美国教师组织影响教师质量的历程、举措和经验探析
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摘要
教师组织是美国教学专业领域的一支重要队伍,对于美国教师质量的提高有着重要的影响。本论文选取美国最大的两个教师组织——全美教育协会(NationalEducation Association)和美国教师联盟(American Federation of Teachers)作为研究对象,考察这两大教师组织影响美国教师质量的历程和举措。首先,以全美教育协会的性质转变为线索,系统梳理了教师组织发展的三个阶段,分析教师组织在这三个阶段中关注和改善教师质量的基本状况。其次,分析美国教师组织影响教师质量的七大举措:参与全美教师教育认证委员会和州政府对教师培养机构资质的认证;开展形式多样的新教师入职指导项目;实施在职教师专业发展项目:参与全美专业教学标准委员会对优秀教师的资格认证;推动有关教师质量的教育立法、制定教师专业道德规范、争取改善教师的经济待遇和工作条件。接着,以上述分析为基础,总结了美国教师组织影响教师质量的若干经验:推动教师职前教育、入职指导和在职培训的一体化;注重教师质量标准的制定和实施;重视教育项目的运作;关注影响教师质量的内外部因素;注重开展教育研究以使有关教师质量问题的决策更具科学性;与其它组织合作以增强对教师质量的影响力;专业性手段和非专业性向性手段并举。最后,阐发了美国教师组织在提高教师质量方面对当前我国建立教师质量保障体系的启示,以期为建立和完善我国教师质量的保障机制提供参考。
As powerful entities in American education, Teacher Union exerts a great influence on teacher quality improvement. This thesis takes two biggest teacher unions in America, National Education Association and American Federation of Teachers, as subjects to observe and study the history and measures of this two teacher unions' exerting influence on American teacher quality. Firstly, the author systematically analyzes the three stages of teacher union' development and their concern over teacher quality at each stage according to the changes in the nature of National Education Association. Secondly, the measures taken by teacher union to improve the teacher quality are mainly explored: Participating in the certification of teacher education organization by National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education and state governments; Launching various induction programmes for new teachers; Providing in-service teacher training for vocational development; Joining in the certification of excellent teachers by National Professional Teaching Standards Committee; Promoting education legislation about teacher quality; Formulating teachers' professional ethics; Endeavoring to economically better the treatment of teachers and improve their working conditions. Next, on the basis of the analysis above, the author concludes the experience about how American teacher union improves teacher quality: Promoting the integration of the pre-service, induction and in-service training or education of teachers; Paying attentions to the establishment and implementation of teacher quality standard; Attaching importance to carrying out the education programmes; Concerning about the factors, both exterior and interior that affect teacher quality; Placing emphasis on education researches to make the decision related to the teacher quality more scientific; Cooperating with other organizations to improve teacher quality with more effects and combining professional and non-professional measures. Finally, this thesis expounds the inspiration in improving the teacher quality which American teacher union brings to the establishment of the teacher quality security system in our country. Hopefully this study can provide a reference for the establishment and perfection of the security system of teacher quality in present China.
As powerful entities in American education, Teacher Union exerts a great influence on teacher quality improvement. This thesis takes two biggest teacher unions in America, National Education Association and American Federation of Teachers, as subjects to observe and study the history and measures of this two teacher unions' exerting influence on American teacher quality. Firstly, the author systematically analyzes the three stages of teacher union' development and their concern over teacher quality at each stage according to the changes in the nature of National Education Association. Secondly, the measures taken by teacher union to improve the teacher quality are mainly explored: Participating in the certification of teacher education organization by National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education and state governments; Launching various induction programmes for new teachers; Providing in-service teacher training for vocational development; Joining in the certification of excellent teachers by National Professional Teaching Standards Committee; Promoting education legislation about teacher quality; Formulating teachers' professional ethics; Endeavoring to economically better the treatment of teachers and improve their working conditions. Next, on the basis of the analysis above, the author concludes the experience about how American teacher union improves teacher quality: Promoting the integration of the pre-service, induction and in-service training or education of teachers; Paying attentions to the establishment and implementation of teacher quality standard; Attaching importance to carrying out the education programmes; Concerning about the factors, both exterior and interior that affect teacher quality; Placing emphasis on education researches to make the decision related to the teacher quality more scientific; Cooperating with other organizations to improve teacher quality with more effects and combining professional and non-professional measures. Finally, this thesis expounds the inspiration in improving the teacher quality which American teacher union brings to the establishment of the teacher quality security system in our country. Hopefully this study can provide a reference for the establishment and perfection of the security system of teacher quality in present China.
