家庭背景与干部地位获得（1950-2003）
|
摘要
家庭背景如何影响干部地位获得不仅是民众普遍关心的问题,也引起了代际流动研究和政治精英研究的关注。随着中国政治和经济体制的变迁,在不同的历史时期,哪些家庭的子代在干部选拔中占优势,家庭背景作用的机制是什么,变化的原因又是什么?为了回答这些问题,笔者从一般资本理论和制度分析出发构建一个分析的框架。笔者认为家庭背景的作用本质上是一个代际资本转化的过程,而这一过程又是嵌入在制度背景之中的。具体而言,干部选拔录用制度规定了必需的资本类型,就决定了不同家庭的机会结构,入党和升学等制度安排则决定了代际间资本转化的具体形式。
改革前的干部选拔是一种特殊主义原则的逆向选拔,包括阶级庇护和政党庇护。良好的家庭出身和党员身份相应地成为干部地位获得最重要的政治资本。在阶级标签系统中,家庭背景以家庭出身的形式直接作用于干部选拔,同时还影响子代对党员身份的获取,入党成为家庭背景发挥作用的中间机制。
改革以后,随着党政治路线的调整,干部选拔录用制度转向普遍主义的绩效选拔。教育程度取代家庭出身成为干部选拔重要的标准,而逆向选拔中仅存政党庇护。同时,干部委任制本身的制度缺陷使社会资本在正式制度之外成为决定干部地位获得的重要因素。结果,文化资本、政治资本(党员身份)、社会资本成为改革后干部地位获得最重要的三种资本类型。在上述制度条件下,权力精英、经济精英和文化精英组成的优势家庭通过入党和升学这两个中间机制,将家庭优势资本转化为子代的政治资本和文化资本从而增加他们成为干部的机会。而干部子弟更是凭借父代的权力资本和社会关系积累起丰富的社会资本,在干部选拔中独享特权,实现了干部家庭权力地位的再生产。
笔者基于2003年全国综合调查的数据(CGSS2003),运用离散时间的事件史分析技术,对以上理论观点以及命题进行了检验。研究结果表明：(1)在改革前的历史时期(1950-1977),政治声望最高的军人的子代在干部选拔中占据优势,入党是家庭出身发挥作用的中间机制。(2)在改革后的历史时期(1978-2003),除了军人子弟,干部和专业技术人员的子代也在干部选拔中占优势,入党和升学是中间机制。尤其是中上层干部的子代,在控制了教育和党员身份之后依然具有显著的优势。
The impact of family background on the attainment of political leadership position (i.e. cadre) draws close attention from the society to the researchers of inter-generation mobility and political elite. During the economic and political reforms of China in the past 30 years, what kinds of families take more advantage in the leadership-attaining process respectively in two different periods? What's the mechanism, and what causes the change of it during the transition? To answer these questions, the author develops a theoretical framework based on general capital theory and institutional analysis. The author argues that the impact of family background is based on the process of inter-generational capital transformation, which embedded in some institutional arrangements. The system of cadre selection decides what kinds of capital to be needed, which further affects the structure of different families' opportunities. At the same time, major factors as the policies of CCP party member recruitment and education jointly shaped specific process of inter-generational capital transformation.
In Mao era (1950-1977), the system of cadre selection was a mode of favoritism or sponsorship, which included class favoritism and party favoritism. Good family origin and CCP party membership were two types of political capitals indispensable for attaining leadership position at that time. The family origin based on a class-label system not only directly affected the admittance to be a cadre but also to be a CCP party member. In this sense, party member recruitment was the intermediate mechanism between family origin and leadership position.
After reform (1978-2003), the system of cadre selection partially changes to the mode of meritocracy. Class favoritism collapsed and the education replaced family origin to be a new credential. In addition to this change, because of the natural shortcoming of cadre appointment system, social capital becomes another important factor. It means besides political capital (CCP party membership), cultural capital and social capital become important as well after reform. Under such institutional arrangements, political elite (cadre), economic elite and cultural elite through educational stratification and party member recruitment manage to transform different resources to their offspring's political capital and cultural capital, and finally help them occupy the leadership position. Furthermore, the offspring of political elite (cadre) have a tremendous amount of social capital from their fathers. They are most likely to be cadres. Thus Chinese political elite achieve reproduction.
Statistical findings from a national sampling survey data of China (CGSS2003) show that:(1) In Mao era (1950-1977), the offspring of PLA family with the best family origin were most likely to be cadres, and the CCP part member recruitment was the intermediate mechanism. (2)After reform (1978-2003), the offspring of cadres, professionals and technologists all have advantage in attaining political leadership position (cadre). Educational stratification and the CCP part member recruitment are the two intermediate mechanisms. Moreover, especially to offspring of middle and higher level cadres, even with the two variables controlled, they still have a significant advantage.
