其超限制控制对策研究[J].中国辐射卫生,200,9(3):139.
[64]张淑蓉.用天然石材装修居室的放射卫生评价[J].中国辐射卫生,2000,9(1):16.
[65]张智慧.空气中氡及其子体的测量方法[M].北京:原子能出版社,1994.
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[68] http://www.chem17.com/st127499/product_948238.html.
[69] http://www.bjhzbp.com/product/gb/product_detail.asp?catalogid=8&productid=200.
[70] http://www.bochuangte.com/cpxxgtgj.html.
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[72]卢新卫.室内空气中氡的来源、危害及控制措施分析[J].桂林工学院学报,2004(24):87-92.
[73]于水,王功鹏,骆亿生,等.部分住宅和地下空间氡浓度的监测及防护措施研究[J].辐射防护,1999(19):195-200.
[74]郑天亮,等编著.建筑工程防氡技术[M].北京:北京航空航天大学出版社,2006.
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[6]王琳译.奥西耶克室内氡剂量评价[J].国外铀金地质,2000(3):254-261.
[7] Snihs J O.Swedish Radon Programme.Radiation Protection Dosimetry.1992,43(3):177.
[8]戈立新,汪名侠,李传琛.上海地区空气中氡水平调查[J].辐射防护,2002(4):246-252.
[9]刘坚,楼汝洪,赵尧贤等.浙江省室内外氡和氡子体水平及所致居民剂量的研究[J].浙江预防医学,1989 (1):20-26.
[10]徐美奕.湛江市部分住房室内外空气中氡浓度测定[J].微量元素与健康研究,2003 (4):38-40.
[11]习仁平.云南城市大气氡浓度测量[J].云南环境科学,1990(1):57-60.
[12]程林,程贤义.徐州市环境氡及其子体水平分析[J].江苏环境科技,1993(3):11-13.
[13]郁会莲,常峰,陈萍等.西安市区居民住宅室内氡浓度水平调查[J].浙江预防医学,2008(8):45-46.
[14]侯祖洪,杨想军,秦俊等.武汉市居室内放射性水平调查[J].公共卫生与预防医学,2005(3):1-2.
[15]高建政,马海卫,田义宗等.天津市部分新建楼房室内氡浓度水平调查[J].中国辐射卫生,2006(3):338-339.
[16]涂彧，张兵波，俞荣生等．苏州市区居民住宅内氡水平及其影响因素分析[J].中国辐射卫生,2003(4):222-223.
[17]张传富,周致熙.四川省阿坝州室内氡及子体水平与剂量估算[J].现代预防医学,1991(3):153-156.
[18]雷家荣,王拓,刘浩才等.四川省科学城地区室内氡浓度的调查与评价[J].四川环境,1999(1):45-48.
[19]孙小娜,库德热提,张聚敬等.2002至2004年乌鲁木齐市环境放射性调查与评价[J].中华放射医学与防护杂志,2006(2):172-173.
[20]王玉文.新疆部分地区室内外氡水平及卫生学评价[D].新疆:新疆医科大学,2003.
[21]关祖杰,余君岳,杨健明等.香港室内氡水平及其与建筑物表面氡析出率的关系[J].中山大学学报(自然科学版),1991(4):51-55.
[22]辛至秀.台湾夏季氡及其子体与环境γ剂量率的测量[J].国外铀金地质,2002(2):90-94.
[23]重庆市辐射环境监督管理站.重庆市辐射环境质量报告书[R].重庆:重庆市辐射环境监督管理站,2005.
[24]重庆市辐射环境监督管理站.重庆市辐射环境质量报告书[R].重庆:重庆市辐射环境监督管理站,2006.
[25]重庆市辐射环境监督管理站.重庆市辐射环境质量报告书[R].重庆:重庆市辐射环境监督管理站,2007.
[26]重庆市辐射环境监督管理站.重庆市辐射环境质量报告书[R].重庆:重庆市辐射环境监督管理站,2008.
[27]潘纯珍,刘嘉烈,杜恒雁等.重庆市氡浓度水平调查[J].辐射防护,2009(2):111-114.
[28]吴慧山,林玉飞,白云生等.氡测量方法与应用[M].北京:原子能出版社,1995
[29]李利红.地-空界面放射性氡析出率的研究[D].四川:成都理工大学,2007.
[30]田丽霞.地-空界面壤中氡浓度变化研究[D].四川:成都理工大学,2007.
[31]孙凯男.土壤氡析出率的研究[M].北京:清华大学,2004.
[32]张智慧.空气中氡及其子体的测量方法[M].北京:原子能出版社,1994.
[33] Fry R.M.,Radiation hazards of uranium mining and milling,AAEC/IP-9,1975.
