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农民利益表达:寻求国家与乡村的有效衔接
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摘要
乡村社会的发展转型是一种现代化进程,乡村政治现代化是其重要组成部分。按照亨廷顿的理解,现代政治体系的标准主要包括权威合理化、结构离异化与大众参政化三个方面。实际上,权威合理化与结构离异化就是现代民族-国家的建构,意味着国家权力向下扩展轨道的铺设;而大众参政化就是现代民主-国家的建构,意味着社会公众向上民主参与轨道的铺设。这与费孝通先生所提倡的双轨政治的平衡架构不谋而合。这样,乡村政治现代化的命题就转换成通过自上而下的国家权力轨道与自下而上的民主参与轨道来实现国家与乡村的有效衔接。简言之,乡村政治现代化的目标就是通过双轨政治建构实现国家与乡村有效衔接。
     其中,自下而上的民主参与又可以划分为两类不同性质的政治参与:一类是支持型参与,旨在提供国家政权的合法性支持,往往以动员式参与面貌出现;另一类是表达型参与,旨在实现公民面向国家政治体系的要求输入,利益表达就是此种参与的典型。相较而言,表达型参与更能体现民主政治的本质一一保障并实现社会公众的权利。故而,公民的利益表达也就成为了建构自下而上民主参与轨道的核心内容。而农民作为乡村社会的绝对主体阶层,农民利益表达也就成为了实现国家与乡村有效衔接的关键所在。与此同时,农民利益表达的发展演进也不可避免地受到了宏观层面国家与乡村之间结构性关系变迁的影响。
     问题是,开启于百余年之前的乡村政治现代化进程往往偏重于自上而下国家权力扩展的单轨衔接,相对忽视自下而上农民利益表达轨道的建设,以至于国家与乡村之间始终无法达成稳定的双轨衔接结构。
     在传统封建社会,乡村现代化进程尚未开启,帝国与乡村之间的关系总体上处于一种“相对分离、国家至上”的格局。在这种格局下,农民的日常生活利益基本上以乡村内部协调为主,同时在帝国与乡村之间以士绅私人关系拓展出一条自下而上的隐形政治轨道,发挥着间接的乡村利益表达作用。但是这条轨道本身是极其脆弱的,不能有效制约自上而下的皇权轨道。一旦遭遇皇权帝国的横征暴敛,广大农民就只能走向法外抗争的道路。因而,古代封建社会陷入了随着士绅轨道周期性淤塞的“一治一乱”怪圈,实际上根源就在于缺乏一种保护农民利益的制度化表达结构。
     到了民国时期,随着国家政权建设运动的开展,以国家权力下沉的方式拉开了乡村政治现代化的序幕。传统帝国与乡村之间那种相对分离的松散关系已无存在的历史可能,国家与乡村之间需要建立一种更为紧密稳定的衔接关系。但是,民国时期的政权建设运动却企图单方面依靠国家权力的向乡村扩展,建立起一种新的现代国家与乡村的单轨衔接模式。只重视国家权力的向下扩展,并以此大量掠夺乡村的社会资源,而相对忽视了自下而上的农民利益表达轨道建设。与此同时,国家权力的下沉导致乡村内部的利益协调机制开始崩坏,士绅私人关系的隐形轨道也被拆除,这就导致广大农民失去了基本的生存利益保障,要么走向法外抗争,要么走向革命道路。最终,民国的国政权建设也只能因忽视农民利益表达而被历史淘汰。
     新中国成立以后,国家现代化进程并没有停止,新生政权注意到了农民利益保障的重要意义,并且企图借助于广泛的动员式参与将整个农民阶层吸纳进国家政治体系中去。但是,人民公社的集权体制还是倒向了一种自上而下的国家化道路,建构了一种国家与乡村高度同构的格局。虽然也存在针对农民的大量动员式政治参与,但这类参与多属于旨在为国家政权提供合法性的支持型参与,而非主动的表达型参与。即使动员式参与本身含有某些表达成分,也多属于非理性表达,而不是基于农民真实利益需求的表达。迫于国家政权的强大力量,广大农民很少诉诸于公开的法外抗争,而是普遍采取“瞒”、“偷”、“怠”、“变”、“损”等更为隐蔽的日常抵抗行为进行反向利益表达。随着时间的推移,最终宣告了人民公社时代全能政治模式的失败,这也意味着国家高度同构乡村的单向衔接模式的失败。
     现阶段,随着农村社会改革的深化,乡村社会获得了一定的自主发育空间,乡村内部的利益结构日益多元分化,广大农民面向国家的利益表达需求也随之急剧增长,以至于形成了一股农民利益表达风潮。我国农民至少在理想制度设计方面拥有着一种多元化的利益表达结构。他们可以通过政治选举、精英代理、媒体舆论、庇护型表达、抗争性表达等方式来实现自身的利益表达。但通过表达现状分析可以发现,就表达渠道而言,广大农民的非制度表达现象十分突出,而体制内表达严重不畅。除此之外,还存在表达平台的非组织化、表达方式的非合法化、表达内容的非权利化、表达意识的非主体化等主要问题。这就意味着当下中国农民依然没有走出利益表达的历史困境。这种表达困境的存在造成了一系列负面影响,诸如:阻碍政治输入,侵蚀政府合法性基础;损害农民利益,妨碍社会公平正义;加剧社会抗争,威胁社会和谐稳定。更为根本的是,这种表达困境也就意味着自下而上的民主参与轨道依然没有建立起来,国家与乡村之间尚未达成稳定的双轨衔接。一方面,离开了农民的利益支持,现代国家权力与治理规则也很难彻底渗透进乡村底层,基层政府有逐步沦为悬浮型政权的趋势;另一方面,乡村社会的自我封闭也导致其无法有效制约基层政权,大量的体制外农民抗争表达严重影响了基层社会的稳定,更可能加剧国家与乡村之间的紧张关系,使得基层政治体系面临政治衰朽的危险。
     既然农民利益表达难题是制约国家与乡村衔接的关键因素,那么,反之也可以从国家与乡村衔接困境分析出发破解造成农民表达难题的成因之谜。故而,从国家与社会两个层面分析导致农民利益表达不畅的成因,也就成为了本文研究的理性选择。