改革前的干部选拔是一种特殊主义原则的逆向选拔,包括阶级庇护和政党庇护。良好的家庭出身和党员身份相应地成为干部地位获得最重要的政治资本。在阶级标签系统中,家庭背景以家庭出身的形式直接作用于干部选拔,同时还影响子代对党员身份的获取,入党成为家庭背景发挥作用的中间机制。
改革以后,随着党政治路线的调整,干部选拔录用制度转向普遍主义的绩效选拔。教育程度取代家庭出身成为干部选拔重要的标准,而逆向选拔中仅存政党庇护。同时,干部委任制本身的制度缺陷使社会资本在正式制度之外成为决定干部地位获得的重要因素。结果,文化资本、政治资本(党员身份)、社会资本成为改革后干部地位获得最重要的三种资本类型。在上述制度条件下,权力精英、经济精英和文化精英组成的优势家庭通过入党和升学这两个中间机制,将家庭优势资本转化为子代的政治资本和文化资本从而增加他们成为干部的机会。而干部子弟更是凭借父代的权力资本和社会关系积累起丰富的社会资本,在干部选拔中独享特权,实现了干部家庭权力地位的再生产。
笔者基于2003年全国综合调查的数据(CGSS2003),运用离散时间的事件史分析技术,对以上理论观点以及命题进行了检验。研究结果表明：(1)在改革前的历史时期(1950-1977),政治声望最高的军人的子代在干部选拔中占据优势,入党是家庭出身发挥作用的中间机制。(2)在改革后的历史时期(1978-2003),除了军人子弟,干部和专业技术人员的子代也在干部选拔中占优势,入党和升学是中间机制。尤其是中上层干部的子代,在控制了教育和党员身份之后依然具有显著的优势。
The impact of family background on the attainment of political leadership position (i.e. cadre) draws close attention from the society to the researchers of inter-generation mobility and political elite. During the economic and political reforms of China in the past 30 years, what kinds of families take more advantage in the leadership-attaining process respectively in two different periods? What's the mechanism, and what causes the change of it during the transition? To answer these questions, the author develops a theoretical framework based on general capital theory and institutional analysis. The author argues that the impact of family background is based on the process of inter-generational capital transformation, which embedded in some institutional arrangements. The system of cadre selection decides what kinds of capital to be needed, which further affects the structure of different families' opportunities. At the same time, major factors as the policies of CCP party member recruitment and education jointly shaped specific process of inter-generational capital transformation.
In Mao era (1950-1977), the system of cadre selection was a mode of favoritism or sponsorship, which included class favoritism and party favoritism. Good family origin and CCP party membership were two types of political capitals indispensable for attaining leadership position at that time. The family origin based on a class-label system not only directly affected the admittance to be a cadre but also to be a CCP party member. In this sense, party member recruitment was the intermediate mechanism between family origin and leadership position.
After reform (1978-2003), the system of cadre selection partially changes to the mode of meritocracy. Class favoritism collapsed and the education replaced family origin to be a new credential. In addition to this change, because of the natural shortcoming of cadre appointment system, social capital becomes another important factor. It means besides political capital (CCP party membership), cultural capital and social capital become important as well after reform. Under such institutional arrangements, political elite (cadre), economic elite and cultural elite through educational stratification and party member recruitment manage to transform different resources to their offspring's political capital and cultural capital, and finally help them occupy the leadership position. Furthermore, the offspring of political elite (cadre) have a tremendous amount of social capital from their fathers. They are most likely to be cadres. Thus Chinese political elite achieve reproduction.
Statistical findings from a national sampling survey data of China (CGSS2003) show that:(1) In Mao era (1950-1977), the offspring of PLA family with the best family origin were most likely to be cadres, and the CCP part member recruitment was the intermediate mechanism. (2)After reform (1978-2003), the offspring of cadres, professionals and technologists all have advantage in attaining political leadership position (cadre). Educational stratification and the CCP part member recruitment are the two intermediate mechanisms. Moreover, especially to offspring of middle and higher level cadres, even with the two variables controlled, they still have a significant advantage.
引文
[1]艾尔文·古德纳著.顾晓辉,蔡嵘译.知识分子的未来和新阶级的兴起[M].南京：江苏人民出版社,2002.
[2]白威廉.中国的平均化现象[A].见：边燕杰主编.市场转型与社会分层：美国学者分析中国[M].北京：生活·读书·新知三联书店,2002：3-41.
[3]边燕杰,舒晓玲,罗根.共产党员身份与中国的变迁[A].见：边燕杰等主编.社会分层与流动：国外学者对中国研究的新进展[M].北京：中国人民大学出版社,2008.