引文
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90 Paula Connor.Grade School Teachers Become Labor Leaders.Labor's Heritage,Vol.7,No.2,Fall 1995.
91 Ralph W.McDonald.The Professional Standards Movement in Teaching,Its Origin,Purpose,and Future.Journal of Teacher Education,Vol.2,No.3,1951.
92 AFT History.http//www.aft.org/about/history/index.htm.2007-04-15.
93 NEA-PAC and AFT-COPE Political Contributions Summary and Breakdown.http://www.educationpoliey.org/data-2.htm.2007-11-15.
94 Marsha Richards,Lynn Harsh.Barrier to Learning:How the National Education Association Prevents Students and Teachers from Achieving Academic and Professional Excellence,July 2004.http://www.effwa.org/NEA-Magazine.pdf.2007-07-16.
95 Terry M.Moe.Reform Blockers:Why the Status Quo Almost Always Wins.Education Next,Vol.3,No.2,2003.
96 Susan Aspey.Secretary Paige Issues Apology for Comment about NEA.http://www.ed.gov/news/pressreleases/2004/02/02232004.html.2004-02-23/2007-07-15.
97 Adam Urbanski.Turning Unions Around.Contemporary Education,Vol.69,No.4,Summer 1998.
98 NEAFT Partnership.http://www.nea.org/aboutnea/NEAFTParmership.html.2000/2007-08-01.
99 Sabrina Holcomb.The History of the National Education Association,Part1-4.NEA Today,January-April 2006.
100 Then and Now,Comparing the Past and Present.http://www.nea.org/aboutNEA/nthennow.html.2007-05-07.
101 Timeline 1857-1997.http://www.nea.org/aboutNEA/NEAtimeline.html.2007-05-07.
102 Karin Litzcke.Teacher unions as players in education reform,A Canadian Look at an American Trend.Society for the Advancement of Excellence in Education,July 2001.http://www.saee.ca/pdfs/013.pdf.2007-06-18.
103 Adam Urbanski,Poger Erskine.School Reform,TURN,and Teacher Compensation.http://www.turnexchange.net/resources/recommendedreadings/schoolreformturnand.attac hment/attachment/TURN%20School%20Reform.pdf.2007-06-26.
104 NEA Convention 2000 Report and Commentary.http://www.educationpolicy.org/NEAreport2000.htm.2000/2007-05-06.
105 David G.Imig and Mary Harrill-McClellan.Accrediting Standards Affecting Mid-Level Teacher Education Preparation in the Community College.New Directions for Community Colleges,No.121,Spring,2003.
106 The Standard of Excellence in Teacher Preparation.http://www.neate.org/doeuments/NCATEMission.pdf.2007/2007-12-07.
107 Arthur E.Wise.ETS Study Shows NCATE Makes a Difference,Spring 1999.http://www.ncate.org/documents/QualityTeaching/qts99.pdf.2007-12-07.
108 No Dream Denied:A Pledge to America's Children.http://www.nctaf.org/documents/no-dream-denied_full-report.pdf.2003-01/2007-09-11.
109 The High Cost of Teacher Turnover.http://www.nctaf.org/resources/demonstration_projeets/tumover/doeuments/CTTPolieyBrief6-19.pdf.2007/2007-10-06.
110 AFT.Beginning Teacher InduCtion:The Essential Bridge.http://www.aft.org/pubs-reports/downloads/teachers/poliey 13.pdf.2001-09/2007-08-15.
111 Phillip Escamilla,Theresa Clarke,Dane Linn.Exploring Teacher Peer Review.http://www.nga.org/eda/files/000125peerreview.pdf.2000-01-12/2007-06-06.
112 Building an Effective New Teacher Support System.http://www.nea.org/teachershortage/better-building.html.2007-08-09.
113 Peer Assistance and Peer Review,an NEA/AFT hand book,1998.http://www.aft.org/pubs-reports/downloads/teachers/parhndbk.pdf.2007-05-06.
