公平视域下美国义务教育改革研究
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摘要
义务教育作为一种公共产品,作为国家立法规定的每一位公民应平等享有的基本人权,是个体生存和发展的必需教育形式,是国家发展和民族复兴的基础。这就决定了义务教育改革的公平诉求有着不同于经济、政治或其他教育领域方面公平诉求的独特性。从价值上看,教育公平是一种教育理想,即通过教育公平进而达到社会公平的人类诉求。从政策上看,教育公平理念是针对现实教育现状中的供需不平衡提出的,其既包括了经济意义上社会总资源在教育中的合理配置及有效利用,也包括了哲学和法学意义上教育机会与教育权利的公平分配。从历史上看,教育公平是随着时代不断改变的历史范畴。在还未普及义务教育的时候,教育公平的涵义是保障更多人受教育机会的权利；在普及义务教育之后,教育公平是保障所有公民的基本受教育质量；当社会的政治、经济、文化水平发展到一定高度,教育公平则是要求为更多的人提供优质教育。
教育公平独特的内涵源于丰富、不断更新的理论支持,主要包括了教育公平理论、教育人权理论和教育现代化理论。首先,义务教育的公平意味着教育机会的平等以及教育资源分配的合理,国家在提供给社会成员受教育可能性上是相等的,而在受教育可能性实现方面则应差别对待。其次,义务教育改革应以人权的自由和平等为价值核心,通过法律和道德的规范得以实现。最后,教育数量公平迈向质量公平是现代社会文化与物质发展到一定阶段的产物,其必然会在政治、经济、文化在社会中的阶级性制约与社会民主与公平诉求中持续。
回顾美国义务教育改革历程,美国民众的教育公平诉求从建国开始就从未中断。起初,为适应社会劳动力的需求和回应国内的民权运动,美国将教育公平实现的重点放在平等的入学机会和公平的资源分配方面,如1954年的“布朗诉教育委员会”案,非裔黑人民众开始了争取混合公立学校运动。自1965年的《初等和中等教育法案》颁布了向贫困家庭儿童及落后学区提供教育补助与补偿教育等促进美国教育公平实现的法案后,一系列教育改革文件都在围绕教育公平战略被承接实施。到了本世纪,《不让一个孩子掉队法》与奥巴马政府的教育改革蓝图的出台,标志了美国义务教育进入以标准化问责为主要内容的优质教育公平的深化发展阶段。
公平诉求下的美国义务教育改革反映出不同价值主体在对教育价值认可基础上产生的不同价值观念。在自由主义与保守主义两大思潮影响下,美国联邦政府在对教育资源的配置中反映出平等与效率等不断交互发展的价值诉求。新自由主义认为人生而平等,教育的责任是促进社会的平等或者说是矫正因个人努力以外因素造成的不平等,义务教育资源应根据每个人在社会中的平等地位,予以从起点、过程到结果进行全程化平等,其评判应关注最终结果的平等以及对地位不利者的最大化补偿。然而,新保守主义理论认为在教育资源分配的过程中应该一切从人的自由本性出发,凡是违背或限制自由的做法都是不公平、不合理的,其坚持机会均等而非结果平等。基于市场自由之理念,新保守主义认为在有限的教育资源条件下,应从社会整体利益出发,遵循市场中的优胜劣汰、自由竞争原则,将教育资源按需按能力分配给社会成员。从美国义务教育改革的各项政策举措可知,联邦政府始终是坚持“平等优先,兼顾效率”的价值理念,将“保障平等”视为终极性理想诉求,而将“提升效率”视为阶段性现实追求。
理念诉求的实现依托于完善的制度与有效的措施。为兼顾平等与效率这两个外在对立而内在统一的改革目标,美国联邦政府吸纳了新自由主义的经济理性以及新保守主义的回归传统理念,一方面继续加大公立教育资源投入,通过资源补偿和配置来缩减在区域间、学校问和群体间的教育差距,另一方面则在科学严谨的问责、测量、控制、评估体系中制定强制性的统一课程和学业高标准,通过教育券、特许学校等市场介入方式将教育纳入自我管理轨道,使“平等”与“效率”两者能在实践矛盾中得以创造性的缓和与趋近。美国联邦政府并不直接提供和实施学校教育,而是通过教育拨款和立法来推动教育公平并履行教育监管职责,即提供教育资金、设立补偿配置项目、确立教育标准、审查办学资格、监督教育质量等,而教育的效率价值和自由价值则交由市场自行管理,即家长和学生在各种形式的教育机构和教育服务中对教育的数量、质量、方式、方法进行选择,最终通过市场自身的竞争机制实现教育质量和效率的提升。因此,政府、学校和学生这三者之间形成了政府实施充分性拨款、学校接受标准化问责、学生进行市场化择校的教育均衡关系,并建立和完善了学校选择制度、财政分配制度和学业问责制度。
从美国义务教育改革的价值理念、历史演进、制度策略都可以看出,美国人民从公共教育诞生的一刻起就没有停止过对教育公平的探索和追求。这是美国各级政府、市场、民众共同参与的,以政府政策为导向、市场竞争为驱动、公众参与为基础的教育改革历程。在追求形式公平走向实质公平的改革历程中,美国联邦政府能以强制性、延续性的教育法案作为推动教育公平理念的有效保障；以教育券、特许学校、开放入学等学校选择计划来实现不同群体的受教育机会均等；以联邦、州、地方三级政府的财政转移支付模式以及教育补偿政策来弥补区域间和群体间的资源配置不均衡；以国家级、州级统一的标准性测试以及复合型评估问责制度来确保区域间的教育质量和成就的平等。在教育政策决策中,联邦政府作为国家教育改革的执行主体,总是设法广征多方政见和平衡各阶层利益,强调教育资源配置的民主性和科学性；通过立法、诉讼等法律方式保障政策的合法性与权威性。在教育政策实施中,联邦政府通过纵向规划各州和地方政府教育改革措施,横向规划教育部教育改革行动,不断加大对教育资源持续的投入和调控；各级政府根据联邦政策精神,依法推动各项教育改革措施,并及时将教育改革实践反馈到联邦决策层面,从而实现教育改革实施者与决策者有效的良性互动。为此,美国义务教育改革的经验可以为我国义务教育均衡发展提供合理启示：准确把握教育公平内涵,坚持政府依法治教和民主决策；理性看待学校选择政策,拓展择校的工具价值和市场作用；持续保障教育财政投入,完善公平与充分的转移支付制度；合理配置教师资源,建立弱势群体教育补偿制度；科学树立教育发展目标与标准,加强教育督导与问责力度。