[4]陈明明.党治国家的理由、形态与限度[A].见：陈明明主编.共和国制度成长的政治基础[M].上海：上海人民出版社,2009.
[5]陈尧.政治研究中的庇护主义——一个分析的范式[J].江苏社会科学,2007,(3).
[6]陈友华,方长春.社会分层与教育分流——一项对义务教育阶段“划区就近入学”等制度安排公平性的实证研究[J].江苏社会科学,2007,(1)
[7]杜本峰.事件史分析及其应用[M].北京：经济科学出版社,2008.
[8]戴维·格伦斯基编.王俊等译.社会分层(第2版)[M].北京：华夏出版社,2005.
[9]戴维·斯沃茨著.陶东风译.文化与权力：布迪厄的社会学[M].上海：上海译文出版社,2006.
[10]丹尼尔·贝尔著.高銛等译.后工业社会的来临[M].北京：商务印书馆,1984.
[11]杜兴.《家庭出身代码》国家标准的出炉与废除[J].杂文选刊.2010,(3)
[12]冯尔康主编.中国社会结构的演变[M].郑州：河南人民出版社,1994.
[13]格尔哈斯·伦斯基著.关心平等译.权力与特权：社会分层的理论[M].杭州：浙江人民出版社,1987.
[14]高华.阶级身份和差异：1949-1965年中国社会的政治分层[M].香港：香港中文大学亚太研究所,2004.
[15]怀默霆.中国的社会不平等和社会分层[A].见：边燕杰主编.市场转型与社会分层：美国学者分析中国[M].北京：生活·读书·新知三联书店,2002：42-82.
[16]彭勇.权力异化的组织根源及改革走向[J].理论探讨,2004,(6)
[17]李春玲.社会政治变迁与教育机会不平等——家庭背景及制度因素对教育获得的影响(1940-2001)[J].中国社会科学,2003,(3).
[18]路风.中国单位制的起源和形式[J].中国社会科学季刊(香港),1993,(5)
[19]李辉.贿赂中的自我道德化与嵌入性腐败基于H市纪检监察机关档案的一项文本研究.社会,2009,(6)
[20]刘精明.国家、社会阶层与教育：教育获得的社会学研究[M].北京：中国人民大学出版社,2005.
[21]李侃如著.胡国成,赵梅译.治理中国：从革命到改革[M].北京：中国社会科学出版社,2010.
[22]林南著.张磊译.社会资本：关于社会结构与行动的理论[M].上海：上海人民出版社,2004.
[23]李若建.从赎罪到替罪：“四类分子”阶层初探[J].开放时代,2006,(5)
[24]林尚立.中国共产党与国家建设[M].天津：天津人民出版社,2009.
[25]刘欣.当前中国社会阶层分化的多元动力基础——一种权力衍生论的解释[J].中国社会科学,2005a,(4)
[26]——.当前中国社会阶层分化的制度基础[J].社会学研究,2005b,(5)
[27]刘晓萌.“血统论”与知青上山下乡运动[J].青年研究,1995,(2)
[28]李煜.制度变迁与教育不平等的产生机制——中国城市子女的教育获得(1966—2003)[J].中国社会科学.2006,(4)
[29].代际流动的模式：理论理想型与中国现实[J].社会,2009,29(6)
[30]莫里斯·迪韦尔热著.杨祖功,王大东译.政治社会学：政治学要素[M].上海：东方出版社,2007.
[31]瞿同祖.中国封建社会[M].上海：上海人民出版社,2003.
[32]毛汉光.中国中古社会史论[M].上海：上海书店出版社,2002.
[33]马克思,恩格斯著.中央编译局编译.共产党宣言[M].北京：中央编译出版社,2004.
[34]吉尔·伊亚尔,伊万·塞勒尼,艾莉诺·汤斯利著.吕鹏,吕佳龄译.无须资本家打造资本主义[M].北京：社会科学文献出版社,2008：26-32.
[35]倪志伟.社会学新制度主义的来源[A].见：何俊志等编译.新制度主义政治学译文精选[M].天津：天津人民出版社,2007：227-244.
[36]特纳.担保型流动／竞争型流动和学校体制[A].见：戴维·格伦斯基编.王俊等译.社会分层(第2版)[M].北京：华夏出版社,2005：278-283.
[37]孙明.市场转型与民众的分配公平观[J].社会学研究,2009,(3).
[38]唐元松.选拔制度与选举制度辨析及启示[J].当代中国政治研究报告,2002.
[39]王立新.制度转换：党政干部选拔制度改革的根本性选择[J].理论学刊,2001,(5).