114 I Can Do It! Veteran Teachers Help Beginners Survive in the Classroom.NEA Today,February 2003.
115 Creating a Teacher Induction Program.http://www.insites.org/documents/induction.pdf.2001/2007-06-01.
116 Barbara Miner.Teachers Evaluating Teachers.Rethinking Schools,Vol.6,No.3,Spring 1992.
117 Myron Lieberman.Teachers Evaluating Teachers:The Union Stake in Peer Review.http://www.psrf.org/gur/gur_19.1_Lieberman.jsp.2007-06-08.
118 Judith.Teachers Take Charge of Their Learning:Transforming Professional Development for Student Success.http://www.neafoundation.org/publications/takeeharge_exec.htm#mjrees.1996/2007-06-03.
119 Mary Van Horn.Educational Research and Dissemination Program.http://www.pft400.org/ER_Dbook.DOC.2007-07/2007-12-20.
120 The AFT Educational Research and Dissemination Program.http://www.aft.orgltopieslteacher-quality/downloads/WhatisERD.pdf.2007/2007-11-26.
121 AFT Thinking Mathematics Program. http://www.ed.gov/rschstat/research/progs/mathscience/descriptions/aft_thinking.pdf.2007-11-26.
122 A Report of the AFT Task Force on Union-Sponsored Professional Development.http://www.aft.org/pubs-reports/downloads/teachers/Taskforeeprodev.pdf.2001-06/2007-06-26.
123 Principles for Professional Development,AFT's Guidelines for Creating Professional Development Programs that Make a Difference.http://www.aft.org/pubs-reports/downloads/teachers/PRINCIPLES.pdf.2002/2007-07-02.
124 Nina Bascia.The Other Side of the Equation:Professional Development and the Organizational Capacity of Teacher Unions.http://tspace.library.utoronto.ca/bitstream/1807/2741/2/27otherside.pdf.2001/2007-07-19.
125 NEA Puts Teacher Quality High on Agenda:Association Sets Goal of 100,000 Board Certified Teachers in Five Years.http://www.nea.org/nr/old/nr980710.html.1998-01-10/2007-06-01.
126 NEA Committed to Improving Teacher Quality.https://www.nea.org/teacherquality/index.html.2007-07-09.
127 What Teachers Should Know and Be Able to Do:The Five Core Propositions of the National Board.http://www.nbpts.org/UserFiles/File/what_teachers.pdf.2007-06-01.
128 AFT.Professional Development:It's Union Work,Profiles of How AFT Unions Enhance Teacher Quality,2000.http://www.aft.org/pubs-reports/downloads/teachers/pdunionwork.pdf.2000/2007-06-15.
129 National Board Certification Statistics.http://www.nbpts.org/about_us/2007_national_board_certl/national_board_certifica.2007/2007-12-20.
130 Sue Ellen Hollandsworth.Best Practice of National Board Certified Teachers and Non-board Certified Teachers in Grades One and Two,2006.http://www.marshall.edu/etd/doctors/hollandsworth-sue-2006-phd.pdf.2006/2007-06-08.
131 A Research Guide on National Board Certification of Teachers.http://www.nbpts.org/resources/research.2007/2007-12-20.
132 Bond,L.,Smith,T.,Baker,W.K.,Hattie,J.A.Validation Study:A Distinction That Matters, October 2001.http://www.nbpts.org/resources/research/impact_of_certificafion#impact.2001.10/2007-12-20.
133 NEA Sponsors National Board Certified Teacher Summits.http://www.nea.org/nationalboard/summits.html.2007-11-20.
124 Why NEA Supports National Board Certification http://www.nea.org/nationalboard/index.html.2007-08-01.
135 Robert Holland.The Union Stake in National Teacher Certification.http://www.psrf.org/gur/gur20.2holland.jsp.2007-08-06.
136 Samuel L.Blumenfeld.The Biggest Lobby in Washington:the National Education Association.http://www.sntp.net/edueation/NEA_1.htm.2007-05-25.