     从社会基础层面来看,影响农民利益表达的因素主要包括:乡村政治文化的传统保守,乡村社会自组织程度低下以及乡村衰败中的精英流失现象。乡村社会的政治文化仍然停留在传统村民文化所特有的政治认知模糊状态;尽管广大农民对于中央政治权威保持了较高的权威认同,但对基层政府权威却持有明显的离异倾向,农民与基层政府之间充满了挑战、对抗与质疑,无法获得稳定的表达秩序环境;而在公民参与取向方面,也因为受到小农理性的干扰而无法获得健全的主体意识。而在乡村社会自组织方面,不论是传统的宗族组织,还是孱弱的非政府组织,抑或是其他的村庄社会关联,它们或者因为其封闭与保守的特性,或者因为自身的功能缺位,或者正在经历一个松散化的历程,都无法承担起组织农民进行利益表达的重任。“原子化、碎片化”的生存状态,也因此成为了农民利益表达的阿喀琉斯之踵。而乡村精英作为乡村内部十分重要的非正式结构力量,对农民利益表达特别是群体性表达有着动员、组织、代表、支持等重要作用,但在乡村社会的相对衰败背景之下,出现了严重的精英流失现象,这也直接影响到了农民利益表达权利的充分实现。
     从国家体制层面来看,影响农民利益表达的因素主要包括:体制内表达渠道的功能淤塞,村民自治制度的内在局限性以及压力型行政体制的单轨特征。首先,在体制内的表达渠道功能淤塞方面,基层政党组织因其官僚化进程而日渐封闭,无法正常吸纳农民的日常政治参与行为;基层人大等民意代表机关也处于严重的功能虚化状态,无法发挥代言农民利益的作用;各级信访部门的本质功能在于下情上达,且暗含着强烈的非制度化逻辑,基本上处于拥堵不堪的状态;而法律诉讼也因救济成本、救济效力等方面的缺陷,一般很难获得广大农民的充分信任;至于大众传媒的舆论表达,也因其商业价值取向、独立性缺陷以及乡村媒体环境的不健全等,往往形成一种对农民利益需求的舆论死角。其次,在村民自治制度内在局限性方面,一方面,基层政府对于村庄权力形成过度控制,另一方面,村庄内部授权过程仍然存在种种缺陷。这就使得村民自治机构与广大农民往往形成一种利益分离结构,村庄自治权力无法代表农民向基层政府反映其利益要求。最后,从整个行政体制层面来看,压力型体制的单轨特性是造成农民利益表达困境最为主要的体制根源。在压力型体制下,基层政府只接受来自上级政府的单一授权,不可避免地形成“对上负责”的功能取向。且基层政府本身也可能存在相当程度的自主利益空间,加之国家目标与农民利益并非全然一致,这些都可能导致基层政府缺乏基本的回应性,对于底层农民的利益需求缺乏必要的敏感性,处于一种封闭化的运行状态,自然无法有效吸纳广大农民的利益表达活动。
     可见,当前我国农民利益表达困境的根源既存在与社会基础层面,也存在于国家体制层面。实际上,乡村社会仍然不是一个现代社会,它本身与运行现代民主政治体系所要求的成熟公民社会相距甚远;而国家体制也并非全然符合现代国家体制的标准,特别是在运行现代民主政治体系方面,仍然需要作出进一步的改革与调整。乡村与国家之间都缺乏相互契合的衔接匹配,导致既有的表达制度安排被严重虚化,无法满足农民利益表达的现实需要。因此,从国家与乡村两个层面探索二者的良性互动建构,寻求国家与乡村的有效衔接,必然成为推进我国农民利益表达的现实路径选择。具体而言,一方面,在乡村层面,通过政治社会化、社会自组织化、城乡一体化等进路,努力改良农民利益表达的社会基础;另一方面,在国家层面,通过法制化建设、政治民主化以及行政体制改革等进路,实现对农民利益表达体制束缚的破除。在上述路径基础之上,本文提出了推进我国农民利益表达的几项具体政策建议:其一,健全相关法律法规;其二,鼓励农民组织发展;其三,改革公民信访制度;其四,完善村民自治制度;其五,搭建农村舆论平台;其六,创新基层民主参与形式。总之,只有通过国家与乡村之间的双向互动与调适,农民利益表达才能够获得充分的结构与制度支撑而最终走出困境,进而为乡村政治现代化所追求的国家与乡村之间的双轨衔接奠定关键性一轨。
The development transition of rural society is one kind of modernization process, and the rural political modernization is one important portion of it. According to Huntington·Samuel·P's comprehension, the standard of modern political system mainly consists of three parts. Respectively, they are political authority rationalization, breaking up of political structure and extending of political participation. Actually, authority rationalization and breaking up of political structure are the structure of modern nation-state. This means state power extends along the top-down track. But extending of political participation is the structure of modern democracy-state. This means the democratic participation of social public extends along the bottom-up track. This theory coincides with the balance framework of double-track politics advocated by Mr. Fei Xiao-tong. In this way, the proposition of rural political modernization converts to realizing the effective link between state and countryside by the top-down track of stats power and the bottom-up track of democratic participation. In one word, the target of rural political modernization is to realize an effective link between state and countryside by the double-track political framework.