[40]王奇生.党员、党权与党争——1924-1949年中国国民党的组织形态[M].上海：上海书店出版社,2003.
[41]魏昂德著.龚小夏译.共产党社会的新传统主义：中国工业中的工作环境和权力结构[M].香港：香港牛津大学出版社,1996.
[42]吴晓刚.“下海”：中国城乡劳动力市场转型中的自雇活动与社会分层(1978-1996)[J].社会学研究,2006,(6)
[43]＿＿.1990-2000年中国的市场转型、教育扩招和教育不平等[J].社会2009,29(5).
[44]吴愈晓.家庭背景、体制转型与中国农村精英的代际传承(1978-1996)[J].社会学研究,2010,(2).
[45]徐湘林.后毛时代的精英转换和依附性技术官僚的兴起[J].战略与管理,2001,(6).
[46]熊易寒.底层、学校与阶级再生产[J].开放时代,2010,(1)
[47]雅诺什·科尔奈著.张安译.社会主义体制——共产主义政治经济学[M].北京：中央编译出版社,2007.
[48]俞可平.中华人民共和国六十年政治发展的逻辑[J].马克思主义与现实,2010,(1).
[49]约翰·肯尼斯·加尔布雷斯著.沈国华译.加尔布雷斯文集[M].上海：上海财经大学出版社,2006.
[50]余清臣.当代中国教育改革的动力机制分析[J].教育科学研究,2009,(10)
[51]郑路.改革的阶段性效应与跨体制职业流动[J].社会学研究,1999,(6)
[52]张文宏.社会资本：理论争辩与经验研究[J].社会学研究,2003,(4)
[53]张宛丽.非制度因素与地位获得[J].社会学研究,1996,(1).
[54]周学光,摩恩,图玛.国家社会主义制度下社会阶层的动态分析——1949至1993年的中国城市状况.见：边燕杰主编.市场转型与社会分层：美国学者分析中国[M].北京：生活·读书·新知三联书店,2002：379-426.
[55]周玉.社会网络资本与干部职业地位获得[J].社会,2006,(1)
[56]Bailes, Kendall E. Technology and Society under Lenin and Stalin[M]. Princeton: Princeton University Press,1978.
[57]Baylis, Thomas A. The Technical Intelligentsia and the East German Elite [M]. erkeley:University of California Press,1974.
[58]Bian, Yanjie. Work and Inequality in Urban China [M], Albany, New York:State iversity of New York Press,1994.
[59]_____. Bringing Strong Ties Back In:Indirect Ties, Network Bridges, and Job Searches in Chin [J]. American Sociological Review,1997,62.
[60]Bourdier, Pierre. Cultural Reproduction and Social Reproduction[A]. In:Jerome Karabel and A. H. Halsey. power and ideology in Education [M]. New York:Oxford University Press,1976.
[61]_____. Distinction:A Social Critique of Jugement of Taste [M]. Cambridge, Mass.:Harvard University Press,1984.
[62]_____. The forms of capital [J]. In:J. Richardson. Handbook of Theory and Research for the Sociology of Education [M]. New York:Greenwood,1986.
[63]Burnham,J. The managerial Revolution [M]. Bloomington:Indiana University Press,1960.
[64]Coleman, J. S. Foundations of Social Theory [M]. Cambridge, MA:The Belknap Press of Harvard University,1990.
[65]Coleman J. S., Campbell E., Hobson C., McPartland J., Mood A., et al. Equality of Educational Opportunity[R], Washington, DC:Dep. Health, Educ., Welfare,1966.
[66]De Graaf, Paul M. The Impact of Financial and Cultural Resources on Educational Attainment in the Netherlands [J]. Sociology of Education.1986,59.
[67]_____. Parents'Financial and Cultural Resources, Grades, and Transition to econdary School in the Federal Republic of Germany[J]. European Sociological Review. 1988,4.
[68]Blau, Peter. M. and 0. D. Duncan. The American Occupational Structure [M]. New York:Wiley,1967.
[69]Featherman, D. L. and R. M. Hauser. Opportunity and Change [M]. New York: Academic Press,1978.
[70]Ganzeboom, Harry B. G., Paul M. De Graaf, and Peter Robert. Cultural Reproduction Theory on Socialist Ground:Intergenerational Transmission of Inequalities in Hungary [J]. Research in Social Stratification and Mobility, 1990,9.
[71]Ganzeboom, Harry B. G., Donald J. Treiman, and Wout C. Ultee. Comparative intergenerational stratification research:three generations and beyond [J] Annual Review of Sociology,1991,17.
[72]Granovetter, Mark. The Strength of Weak Ties[J]. American Journal of Sociology, 1973,78.