137 No Child Left Behind Act.http://www,whitehouse.gov/news/reportslno-ehild-left-behind.pdf.2002/2007-05-15.
138 Count Me In:Special Education in the Era of Standards,"Highly Qualifted?".Education Week,January 2004
139 Funding Gap:No Child Left Behind,Funding Promised in the Law vs.Funding Actually Received,FY2002-08.http://www.nea.org/lae/funding/images/fundinggap.pdf.2007-12-19/2008-01-01.
140 New No Child Left Behind Flexibility:Highly Qualified Teachers,March 2004.http://www.ed.gov/nclb/methods/teachers/hqtflexibility.pdf.2007-11-09.
141 NEA,ESEA:It's Time for A Change NEA's Positive Agenda for the ESEA Reauthorization.http://www.nea.org/lac/esea/images/posagenda.pdf.2006-07/2007-05-06.
142 NEA Position on 'Highly Qualified Effective Teacher' Mandate.http://www.nea.org/lac/esea/hqetposifion.html.2007-07-25.
143 Vaishali Honawar.Changing NCLB Is Top Topic at NEA Convention.http://www.edweek.org/ew/articles/2006/07/05/42NEA_web.h25.html?qs=NEA.2006-07-07/2007-05-18.
144 Chat Wrap-Up:Unions and No Child Left Behind.http:/www.edweek.org/ew/artieles/2007/05/02/35ehat.h26.html?qs=NEA.2007-05-02/2007-5-28.
145 David J.Hoff.Views of AFT,NEA on Reauthorization Getting Closer.http://www.edweek.org/ew/arficles/2007/03/21/28nelb.h26.html?qs=NEA. 2007-03-21/2007/06-19.
146 NCLB:Let's Get It Right,AFT's Recommendations for No Child Left Behind.http://www.aft.org/nclbrecs.pdf.2006-10/2007-07-18.
147 Antonia Cortese Executive Vice President-The American Federation of Teachers Testimony before the U.S.House of Representatives Committee on Education and Labor.http://www.aft.org/news/download/NCLB_testimony091007.pdf.2007-09-10/2007-11-08.
148 Code of Ethics of the Education Profession.http://www.nea.org/aboutNEA/code.html.2007-06-06.
149 AFT.Survey and Analysis of Teacher Salary Trends 2005.http://www.aft.org/salary/2005/download/AFT2005 SalarySurvey.pdf.2007/2007-09-01.
150 AFT 2007 Public Employees Compensation Survey.http://www.aft.org/salary/2007/PubEmpsCompSurvey07.pdf.2007-09/2007-12-20.
151 AFT.Meeting the Challenge:Recruiting and Retaining Teachers in Hard-to-Staff Schools.http://www.aft.org/pubs-reports/downloads/teaehers/h2s.pdf.2007/2007-10-06.
152 Carol Wright,David E.Gundersen.Unions and Teachers:Differences in the State of the Nation ALSB.Journal of Employment and Labor Law,Vol.10,No.1,Fall 2004.
153 Frederick M.Hess,Martin R.West.A Better Bargain:Overhauling Teacher Collective Bargaining for the 21 st Century.http://www.ksg.harvard.edu/pepg/PDF/Papers/BetterBargain.pdf.2007-06-17.
154 Frederick M.Hess.Teacher Quality,Teacher Pay.Policy Review,No.124,April & May 2004.
155 Protsik,Jean.History of Teacher Pay and Incentive Reforms,February 1995.http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/contentdelivery/servlet/ERICServlet?accno=ED380894.2007-08-16.
156 Helen Pate Bain,Nan Lintz,Elizabeth Word.A Study of Fifty Effective Teachers Whose Class Average Gain Scores Ranked in the Top 15%of Each of Four School Types in Project STAR.http://www.erie.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/recordDetail?accno=ED307246.1959/2007-08-21
157 Helen Pate Baln,Jayne Boyd-Zaharias.The Student/Teacher Achievement Ratio(STAR)Project,STAR Follow-up Studies.http://www.heros-inc.org/newstar.pdf.1997/2008-08-21
158 Recent Research Shows Major Benefits of Small Class Size. http://www.aft.org/pubs-reports/downloads/teachers/Policy3.pdf.1998-06/2008-08-20.