As one of public products and basic human right of every citizen in states with adequate legal system, compulsory education is a form of basic education needs of individuals'personal development. From this aspect, equity of compulsory education is quite different from other kinds of equity in economics or politics. From the aspect of value, equity is an ideal, and a method of achieving educational equality and even social equality. From the aspect of policy, equity is put forward to improve imbalance between supply and demand in current situation of education. It includes not only reasonable allocation of social resource and effective use of social resource in schools and regions in different level. From the aspect of history, it has its historical meaning with the development of times. Before popularization of compulsory education, the concept of equity stressed guarantee people's educational opportunity in majority. After that, it emphasized the quality of education. With the rapid development of politics, economy and culture level, it transferred its function to provide more high quality education.
Equity of compulsory education, as a policy principle, is based on its abundant and increasingly updated theoretical support:Educational Equity, Human Right in Education and Educational Modernization Theory. Firstly, educational equality refers to educational right equality, which gives social members equal educational opportunity without any negative factors from family, financial situation, race, and gender and capital possession. Educational equality is reflected in equality of education opportunity and education right and resources assignment. Educational opportunity possibility of social members from the government is equal. However, it is quite different in achieving educational opportunity possibility. Secondly, education is a kind of basic human right in essence which takes freedom and equality as its core of value through law and moral standard. Human right education is the education about and for human right human right, which uses education methods according with human right, teaches people knowledge related to human rights, and promotes human right. Lastly, educational equality and equity are the products of social economy and culture, and are the objective demand in human modernization period. The modernization of economy, society and culture provide material basis for educational equality. Meanwhile, it is restricted by them from classic nature. Education is always an ideal of people to gain. It is an important part of social equality and social democratization. Equity of education is a reflection of freedom, effectiveness, equality, justice and human rights, and is also a main method to achieve educational modernization.