[73]Grusky, D. B. and Hauser R. M. Comparative social mobility revisited:models of convergence and divergence in 16 countries [J]. American Sociological Review, 1984,49.
[74]Hansen, M. N. Earnings in Elite Groups:The Impact of Social Class Origin [J]. Acta Sociologica,1996,39.
[75]Hauser, Robert M. and David L. Featherman. Equality of Schooling:Trends and Prospects [J]. Sociology of Education,1976,49.
[76]Hu, Songhua. Family Background and Life Chances in Urban China,1950-1966 [D]. University of Stanford,2007.
[77]Inkeles, Alex, Social Stratification and the Modernization of Russia [A] In:C. Black. The Transformation of Russian Society [M]. MA:Harvard University Press,1960.
[78]Kelley, Jonathan, Robert V. Robinson, and Herbert S. Klein. A Theory of Social Mobility, with Data on Status Attainment in a Peasant Society [J]. Research in Social Stratification and Mobility,1981,1.
[79]Lee, Hong Yung, From Revolutionary Cadres to Party Technocrats in Socialist China [M]. Berkeley:University of California Press,1991.
[80]Leibowitz, Arleen. Home Investments in Children [J]. Journal of Political Economy,1974,82.
[81]_____. Parental Inputs and Children's Achievement [J]. Journal of Human Resources,1977,12.
[82]Lowenthal, R. Development vs. Utopia in Communist Policy [A]. in:C. Johnson. Change in Communist System. Stanford:Stanford University Press,1970.
[83]Li, Bobai and Andrew G. Walder. Career Advancement as Party Patronage: Sponsored Mobility into the Chinese Administrative Elite,1949-1996 [J]. American Journal of Sociology,2001,106.
[84]Li, Cheng and D. Bachman. Localism, Elitism, and Immobilism:Elite Formation and Social Change in Post-Mao China [J]. World Politics,1989,42.
[85]Li, Cheng and Lynn White. Elite Transformation and Modern Change in Mainland China and Taiwan:Empirical Data and the Theory of Technocracy [J]. The China Quarterly,1990,121.
[86]McLanahan, S. Family structure and the reproduction of poverty [J]. American Journal of Sociology,1985,90.
[87]Mercy, James and Lala Steelman. Familial Influence on the Intellectual Attainment of Children [J]. American Sociological Review,1982,47.
[88]Parkin, Frank. Class Inequality and Political Order [M]. New York:Praeger, 1971.
[89]Peaker, G., The Plowden Children Four Years Later [M]. London:Natl. Found, for Educ. Res. in England and Wales,1971.
[90]Selznick, Philip, Leadership in Administration [M]. New York:Harper & Row, 1957.
[91]Putnam, Robert D. The Comparative Study of Political Elites [M]. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:Prentice-Hall,1976.
[92]Shavit, Y. and H. Blossfeld. Persistent Inequality [M]. Boulder, CO:Westview Press,1993.
[93]Schurmann, Franz. Ideology and Organization in Communist China [M]. Berkeley: University of California Press,1966.
[94]Swell, William H., Archibald O. Haller, and Alejandro Potres. The Educational and Early Occupational Attainment Process [J]. American Sociological Review.1969,34.
[95]Teachman, Jay D. Family Background, Educational Resources, and Educational Attainment [J]. American Sociological Review,1987,52.
[96]Treiman, Donald J. Industrialization and Social Stratification [A]. in:E. 0. Laumann. Social Stratification:Research and Theory for the 1970s[M]. Indianapolis: BobbsMerrill,1970.
[97]Veblen, Thorsten. The Engineers and the Price System [M]. New York:The Viking Press,1944.
[98]Walder, Andrew G. Career Mobility and The Communist Political Order [J] American Sociological Review,1995,60.
[99]Walder, Andrew G. and Hu Songhua, Revolution, Reform, and Status Inheritance: Urban China,1949-1996 [J]. American Journal of Sociology,2009,114.
[100]Walder, Andrew G., Bobai Li and Doanld J. Treiman. Politics and Life Chances in State Socialist Regimes:Duel Career Paths into the Urban Chinese Elite,1949-1996 [J]. American Sociological Review,2000,65.
[101]Xiao, Gongqin. The Rise of the Technocrats [J]. Journal of Democracy,2003, 14.
[102]Zhou, Xueguang. Political Dynamics and Bureaucratic Career Patterns in the People's Republic of China [J]. Comparative Political Studies,2001,34.
[103]Zang, Xiaowei. The Fourteenth Central Committee of the CCP:Technocracy or Political Technocracy? [J]. Asian Survey,1993,33.
[2]白威廉.中国的平均化现象[A].见：边燕杰主编.市场转型与社会分层：美国学者分析中国[M].北京：生活·读书·新知三联书店,2002：3-41.