159 AFT.Building minds,Minding Buildings:Turning Crumbling Schools into Environments for Learning.http://www.aft.org/topics/building-conditions/downloads/minding-bldgs.pdf.2006/2007-09-06.
160 Susan Friedfel.Research on Improving School Safety:The Role of Technology and Reduced Class Size,August 1998.http://www.aft.org/topics/discipline/downloads/ImprovingSchoolSafety.pdf.2008-08-20.
161 David Denholm.The Impact of Unionism on the Quality of Public Education.http://www.psrf.org/issues/impact.jsp.2007-06-20.
162 Adam Urbanski.Reform or Be Reformed.Education Next.Vol.1,No.3,Fall 2001.
163 Robert Forrey.The New Unionism Replaces the Old at Shawnee State.http://www2.NEA.org/he/heta99/images/s99p 139.pdf.2007-06-20.
164 Nina Bascia.Triage or Tapestry? Teacher Unions' Work Toward Improving Teacher Quality in an Era of Systemic Reform.June 2003.http://depts.washington.edu/ctpmail/PDFs/riageTapostry-NB-06-2003.pdf.2007-07-06.
165 Shaping the Profession That Shapes the Future.Speeches from the AFT/NEA Conference on Teacher Quality,September 1998.http://eric.ed.gov/ERICDocs/data/ericdocs2sql/content_storage_01/0000019b/80/17/a0/1f .pdf.2007-07-09.
166 American Federation of Teachers.Where we Stand:Teacher Quality.http://www.aft.org/pubs-reports/downloads/teachers/TQres.pdf.2003/2007-07-09.
167 AFT.Assuring Teacher Quality:It's Union Work,June 1999.http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/custom/portlets/recordDetails/detailmini.jsp?_nf pb=true&_&ERICExtSeareh_SearchValue_0=ED431757&ERICExtSeareh_SearchType_0=no&accno=ED431757.2007-08-01.
168 Building a Profession:Strengthening Teacher Preparation and Induction,Report of theK-16 Teacher Education Task Force American Feducation of Teacher,April 2000http://www.aft.org/pubs-reports/higher_ed/k16report.pdf.2007-06-26.
[1]Sabrina Holcomb.The History of the National Education Association,Part 1.NEA Today,February 2006.
[2]洪明.美国教师质量保障体系历史演进研究[D].福建师范大学博士学位论文,2008:88.
[1]美国全国教育协会(National Education Association ofthe United States)现在常译成“全美教育协会”
[2]Charlene Haar,Myron Lieberman,Leo Troy.The NEA and AFT:Teacher Unions in Power and Politics,1994[EB/OL].http://www.educationpolicy.org/files/neaftbk/httoc.htm.2007-04-15.
[3]T.M.Stinnett.Professional Problems of Teachers.New York:the Macmillan Company,1968:384.
[4]Paula Connor.Grade School Teachers Become Labor Leaders.Labor's Heritage,Vol,7,No.2,Fall 1995.
[1]Ralph W.McDonald.The Professional Standards Movement in Teaching,Its Origin,Purpose,and Future.Journal of Teacher Education,Vol.2,No.3,1951:164.
[1]Margaret Lindsey.New Horizons For The Teaching Profession.Washington D.C.:National Education Association,National Commission on Teacher Education and Professional Standards,1961:72.
[2]马骥雄主编.战后美国教育研究[M].南昌:江西教育出版社,1991:182-183.
[1]Ralph W.McDonald.The Professional Standards Movement in Teaching,Its Origin,Purpose,and Future.Journal of Teacher Education,Vol.2,No.3,1951:167.
[2]Paula Connor.Grade School Teachers Become Labor Leaders.Labor' s Heritage,Vol.7,No.2,Fall 1995.
[3]Donald Warren.American Teachers:Histories of a Profession at Work.New York:Macmillan,1989:127.
[1]Paula Connor.Grade School Teachers Become Labor Leaders.Labor' s Heritage,Vol.7,No.2,Fall 1995.
[1]Paula Connor.Grade School Teachers Become Labor Leaders.Labor' s Heritage,Vol.7,No.2,Fall 1995.
[2]AFT History[EB/OL].http//www.aft.org/about/history/index.htm.2007-04-15.