Equity of compulsory education in the U.S. began in1940s aimed to satisfy social labor force needs and respond to civil rights movement. It emphasized entrance opportunity and resources distribution equity. For instance, in1954, African American began to strive for mix public school movement. On idea of fight with poverty, Elementary and Secondary Education Act decided to provide compensative education and financial aid to children from needy families. Educational reform documents such as A Nation at Risk, Goals2000:Educate America Act, ect. put forward developing strategies to carry out. These strategies included no poison and violence, entrance for all children of school age. Standardization accountability strategy in No Child Left Behind (NCLB) pushed equity of compulsory education in American into profound development period. Through NCLB reform, Obama administration reestablished reform target, increased education standard, enhanced education accountability and judgment, optimizing educational resources distribution, and improve weak school. All of these strategies are made for achieving equality of opportunity, process and result.
Equity of compulsory education is not only a policy but also a decision-making principle, and values based on approving of different subjects of values. Influenced by neo-conservation and neo-liberalism, U.S. government adjusted the relationship between freedom and equity, equity and effectiveness in distribution of educational resources. Neo-conservation equity theoreticians believe that educational resources distribution should be based on freedom, and any violating and limitation would be regarded as unequal and unreasonable. It emphasizes equality of opportunities instead of equality of results. Neo-conservation equity theory believed that educational resources should be distributed to social members on considering social benefit and market competition principle. On the contrary, neo-liberalism believed that people are born equal, and the responsibility of education is to promote social equality. The judgment of distribution should be based on results equality and maximizing compensation to disadvantageous groups.
In order to achieve equality and efficiency, U.S. government absorbed opinions of both neo-liberalism and Neo-conservatism. On one side, investing public education resource increasingly to reduce the educational gap between different regions, schools and groups. On the other side, accountability, measuring, controlling and assessment are emphasized in high standard of curriculum and school work. Through voucher and charter school, self management is introduced to education field, in order to achieve equality and efficiency. U.S. federal government provided educational resources, establish compensative project, made educational standard, examined school qualification, supervise educational quality through providing funds, legislation and supervising Parents and students can choose schools freely in different situations. Through market competition, the government improved education quality and efficiency, School choice system, finance distribution system and study accountability have been established.
Therefore, pro forma equity to substantive equity, united state federal government took voucher, charter school, and open enrollment to achieve equality of educational opportunity. Transfer payment from the exchequer from federal government, Standardization test and accountability system are use to achieve educational quality equality. U.S. federal and local government, market and populace start an educational reform movement, which is taken government policies and market competition as important factors. All kinds of problems and controversies in this movement become motivation of American equity of compulsory education. That will help shedding some lights on understanding the content of educational equality, adhering to government's decision and school choice policy, expanding the instrumental value and market function of school choice, distributing teacher resources reasonably, establishing educational compensative system for disadvantaged groups, building development goal and standard and strengthening educational supervising and accountability.