     Among them, bottom-up democratic participation can be divided into two different political participations. One is supportive participation; its aim is to provide the legitimacy support from national regime. This always appears in a mobilized participation way. The other is expressive participation; its aim is to realize the appeals from citizens to national political system. Interest expression is the quintessence of this kind of participation. By comparison, expressive participation can still embody the essence of democratic politics-to guarantee and realize the rights of social public. Therefore, civil interest expression becomes the core of establishing the bottom-up track of democratic participation. And as the absolute main stratum in rural society, peasants' interest expression becomes the crux of realizing the effective link between state and countryside. While at the same time, the development and evolution of peasants' interest expression are unavoidably affected by the vicissitudes of structural relations between state and countryside on the macroscopic level. But the problem is that the rural political modernization process begun a century ago sometimes lays particular stress on the single top-down track of expansion of state power, but comparatively neglects the construction of the bottom-up track of peasants' interest expression. As a result, state and countryside cannot manage to reach the stable double-track link structure all the time.
     In traditional feudal society, rural political modernization process had not yet begun. The relations between empire and countryside were generally in a structure of "relatively separate and state paramount". In this structure, peasants' interest of everyday life was basically coordinated in the countryside itself. While at the same time, gentry's private relation opened a bottom-up invisible political track, which played the role of indirect expression of countryside's interest. However, this track itself was very fragile and could not effectively restrict the top-down track of imperial power. Once faced with excessive taxes and levies by imperial empire, vast peasants could only choose the path of lawless opposition. As thus, ancient feudal society got into the vicious circle of periodically stagnant peace and turbulence alternate along the bottom-up track. In fact, its root was lacking in an institutional expression structure of protecting peasant's interest.