[1]T.M.Stinnett.Professional Problems of Teachers.New York:the Macmillan Company,1968:488.
[1]Charlene Hear,Myron Lieberman,Leo Troy.The NEA and AFT:Teacher Unions in Power and Politics,1994[EB/OL].http://www.educationpolicy.org/files/neaftbk/httoc.htm.2007-04-15.
[2]NEA-PAC and AFT-COPE Political Contributions Summary and Breakdown [EB/OL].http://www.educationpolicy.org/data-2.htm.2007-11-15.
[3]Matsha Richards,Lynn Harsh.Barrier to Learning:How the National Education Association Prevents Students and Teachers from Achieving Academic and Professional Excellence,2004:1-12.[EB/OL].http://www.effwa.org/NEA-Magazine.pdf.2007-07-16.
[1]Terry M.Moe,Reform Blockers:Why the Status Quo Almost Always Wins.Education Next,Vol.3,No.2,2003.
[2]Susan Aspey.Secretary Paige Issues Apology for Comment about NEA [EB/OL].http://www.ed.gov/news/pressreleases/2004/02/02232004.html.2004-02-23/2007-07-15.
[1]Adam Urbanski.Turning Unions Around.Contemporary Education,Vol.69,No.4,Summer 1998.
[2]NEAFT Partnership[EB/OL].http://www.nea.org/aboutnea/NEAFTPartnership.html.2000/2007-08-01.
[1]NEA师范学校部发表的报告和声明的内容可参见福建师范大学洪明的博士论文《美国教师质量保障体系历史演进研究》,2008,86-90.
[2]郭志明.美国教师专业规范历史研究[M].北京:中国社会科学出版社,2004:92.
[1]由地区性的认证机构来实施,美国有六大地区性认证机构,分别是:中部地区学院和中等学校协会、新英格兰地区学院和中等学校协会、中北部地区学院和中等学校协会、西北部中等和高等学院协会、南部地区学院和中等学校协会、西部地区学院协会。
[2]T.M.Stinnett.Professional Problems of Teachers.New York:the Macmillan Company,1968:460.
[1][美]科南特著,陈有松译.科南特教育论著选[M].北京:人民教育出版社,1988:173.
[2]同[1],第369页.
[3]龚艳.基于认证的美国教师教育质量保证--以对教师教育机构的认证为例[D].北京师范大学硕士学位论文,2007:27-29.
[4]T.M.Stinnett.Professional Problems of Teachers.New York:the Macmillan Company,1968:460.
[5]NEA Convention 2000 Report and Commentary [EB/OL].http://www.educationpolicy.org/NEAreport2000.htm.2000/2007-05-06.
[1]David G.Imig and Mary Harrill-McCiellan.Accrediting Standards Affecting Mid-Level Teacher Education Preparation in the Community College.New Directions for Community Colleges,No.121,Spring,2003.
[2]The Standard of Excellence in Teacher Preparation [EB/OL].http://www.ncate.org/documents/NCATEMission.pdf.2007/2007-12-07.
[3]T.M.Stinnett.Professional Problems of Teachers.New York:the Macmillan Company,1968:465.
[1]Arthur E.Wise.ETS Study Shows NCATE Makes a Difference.Spring 1999[EB/OL].http://www.ncate.org/documents/QualityTeaching/qts99.pdf.2007-12-07.
[1]Loveless Tom.Conflicting Missions? Teachers Unions and Educational Reform.Washington D.C:Brooking Institution Press,2000:75.
[1]Joseph W.Newman.America's Teachers:An Introduction to Education.4th edition,Boston:Allyn and Bacon,2002:136.
[2]叶澜等.教师角色与教师发展新探[M].北京:教育科学出版社,2001:289.
[3]No Dream Denied:A Pledge to America's Children [EB/OL].http://www.nctaf.org/documents/no-dream-denied_full-report.pdf.2003-01/2007-09-11.
[4]The High Cost of Teacher Turnover [EB/OL].http://www.nctaf.org/resources/demonstration_projects/turnover/documents/CTTPolicyBrief6-19.pdf.2007/2007-10-06.
[5]AFT.Beginning Teacher Induction:The Essential Bridge [EB/OL].http://www.aft.org/pubs-reports/downloads/teachers/policy13.pdf.2001-09/2007-08-15.