教育公平独特的内涵源于丰富、不断更新的理论支持,主要包括了教育公平理论、教育人权理论和教育现代化理论。首先,义务教育的公平意味着教育机会的平等以及教育资源分配的合理,国家在提供给社会成员受教育可能性上是相等的,而在受教育可能性实现方面则应差别对待。其次,义务教育改革应以人权的自由和平等为价值核心,通过法律和道德的规范得以实现。最后,教育数量公平迈向质量公平是现代社会文化与物质发展到一定阶段的产物,其必然会在政治、经济、文化在社会中的阶级性制约与社会民主与公平诉求中持续。
回顾美国义务教育改革历程,美国民众的教育公平诉求从建国开始就从未中断。起初,为适应社会劳动力的需求和回应国内的民权运动,美国将教育公平实现的重点放在平等的入学机会和公平的资源分配方面,如1954年的“布朗诉教育委员会”案,非裔黑人民众开始了争取混合公立学校运动。自1965年的《初等和中等教育法案》颁布了向贫困家庭儿童及落后学区提供教育补助与补偿教育等促进美国教育公平实现的法案后,一系列教育改革文件都在围绕教育公平战略被承接实施。到了本世纪,《不让一个孩子掉队法》与奥巴马政府的教育改革蓝图的出台,标志了美国义务教育进入以标准化问责为主要内容的优质教育公平的深化发展阶段。
公平诉求下的美国义务教育改革反映出不同价值主体在对教育价值认可基础上产生的不同价值观念。在自由主义与保守主义两大思潮影响下,美国联邦政府在对教育资源的配置中反映出平等与效率等不断交互发展的价值诉求。新自由主义认为人生而平等,教育的责任是促进社会的平等或者说是矫正因个人努力以外因素造成的不平等,义务教育资源应根据每个人在社会中的平等地位,予以从起点、过程到结果进行全程化平等,其评判应关注最终结果的平等以及对地位不利者的最大化补偿。然而,新保守主义理论认为在教育资源分配的过程中应该一切从人的自由本性出发,凡是违背或限制自由的做法都是不公平、不合理的,其坚持机会均等而非结果平等。基于市场自由之理念,新保守主义认为在有限的教育资源条件下,应从社会整体利益出发,遵循市场中的优胜劣汰、自由竞争原则,将教育资源按需按能力分配给社会成员。从美国义务教育改革的各项政策举措可知,联邦政府始终是坚持“平等优先,兼顾效率”的价值理念,将“保障平等”视为终极性理想诉求,而将“提升效率”视为阶段性现实追求。
理念诉求的实现依托于完善的制度与有效的措施。为兼顾平等与效率这两个外在对立而内在统一的改革目标,美国联邦政府吸纳了新自由主义的经济理性以及新保守主义的回归传统理念,一方面继续加大公立教育资源投入,通过资源补偿和配置来缩减在区域间、学校问和群体间的教育差距,另一方面则在科学严谨的问责、测量、控制、评估体系中制定强制性的统一课程和学业高标准,通过教育券、特许学校等市场介入方式将教育纳入自我管理轨道,使“平等”与“效率”两者能在实践矛盾中得以创造性的缓和与趋近。美国联邦政府并不直接提供和实施学校教育,而是通过教育拨款和立法来推动教育公平并履行教育监管职责,即提供教育资金、设立补偿配置项目、确立教育标准、审查办学资格、监督教育质量等,而教育的效率价值和自由价值则交由市场自行管理,即家长和学生在各种形式的教育机构和教育服务中对教育的数量、质量、方式、方法进行选择,最终通过市场自身的竞争机制实现教育质量和效率的提升。因此,政府、学校和学生这三者之间形成了政府实施充分性拨款、学校接受标准化问责、学生进行市场化择校的教育均衡关系,并建立和完善了学校选择制度、财政分配制度和学业问责制度。
从美国义务教育改革的价值理念、历史演进、制度策略都可以看出,美国人民从公共教育诞生的一刻起就没有停止过对教育公平的探索和追求。这是美国各级政府、市场、民众共同参与的,以政府政策为导向、市场竞争为驱动、公众参与为基础的教育改革历程。在追求形式公平走向实质公平的改革历程中,美国联邦政府能以强制性、延续性的教育法案作为推动教育公平理念的有效保障；以教育券、特许学校、开放入学等学校选择计划来实现不同群体的受教育机会均等；以联邦、州、地方三级政府的财政转移支付模式以及教育补偿政策来弥补区域间和群体间的资源配置不均衡；以国家级、州级统一的标准性测试以及复合型评估问责制度来确保区域间的教育质量和成就的平等。在教育政策决策中,联邦政府作为国家教育改革的执行主体,总是设法广征多方政见和平衡各阶层利益,强调教育资源配置的民主性和科学性；通过立法、诉讼等法律方式保障政策的合法性与权威性。在教育政策实施中,联邦政府通过纵向规划各州和地方政府教育改革措施,横向规划教育部教育改革行动,不断加大对教育资源持续的投入和调控；各级政府根据联邦政策精神,依法推动各项教育改革措施,并及时将教育改革实践反馈到联邦决策层面,从而实现教育改革实施者与决策者有效的良性互动。为此,美国义务教育改革的经验可以为我国义务教育均衡发展提供合理启示：准确把握教育公平内涵,坚持政府依法治教和民主决策；理性看待学校选择政策,拓展择校的工具价值和市场作用；持续保障教育财政投入,完善公平与充分的转移支付制度；合理配置教师资源,建立弱势群体教育补偿制度；科学树立教育发展目标与标准,加强教育督导与问责力度。
As one of public products and basic human right of every citizen in states with adequate legal system, compulsory education is a form of basic education needs of individuals'personal development. From this aspect, equity of compulsory education is quite different from other kinds of equity in economics or politics. From the aspect of value, equity is an ideal, and a method of achieving educational equality and even social equality. From the aspect of policy, equity is put forward to improve imbalance between supply and demand in current situation of education. It includes not only reasonable allocation of social resource and effective use of social resource in schools and regions in different level. From the aspect of history, it has its historical meaning with the development of times. Before popularization of compulsory education, the concept of equity stressed guarantee people's educational opportunity in majority. After that, it emphasized the quality of education. With the rapid development of politics, economy and culture level, it transferred its function to provide more high quality education.