[3]边燕杰,舒晓玲,罗根.共产党员身份与中国的变迁[A].见：边燕杰等主编.社会分层与流动：国外学者对中国研究的新进展[M].北京：中国人民大学出版社,2008.
[4]陈明明.党治国家的理由、形态与限度[A].见：陈明明主编.共和国制度成长的政治基础[M].上海：上海人民出版社,2009.
[5]陈尧.政治研究中的庇护主义——一个分析的范式[J].江苏社会科学,2007,(3).
[6]陈友华,方长春.社会分层与教育分流——一项对义务教育阶段“划区就近入学”等制度安排公平性的实证研究[J].江苏社会科学,2007,(1)
[7]杜本峰.事件史分析及其应用[M].北京：经济科学出版社,2008.
[8]戴维·格伦斯基编.王俊等译.社会分层(第2版)[M].北京：华夏出版社,2005.
[9]戴维·斯沃茨著.陶东风译.文化与权力：布迪厄的社会学[M].上海：上海译文出版社,2006.
[10]丹尼尔·贝尔著.高銛等译.后工业社会的来临[M].北京：商务印书馆,1984.
[11]杜兴.《家庭出身代码》国家标准的出炉与废除[J].杂文选刊.2010,(3)
[12]冯尔康主编.中国社会结构的演变[M].郑州：河南人民出版社,1994.
[13]格尔哈斯·伦斯基著.关心平等译.权力与特权：社会分层的理论[M].杭州：浙江人民出版社,1987.
[14]高华.阶级身份和差异：1949-1965年中国社会的政治分层[M].香港：香港中文大学亚太研究所,2004.
[15]怀默霆.中国的社会不平等和社会分层[A].见：边燕杰主编.市场转型与社会分层：美国学者分析中国[M].北京：生活·读书·新知三联书店,2002：42-82.
[16]彭勇.权力异化的组织根源及改革走向[J].理论探讨,2004,(6)
[17]李春玲.社会政治变迁与教育机会不平等——家庭背景及制度因素对教育获得的影响(1940-2001)[J].中国社会科学,2003,(3).
[18]路风.中国单位制的起源和形式[J].中国社会科学季刊(香港),1993,(5)
[19]李辉.贿赂中的自我道德化与嵌入性腐败基于H市纪检监察机关档案的一项文本研究.社会,2009,(6)
[20]刘精明.国家、社会阶层与教育：教育获得的社会学研究[M].北京：中国人民大学出版社,2005.
[21]李侃如著.胡国成,赵梅译.治理中国：从革命到改革[M].北京：中国社会科学出版社,2010.
[22]林南著.张磊译.社会资本：关于社会结构与行动的理论[M].上海：上海人民出版社,2004.
[23]李若建.从赎罪到替罪：“四类分子”阶层初探[J].开放时代,2006,(5)
[24]林尚立.中国共产党与国家建设[M].天津：天津人民出版社,2009.
[25]刘欣.当前中国社会阶层分化的多元动力基础——一种权力衍生论的解释[J].中国社会科学,2005a,(4)
[26]——.当前中国社会阶层分化的制度基础[J].社会学研究,2005b,(5)
[27]刘晓萌.“血统论”与知青上山下乡运动[J].青年研究,1995,(2)
[28]李煜.制度变迁与教育不平等的产生机制——中国城市子女的教育获得(1966—2003)[J].中国社会科学.2006,(4)
[29].代际流动的模式：理论理想型与中国现实[J].社会,2009,29(6)
[30]莫里斯·迪韦尔热著.杨祖功,王大东译.政治社会学：政治学要素[M].上海：东方出版社,2007.
[31]瞿同祖.中国封建社会[M].上海：上海人民出版社,2003.
[32]毛汉光.中国中古社会史论[M].上海：上海书店出版社,2002.
[33]马克思,恩格斯著.中央编译局编译.共产党宣言[M].北京：中央编译出版社,2004.
[34]吉尔·伊亚尔,伊万·塞勒尼,艾莉诺·汤斯利著.吕鹏,吕佳龄译.无须资本家打造资本主义[M].北京：社会科学文献出版社,2008：26-32.
[35]倪志伟.社会学新制度主义的来源[A].见：何俊志等编译.新制度主义政治学译文精选[M].天津：天津人民出版社,2007：227-244.
[36]特纳.担保型流动／竞争型流动和学校体制[A].见：戴维·格伦斯基编.王俊等译.社会分层(第2版)[M].北京：华夏出版社,2005：278-283.
[37]孙明.市场转型与民众的分配公平观[J].社会学研究,2009,(3).
[38]唐元松.选拔制度与选举制度辨析及启示[J].当代中国政治研究报告,2002.