[1]Building an Effective New Teacher Support System [EB/OL].http://www.nea.org/teachershortage/better-building.html.2007-08-09.
[1]Peer Assistance and Peer Review,an NEA/AFT hand book,1998:5[EB/OL].http://www.aft.org/pubs-reports/downloads/teachers/parhndbk.pdf.2007-05-06.
[1]Phillip Escamilla,Theresa Clatke,Dane Linn.Exploring Teacher Peer Review [EB/OL].http://www.nga.org/cda/files/000125peerreview.pdf.2000-01-12/2007-06-06.
[1]Peer Assistance and Peer Review,an NEA/AFT hand book,1998:9[EB/OL].http://www.aft.org/pubs-reports/downloads/teachers/parhndbk.pdf.2007-05-06.
[2]Phillip Escamilla,Theresa Clarke,Dane Linn.Exploring Teacher Peer Review [EB/OL].http://www.nga.org/cda/files/000125peerreview.pdf.2000-01-12/2007-06-06.
[1]Peer Assistance and Peer Review,an NEA/AFT hand book,1998:35[EB/OL].http://www.aft.org/pubs-reports/downloads/teachers/parhndbk.pdf.2007-05-06.
[2]同[1],第36页.
[1]Judith.Teachers Take Charge of Their Learning:Transforming Professional Development for Student Success [EB/OL].http://www.neafoundation.org/publications/takecharge_exec.htm#mjrecs.1996/2007-06-03.
[1]Mary Vaa Horn,Educational Research and Dissemination Program [EB/OL].http://www.pft400.org/ER_Dbook.DOC.2007-07/2007-12-20.
[2]The AFT Educational Research and Dissemination Program [EB/OL].http://www.aft.org/topics/teacher-quality/downloads/WhatisERD.pdf.2007/2007-11-26.
[1]AFT Thinking Mathematics Program [EB/OL].http://www.ed.gov/rschstat/research/progs/mathscience/descriptions/aft_thinking.pdf.2007-11-26.
[2]Loveless Tom.Conflicting Missions? Teachers Unions and Educational Reform.Washington D.C:Brooking Institution Press,2000:75-76.
[1]Dennis L.Coddy,NEA:The Grab for Power A Chronology of the National Education Association.Oklahoma City:Hearthstone Publishing,2000:60.
[2]NEA Puts Teacher Quality High on Agenda:Association Sets Goal of 100,000 Board Certified Teachers in Five Years [EB/OL].http://www.nea.org/nr/old/nr980710.html.1998-01-10/2007-06-01.
[3]NEA Committed to Improving Teacher Quality[EB/OL].http://www.nea,org/teacherquality.2007-07-09.
[4]What Teachers Should Know and Be Able to Do:The Five Core Propositions of the National Board [EB/OL].http://www.nbpts.org/UserFiles/File/what_teachers,pdf,2007-06-01.
[1]AFT,Professional Development:It's Union Work,Profilcs of How AFT Unions Enhance Teacher Quality,2000[EB/OL].http://www.aft.org/pubs-reports/downloads/teachers/pdunionwork.pdf.2000/2007-06-15.
[2]National Board Certification Statistics [EB/OL].http://www.nbpts.org/about_us/2007_national-board_certl/national_board-certifica.2007/2007-12-20.
[1]Sue Ellen Hollandsworth.Best Practice of National Board Certified Teachers and Non-board Certified Teachers in Grades One and Two,2006[EB/OL].http://www.marshall.edu/etd/doctors/hollandsworth-sue-2006-phd.pdf.2006/2007-06-08.
[2]A Research Guide on National Board Certification of Teachers [EB/OL].www.nbpts.org/resources/research.2007/2007-12-20.
[3]Bond,L.,Smith,T.,Baker,W.K.,Hattie,J.A.Validation Study:A Distinction That Matters [EB/OL].http://www.nbpts.org/resources/research/impact_of_certification#impact.2001-10/2007-12-20.
[1]Samuel L.Blumenfeld.The Biggest Lobby in Washington:the National Education Association [EB/OL].http://www.sntp.net/education/nea_1.htm.2007-05-25.