Equity of compulsory education, as a policy principle, is based on its abundant and increasingly updated theoretical support:Educational Equity, Human Right in Education and Educational Modernization Theory. Firstly, educational equality refers to educational right equality, which gives social members equal educational opportunity without any negative factors from family, financial situation, race, and gender and capital possession. Educational equality is reflected in equality of education opportunity and education right and resources assignment. Educational opportunity possibility of social members from the government is equal. However, it is quite different in achieving educational opportunity possibility. Secondly, education is a kind of basic human right in essence which takes freedom and equality as its core of value through law and moral standard. Human right education is the education about and for human right human right, which uses education methods according with human right, teaches people knowledge related to human rights, and promotes human right. Lastly, educational equality and equity are the products of social economy and culture, and are the objective demand in human modernization period. The modernization of economy, society and culture provide material basis for educational equality. Meanwhile, it is restricted by them from classic nature. Education is always an ideal of people to gain. It is an important part of social equality and social democratization. Equity of education is a reflection of freedom, effectiveness, equality, justice and human rights, and is also a main method to achieve educational modernization.
Equity of compulsory education in the U.S. began in1940s aimed to satisfy social labor force needs and respond to civil rights movement. It emphasized entrance opportunity and resources distribution equity. For instance, in1954, African American began to strive for mix public school movement. On idea of fight with poverty, Elementary and Secondary Education Act decided to provide compensative education and financial aid to children from needy families. Educational reform documents such as A Nation at Risk, Goals2000:Educate America Act, ect. put forward developing strategies to carry out. These strategies included no poison and violence, entrance for all children of school age. Standardization accountability strategy in No Child Left Behind (NCLB) pushed equity of compulsory education in American into profound development period. Through NCLB reform, Obama administration reestablished reform target, increased education standard, enhanced education accountability and judgment, optimizing educational resources distribution, and improve weak school. All of these strategies are made for achieving equality of opportunity, process and result.
Equity of compulsory education is not only a policy but also a decision-making principle, and values based on approving of different subjects of values. Influenced by neo-conservation and neo-liberalism, U.S. government adjusted the relationship between freedom and equity, equity and effectiveness in distribution of educational resources. Neo-conservation equity theoreticians believe that educational resources distribution should be based on freedom, and any violating and limitation would be regarded as unequal and unreasonable. It emphasizes equality of opportunities instead of equality of results. Neo-conservation equity theory believed that educational resources should be distributed to social members on considering social benefit and market competition principle. On the contrary, neo-liberalism believed that people are born equal, and the responsibility of education is to promote social equality. The judgment of distribution should be based on results equality and maximizing compensation to disadvantageous groups.
In order to achieve equality and efficiency, U.S. government absorbed opinions of both neo-liberalism and Neo-conservatism. On one side, investing public education resource increasingly to reduce the educational gap between different regions, schools and groups. On the other side, accountability, measuring, controlling and assessment are emphasized in high standard of curriculum and school work. Through voucher and charter school, self management is introduced to education field, in order to achieve equality and efficiency. U.S. federal government provided educational resources, establish compensative project, made educational standard, examined school qualification, supervise educational quality through providing funds, legislation and supervising Parents and students can choose schools freely in different situations. Through market competition, the government improved education quality and efficiency, School choice system, finance distribution system and study accountability have been established.
Therefore, pro forma equity to substantive equity, united state federal government took voucher, charter school, and open enrollment to achieve equality of educational opportunity. Transfer payment from the exchequer from federal government, Standardization test and accountability system are use to achieve educational quality equality. U.S. federal and local government, market and populace start an educational reform movement, which is taken government policies and market competition as important factors. All kinds of problems and controversies in this movement become motivation of American equity of compulsory education. That will help shedding some lights on understanding the content of educational equality, adhering to government's decision and school choice policy, expanding the instrumental value and market function of school choice, distributing teacher resources reasonably, establishing educational compensative system for disadvantaged groups, building development goal and standard and strengthening educational supervising and accountability.
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