[39]王立新.制度转换：党政干部选拔制度改革的根本性选择[J].理论学刊,2001,(5).
[40]王奇生.党员、党权与党争——1924-1949年中国国民党的组织形态[M].上海：上海书店出版社,2003.
[41]魏昂德著.龚小夏译.共产党社会的新传统主义：中国工业中的工作环境和权力结构[M].香港：香港牛津大学出版社,1996.
[42]吴晓刚.“下海”：中国城乡劳动力市场转型中的自雇活动与社会分层(1978-1996)[J].社会学研究,2006,(6)
[43]＿＿.1990-2000年中国的市场转型、教育扩招和教育不平等[J].社会2009,29(5).
[44]吴愈晓.家庭背景、体制转型与中国农村精英的代际传承(1978-1996)[J].社会学研究,2010,(2).
[45]徐湘林.后毛时代的精英转换和依附性技术官僚的兴起[J].战略与管理,2001,(6).
[46]熊易寒.底层、学校与阶级再生产[J].开放时代,2010,(1)
[47]雅诺什·科尔奈著.张安译.社会主义体制——共产主义政治经济学[M].北京：中央编译出版社,2007.
[48]俞可平.中华人民共和国六十年政治发展的逻辑[J].马克思主义与现实,2010,(1).
[49]约翰·肯尼斯·加尔布雷斯著.沈国华译.加尔布雷斯文集[M].上海：上海财经大学出版社,2006.
[50]余清臣.当代中国教育改革的动力机制分析[J].教育科学研究,2009,(10)
[51]郑路.改革的阶段性效应与跨体制职业流动[J].社会学研究,1999,(6)
[52]张文宏.社会资本：理论争辩与经验研究[J].社会学研究,2003,(4)
[53]张宛丽.非制度因素与地位获得[J].社会学研究,1996,(1).
[54]周学光,摩恩,图玛.国家社会主义制度下社会阶层的动态分析——1949至1993年的中国城市状况.见：边燕杰主编.市场转型与社会分层：美国学者分析中国[M].北京：生活·读书·新知三联书店,2002：379-426.
[55]周玉.社会网络资本与干部职业地位获得[J].社会,2006,(1)
[56]Bailes, Kendall E. Technology and Society under Lenin and Stalin[M]. Princeton: Princeton University Press,1978.
[57]Baylis, Thomas A. The Technical Intelligentsia and the East German Elite [M]. erkeley:University of California Press,1974.
[58]Bian, Yanjie. Work and Inequality in Urban China [M], Albany, New York:State iversity of New York Press,1994.
[59]_____. Bringing Strong Ties Back In:Indirect Ties, Network Bridges, and Job Searches in Chin [J]. American Sociological Review,1997,62.
[60]Bourdier, Pierre. Cultural Reproduction and Social Reproduction[A]. In:Jerome Karabel and A. H. Halsey. power and ideology in Education [M]. New York:Oxford University Press,1976.
[61]_____. Distinction:A Social Critique of Jugement of Taste [M]. Cambridge, Mass.:Harvard University Press,1984.
[62]_____. The forms of capital [J]. In:J. Richardson. Handbook of Theory and Research for the Sociology of Education [M]. New York:Greenwood,1986.
[63]Burnham,J. The managerial Revolution [M]. Bloomington:Indiana University Press,1960.
[64]Coleman, J. S. Foundations of Social Theory [M]. Cambridge, MA:The Belknap Press of Harvard University,1990.
[65]Coleman J. S., Campbell E., Hobson C., McPartland J., Mood A., et al. Equality of Educational Opportunity[R], Washington, DC:Dep. Health, Educ., Welfare,1966.
[66]De Graaf, Paul M. The Impact of Financial and Cultural Resources on Educational Attainment in the Netherlands [J]. Sociology of Education.1986,59.
[67]_____. Parents'Financial and Cultural Resources, Grades, and Transition to econdary School in the Federal Republic of Germany[J]. European Sociological Review. 1988,4.
[68]Blau, Peter. M. and 0. D. Duncan. The American Occupational Structure [M]. New York:Wiley,1967.
[69]Featherman, D. L. and R. M. Hauser. Opportunity and Change [M]. New York: Academic Press,1978.
[70]Ganzeboom, Harry B. G., Paul M. De Graaf, and Peter Robert. Cultural Reproduction Theory on Socialist Ground:Intergenerational Transmission of Inequalities in Hungary [J]. Research in Social Stratification and Mobility, 1990,9.
[71]Ganzeboom, Harry B. G., Donald J. Treiman, and Wout C. Ultee. Comparative intergenerational stratification research:three generations and beyond [J] Annual Review of Sociology,1991,17.