[1]No Child Left Behind Act [EB/OL].http://www.whitehousc.gov/news/rcports/no-chiid-left-behind.pdf.2002/2007-05-15.
[1]Count'Me In:Special Education in the Era of Standards,"Highly Qualified?".Education Week,January 2004.
[1]Funding Gap:No Child Left Behind,Funding Promised in the Law vs.Funding Actually Received,FY 2002-08[EB/OL].http://www.nea.org/lac/funding/images/fundinggap.pdf.2007-12-19/2008-01-01.
[1]New No Child Left Behind Flexibility:Highly Qualified Teachers,March 2004[EB/OL].http://www.ed.gov/nclb/methods/teachers/hqtflexibility.pdf.2007.11-09.
[1]Code of Ethics of the Education Profession [EB/OL].http://www.nea.org/aboutnea/code.html.2007-06-06.
[2]T,M.Stinnett.Professional Problems of Teachers.New York:the Macmillan Company,1968:296.
[1]T.M.Stinnett.Professional Problems of Teachers.New York:the Macmillan Company,1968:303-304.
[2]同[1],第143页.
[3]AFT.Survey and Analysis of Teacher Salary Trends 2005[EB/OL].http://www.aft.org/salary/2005/download/AFT2005SalarySurvey.pdf.2007/2007-09-01.
[1]AFT 2007 Public Employees Compensation Survey [EB/OL].http://www.aft.org/salary/2007/PubEmpsCompSurvey07.pdf.2007/2007-12-20.
[2]AFT.Meeting the Challenge:Recruiting and Retaining Teachers in Hard-to-Staff Schools [EB/OL].http://www.aft.org/pubs-reports/downloads/teachers/h2s.pdf.2007/2007-10-06.
[3]龚兵.从专业协会到教师工会--美国全国教百协会角色转变研究[D].华东师范大学博士论文,2005:51.
[1]Ronald D.Henderson,Wayne,J.Urban,Paul Wolman.Teacher Unions and Education Policy:Retrenchment or Reform? Boston:Elsevier Ltd,2004:171.
[2]Survey and Analysis of Teacher Salary Trends 2005[EB/OL].http://www.aft.org/salary/2005/download/AFT2005SalarySurvey.pdf.2007/200-10-01.
[3]Loveless Tom.Conflicting Missions? Teachers Unions and Educational Reform.Washington D.C:Brooking Institution Press,2000:215.
[1]Carol Wright,David E.Gundersen.Unions and Teachers:Differences in the State of the Nation ALSB.Journal of Employment and Labor Law,Vol.10,No.1,Fall 2004.
[2]Survey and Analysis of Teacher Salary Trends 2005[EB/OL].http://www.aft.org/salary/2005/download/AFT2005SalatySurvey.pdf.2007/2007-09-01.
[3]Frederick M.Hess,Martin R.West.A Better Bargain:Overhauling Teacher Collective Bargaining for the 21st Century[EB/OL].http://www.ksg.harvard.edu/pepg/PDF/Papers/BetterBargain.pdf.2007-06-17.
[1]T.M.Stinnett.Professional Problems of Teachers.New York:the Macmillan Company,1968:231.
[2]Helen Pate Bain,Jayne Boyd-Zaharias.The Student/Teacher Achievement Ratio(STAR)Project,STAR Follow-up Studies[EB/OL].http://www.heros-inc.org/newstar.pdf.1997/2008-08-21.
[3]Recent Research Shows Major Benefits of Small Class Size [EB/OL].http://www.aft.org/pubs-reports/downloads/teachers/Policy3.pdf.1998-06/2008-08-20.
[1]AFT.Building minds,Minding Buildings:Turning Crumbling.Schools into Environmemts for Learning [EB/OL].http://www.aft.org/topics/building-conditions/downloads/minding-bldgs.pdf.2006/2007-09-06.
[2]Susan Friedfel.Research on Improving School Safety:The Role of Technology and Reduced Class Size,August 1998[EB/OL].http://www.aft.org/topics/diseipline/downloads/ImprOvingSchoolSafety.pdf.2008-08-20.
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2 科南特著.科南特教育论著选[M].陈有松主译.北京:人民教育出版社,1988.
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