     Up to the period of Republic of China, with the development of sate regime construction, the top-down mode of state power provided the prologue to rural political modernization. The relatively separate and loose relations between traditional empire and countryside were not likely to exist in history. There need to be a more tight relation between state and countryside. However, in the period of Republic of China, the sate regime construction unilaterally attempted to construct a new modern single-track link mode between state and countryside relying on the expansion of state power to countryside. This only attached great importance to the top-down expansion of state power:abundant social resources were depredated by this means. And the construction of bottom-up track of peasants'interest expression was relatively neglected. While at the same time, top-down expansion of state power led to the initial collapse of interest coordination mechanism in countryside itself. And gentry's invisible track of private relation was also removed. These resulted in the majority of peasants loosing the basic existence interest guarantee. They could either choose the path of lawless opposition or revolution. In the end, the sate regime construction in the period of Republic of China could only be washed out by history because of neglecting peasants'interest expression.
     After New China founded, state modernization process did not stop. The newly-established state-power took notice of the importance of guaranteeing peasants' interest, and attempted to absorb the whole peasantry stratum into state political system by the broad and mobilized participation. But the centralized system of people's commune just bucked up to a top-down nationalized track and constructed a highly-alike structure between state and countryside. Although there existed extensively mobilized participations aimed at peasants, most of this kind belonged to supportive participations aiming at providing validity for state power. They were not actively expressive participation. Although mobilized participation itself contained some expressive factors, most of which belonged to irrational expressions rather than the expressions based on peasants' real interest requirement. Forced by the great power of state regime, vast peasants rarely resorted to lawless opposition in public, still more covert daily counteractions such as disguise, steal, going slow, making changes and damaging were adopted widely to conduct reverse interest expression. As time passing by, the all-powerful political mode in the period of people's commune failed. This meant the failure of the single-track link mode of highly-alike structure between state and countryside.
     In present phase, with the deepening of social reform in the countryside, rural society gains certain space for self-development. The interest structure in the countryside increasingly becomes multi-polarized. Also, vast peasants'interest expression demand to the state is going up rapidly. So peasants' agitation for interest expression is formed. At least, peasants in our nation possess a multi-polarized interest expression structure in the aspect of the design of ideal and system. They can realize interest expression themselves according to such channels as political elections, elite representations, media and public opinions, asylum expression and resistant expression. However, by analyses of present situation, on expression channel, we find that the phenomenon of vast peasants' non-institutional expression is very sharp, and institutional expression is seriously unsuccessful. In addition to these, there are main problems such as non-organization of expression platform, non-legalization of expression mode, non-rightization of expression contents and non-subjectivity of expression consciousness and etc. These mean present peasants in China have not yet got out of the historical dilemma of interest expression. The existence of expression dilemma results in a series of negative impacts such as blocking politics input, eroding the basis of government legitimacy, damaging peasants' interests, impeding social justice, intensifying social opposement and threatening social harmony and stability.
     Even more ultimately, this expression predicament also means that the bottom-up democratic participation track has not been established yet. And the stable double-track link between state and countryside has not yet achieved. On the one hand, without peasants' interest support, the bottom of countryside is very difficult to be infiltrated by modern state power and ruling regulations. And the trend toward suspended regime is faced by grassroots governments. On the other hand, grassroots regime cannot be effectively controlled because of the self-closing of rural society itself. Grassroots society is influenced seriously by plenty of out-institutional resistance expression of peasants. And the tense relations between state and countryside may be aggravated. Also, this makes grassroots political system face the danger of political decay. So far as the problem of peasants' interest expression is the crux that limited the link between state and countryside, well, whereas we can reveal the reason that brings out the problem of peasants' interest expression from the analysis of the link problem between state and countryside. Thus, from the levels of state and society, to analyze the contributing factors which bring on the difficult access on provides rational choice for the study in this work. Looking from the social grassroots level, main factors which influence peasants'interest expression are as follows:tradition and conservatism of political culture in the countryside, low level self-organization in rural society and elite drain in rural decay. Political culture in rural society still rests on the hazy condition of political cognition which is specific in traditional villagers'culture. Although vast peasants show great recognition for central political regime, they show obvious trend of departing from grassroots governments. There are full of challenges, confrontations and doubts between peasants and grassroots governments. And a stable expression system and environment cannot be possessed by peasants. Also, in the aspect of participation orientation, peasants cannot obtain sound main body consciousness because of the interference from small-peasant mentality.