[72]Granovetter, Mark. The Strength of Weak Ties[J]. American Journal of Sociology, 1973,78.
[73]Grusky, D. B. and Hauser R. M. Comparative social mobility revisited:models of convergence and divergence in 16 countries [J]. American Sociological Review, 1984,49.
[74]Hansen, M. N. Earnings in Elite Groups:The Impact of Social Class Origin [J]. Acta Sociologica,1996,39.
[75]Hauser, Robert M. and David L. Featherman. Equality of Schooling:Trends and Prospects [J]. Sociology of Education,1976,49.
[76]Hu, Songhua. Family Background and Life Chances in Urban China,1950-1966 [D]. University of Stanford,2007.
[77]Inkeles, Alex, Social Stratification and the Modernization of Russia [A] In:C. Black. The Transformation of Russian Society [M]. MA:Harvard University Press,1960.
[78]Kelley, Jonathan, Robert V. Robinson, and Herbert S. Klein. A Theory of Social Mobility, with Data on Status Attainment in a Peasant Society [J]. Research in Social Stratification and Mobility,1981,1.
[79]Lee, Hong Yung, From Revolutionary Cadres to Party Technocrats in Socialist China [M]. Berkeley:University of California Press,1991.
[80]Leibowitz, Arleen. Home Investments in Children [J]. Journal of Political Economy,1974,82.
[81]_____. Parental Inputs and Children's Achievement [J]. Journal of Human Resources,1977,12.
[82]Lowenthal, R. Development vs. Utopia in Communist Policy [A]. in:C. Johnson. Change in Communist System. Stanford:Stanford University Press,1970.
[83]Li, Bobai and Andrew G. Walder. Career Advancement as Party Patronage: Sponsored Mobility into the Chinese Administrative Elite,1949-1996 [J]. American Journal of Sociology,2001,106.
[84]Li, Cheng and D. Bachman. Localism, Elitism, and Immobilism:Elite Formation and Social Change in Post-Mao China [J]. World Politics,1989,42.
[85]Li, Cheng and Lynn White. Elite Transformation and Modern Change in Mainland China and Taiwan:Empirical Data and the Theory of Technocracy [J]. The China Quarterly,1990,121.
[86]McLanahan, S. Family structure and the reproduction of poverty [J]. American Journal of Sociology,1985,90.
[87]Mercy, James and Lala Steelman. Familial Influence on the Intellectual Attainment of Children [J]. American Sociological Review,1982,47.
[88]Parkin, Frank. Class Inequality and Political Order [M]. New York:Praeger, 1971.
[89]Peaker, G., The Plowden Children Four Years Later [M]. London:Natl. Found, for Educ. Res. in England and Wales,1971.
[90]Selznick, Philip, Leadership in Administration [M]. New York:Harper & Row, 1957.
[91]Putnam, Robert D. The Comparative Study of Political Elites [M]. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:Prentice-Hall,1976.
[92]Shavit, Y. and H. Blossfeld. Persistent Inequality [M]. Boulder, CO:Westview Press,1993.
[93]Schurmann, Franz. Ideology and Organization in Communist China [M]. Berkeley: University of California Press,1966.
[94]Swell, William H., Archibald O. Haller, and Alejandro Potres. The Educational and Early Occupational Attainment Process [J]. American Sociological Review.1969,34.
[95]Teachman, Jay D. Family Background, Educational Resources, and Educational Attainment [J]. American Sociological Review,1987,52.
[96]Treiman, Donald J. Industrialization and Social Stratification [A]. in:E. 0. Laumann. Social Stratification:Research and Theory for the 1970s[M]. Indianapolis: BobbsMerrill,1970.
[97]Veblen, Thorsten. The Engineers and the Price System [M]. New York:The Viking Press,1944.
[98]Walder, Andrew G. Career Mobility and The Communist Political Order [J] American Sociological Review,1995,60.
[99]Walder, Andrew G. and Hu Songhua, Revolution, Reform, and Status Inheritance: Urban China,1949-1996 [J]. American Journal of Sociology,2009,114.
[100]Walder, Andrew G., Bobai Li and Doanld J. Treiman. Politics and Life Chances in State Socialist Regimes:Duel Career Paths into the Urban Chinese Elite,1949-1996 [J]. American Sociological Review,2000,65.
[101]Xiao, Gongqin. The Rise of the Technocrats [J]. Journal of Democracy,2003, 14.
[102]Zhou, Xueguang. Political Dynamics and Bureaucratic Career Patterns in the People's Republic of China [J]. Comparative Political Studies,2001,34.
[103]Zang, Xiaowei. The Fourteenth Central Committee of the CCP:Technocracy or Political Technocracy? [J]. Asian Survey,1993,33.