[34] http://www.raydetect.com/article/080516160837.html
[35]张智慧,空气中氡及其子体的测定[M].北京:原子能出版社.第一版.1994.
[36]尚兵,唐莉,曾力等.北京市地下铁道环境放射性水平及其工作人员受照剂量评价.中华放射医学与防护杂志,1994,14(6):401-404.
[37]刘英俊等.元素地球化学[M].北京:科学出版社.1984.
[38] Fry R.M.,Radon and its hazards,Proceeding of the NEA specialist meeting,P.13,Canad.,4-8 Oct.1976.
[39]耿世彬,连慧亮.氡与室内空气环境[J].建筑热能通风孔天.2001(6):49-51.
[40]丘寿康.有关氡危害与评价的认识问题[J].辐射防护通讯,2001(6):3-7.
[41]郭秋菊,许寿元.氡的危害及剂量估算[J].中华放射医学与防护杂志,2004(24):85-87.
[42]李晓燕.中国地下工程氡污染及其健康危害评价[D].北京:中国科学院地球化学研究所,2005.
[43]胡国辉,孔令丰,张春舞.居民住房内的氡气辐射污染问题[J].广州环境科学.2002,17(l):28-30.
[44]常桂兰.氡及氡的危害[J].铀矿地质,2002(18):122-128.
[45] National Cancer Office.Atlas of Cancer Mortality in the People’s Republic of China[M].China Map Press,1980.50.
[46]王作元.辐射危害和室内氡对健康的影响[A].面向21世纪全国首届室内环境质量研讨会论文集,2001.46-47.
[47] ElaineRon . Ionizing radiation and cancer risk evidence from epidemiology[J].Radiat Res,1998,150(Suppl):S30-S41.
[48]商迎庆.室内氡的危害研究进展[J].环境与健康杂志,2002(19):350-352.
[49]曹振国,段继刚.室内氡的危害及防治[J].环境经纬,2004(9):50-51.
[50] F.Marley,A.R.Deunran,P.S.Phillips.Examination of the influence of water-heated central heating systems on the levels of radon and radon Progeny in the work Place.Radiation Measurements.2000,32:15-25.
[51]商迎庆.室内氡的危害研究进展[J].环境与健康杂志,2002(19):350-352.
[52]王利军,贡建伟,耿世彬,等.室内氡的危害及控制措施[J].洁净与空调技术,2005(4):65-68.
[53]陈光明,何永金.室内氡的危害及防氡降氡措施[J].环境工程,1998(16):29-32.
[54]赵亚民译.美国国家环保局.氡的居民指南[M].北京:中国环境科学出版社,1990:46-47.
[55] MorganKZ.Risk assessment of exposure to ionrzing radiation:another view[A],Florida:Proceedings American Nuclear Society,1981.50-52.
[56] National Research Council.Committeeon the biological effects of ionizing radiation.Health Effects of Exposure to Radon(BEIRVI)[M].Washungton,DC:National Academy Press,1998.200-203.
[57] USEPA.Radon health risks[R].2000(22):50-51.
[58]国际辐射防护委员会.住宅和工作场所氡-222的防护[M].北京:原子能出版社,1997.12.
[59]吴慧山.室内环境氡的危害及其防治对策[A].面向21世纪全国首届室内环境质量研讨会论文集,2001.52.
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[61]孟文斌.辽宁室内氡浓度及其分布[A].面向21世纪全国首届室内环境质量研讨会论文集,2001.145.
[62]朱昌寿.居室内电离辐射源记对健康影响评价[A].面向21世纪全国首届室内环境质量研讨会论文集,2001.21.
[63]贾成铁.居室放射性水平监测及其超限制控制对策研究[J].中国辐射卫生,200,9(3):139.
[64]张淑蓉.用天然石材装修居室的放射卫生评价[J].中国辐射卫生,2000,9(1):16.
[65]张智慧.空气中氡及其子体的测量方法[M].北京:原子能出版社,1994.
[66] HASL Procedures Manual,HASL-300.E-Rn-01.
[67] Thomas J.W.,Health Phys.,18.113.1970.
[68] http://www.chem17.com/st127499/product_948238.html.
[69] http://www.bjhzbp.com/product/gb/product_detail.asp?catalogid=8&productid=200.
[70] http://www.bochuangte.com/cpxxgtgj.html.
[71]陈光明,何永金.室内氡的危害及防氡降氡措施[J].环境工程,1998(16):29-32.
[72]卢新卫.室内空气中氡的来源、危害及控制措施分析[J].桂林工学院学报,2004(24):87-92.
[73]于水,王功鹏,骆亿生,等.部分住宅和地下空间氡浓度的监测及防护措施研究[J].辐射防护,1999(19):195-200.
[74]郑天亮,等编著.建筑工程防氡技术[M].北京:北京航空航天大学出版社,2006.