     But in the aspect self-organization of rural society, by reason of the closed and conservative characteristics, or the vacancy of self functions or experiencing a relaxation course, neither traditional clan organizations nor weak non-governmental organizations, or other social association in the countryside can assume the important task of organizing the peasants to carry out interest expression. So the living conditions of atomization and fragmentation become Achilles heel of peasants'interest expression. And as an important informal and structural force in the countryside, rural elite plays such important roles as mobilization, organization, representation and support in peasants'interest expression, especially in collective expression. However, in the background of relative decay of rural society, phenomenon of serious elite drain emerges, which also directly affects sufficient realization of the right of peasants' interest expression. From state level, factors which affect peasants' interest expression mainly include the function blockage of expression channels in the system, internal limitations of villagers'autonomy system and the single-track characteristics of pressure-related administration system. First, in the aspect of the function blockage of expression channels in the system, political parties at the grassroots level gradually become closed because of their process of bureaucratization and cannot normally absorb peasants'daily political participation. Such representative institutions of public opinions as People's Congress and Political Consultative Conference and etc. are in a serious condition of function-weakness, so they cannot play the role of spokesman for peasants'interests. The intrinsic functions of correspondence and visitation departments at all levels are making the situation at the lower levels known to the higher authorities. They imply forcefully non-institutional logic and are basically in a jammed condition. More over, lawsuit is generally hard to be fully trusted by mass peasants because of its limitations such as relief cost and effectiveness. As regards the public opinions of mass media, sometimes form a dead angle of peasants' interest demand because of its commercial orientations of value, deficiencies in independency and unsound media environment in the countryside, etc.
     Second, in the aspect of internal limitations of villagers' autonomy system, on the one hand, grassroots governments excessively control the formation of rural power; on the other hand, there are still several defects in the course of authorization in the countryside. These make villagers' autonomy institutions always form an interest- separate institution, rural autonomous power is incapable of representing peasants to report their interest demand to grassroots governments. Finally, from the level of the whole administrative system, single-track characteristic of pressure-model system is the primary system root which makes peasants interest expression dilemma. In the pressure-model system, grassroots governments only receive upper government s'unitary authorization and they are inevitably formed the function orientation of "responsibility for the superior". Also, there may be considerable self-interest room of grassroots governments themselves. Additionally, state targets are not in accordance with peasants' interest. All these may result in the lack of basic responses and essential sensitiveness of peasants'interest demand from grassroots governments. Grassroots governments are in a closed function state and cannot sufficiently absorb activities of vast peasants'interest expression.
     It is clear that the roots of present peasants' interest expression dilemma not only exist on the level of social basis, but also on the level of state system. Actually, rural society is still not a modern society, and it is far from the requirements of the mature civil society in running the modern democratic political system. Moreover, state system is also not fully in accordance with modern standards of modern state system. Especially in the aspect of running modern democratic political system, there is still room for further reform and adjustment. Between countryside and state, there is lacking in the link match of mutual correspondence, which results in the serious weakness of already-arranged expression system and cannot meet the practical needs of peasants' interest expression. Therefore, from the two levels of state and countryside, to explore good intercommunion structure and to seek effective link between them are certain to be the choices of realistic paths which push ahead peasants'interest expression in China. Specifically, on the one hand, at countryside level, we may strive to improve social bases for peasants' interest expression through such paths as political socialization, social self-organize and urban-rural integration and etc. On the other hand, at state level, we may realize the eradication of peasants' interest expression system bondage through the paths of construction of legal system, political democratization and reformation of the administrative system and etc. On the bases above mentioned. this article brings about several detailed policy suggestions of boosting peasants'interest expression in China:first, to strengthen related laws and regulations to guarantee peasants' expression rights; second, to encourage the development of peasants' organizations to improve villages'integration degree:third, to reform citizens'correspondence and visitation system to get through the key expression channels; fourth, to perfect villagers' autonomy system to straighten the relations between town and countryside; fifth, to construct rural public opinions platform to enhance media's concern for peasants; sixth, to innovate in the grassroots democratic participation forms to improve peasants'expression capabilities. In a word, only through mutual intercommunion and adjustment between state and countryside, peasants'interest expression can gain sufficient structure and system support to finally get out of dilemma, and then settle the key track of the double-track link which is pursued by the modernization of rural politics between state and countryside.
引文
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