纳米薄膜作为锂离子电池电极材料的性能与反应机理研究
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摘要
寻找新型的高性能储锂材料是当今研究发展锂离子电池的主要方向之一。而纳米材料由于其尺寸效应和比表面积大的优势,被认为最有可能成为下一代锂离子电池的电极材料。本文主要通过脉冲激光沉积技术制备了一系列纳米薄膜材料,将其作为锂离子电池的电极,通过恒电流充放电和循环伏安法测量了这些薄膜电极的充放电性能和电化学反应特性。利用X射线衍射(XRD),高分辨电子显微镜(HRTEM),选区电子衍射(SAED)以及X射线光电子能谱(XPS)等多种手段对其电化学过程中物质的组成和结构进行了测试和表征,从而探讨了这些纳米薄膜的电化学反应机理。主要包括以下体系:
一.纳米复合LiF-M(M=Co,Ni……)薄膜的制备及其电化学特性研究。我们首次采用脉冲激光沉积技术,通过调节靶的组成与脉冲激光沉积的参数,制备颗粒在纳米尺度的一系列LiF-M复合薄膜电极。通过对其电化学过程的表征和充放电中薄膜组分及结构的变化,发现该类纳米薄膜在充放电循环过程中都包含了含锂惰性基质LiF可逆的分解和生成的过程。充放电反应机理有别于传统的锂离子脱嵌过程,而是一种可逆转换反应,主要包含了金属氟化物MF_2和LiF的可逆转换反应。
二.纳米复合Li_2S-M薄膜的制备及其电化学特性研究。采用脉冲激光沉积技术,制备了纳米复合Li_2S-M薄膜电极,并研究了其电化学性能和反应机理。以Li_2S-Co为例,通过调节靶材组分和优化制备条件,我们发现在Li_2S和Co的摩尔比为2:1时具有最佳的电化学性能。在以28μA/cm~2的电流密度循环时,首次放电容量达到1257 mAh/g,而第二次循环容量衰减较大,放电容量为819mAh/g,但在随后的循环中,可逆性明显改善,容量衰减减小。通过对充放电过程中薄膜组分和结构的表征。我们发现Li_2S-Co薄膜在充放电过程中包括了多步电化学反应。在首次充电过程中,不但有CoS_2生成,还有单质S生成。在放电过程中,CoS_2转化成三元化合物LiCoS,而单质S转化成Li_2S。
三.纳米复合Li_3N-M薄膜的制备及其电化学特性研究。首次采用脉冲激光沉积法制备了Li_3N-Co纳米复合薄膜电极。电化学表征结果显示其首次放电可得到515 mAh/g的比容量,随后的可逆容量为约为400 mAh/g,平均每次循环容量衰减小于0.2%。研究发现其在可逆过程中发生的电化学反应,既包括Li_3N和Co_2N的可逆转化反应,也包括Li_(2.57)Co_(0.43)N和Co_2N的可逆转化反应。
四.纳米复合Li_3N-Si薄膜的制备及其电化学特性研究。经过前面的研究,我们对LiX-M(X=F,S,N;M=Co,Ni……)作为锂离子电池电极材料的电化学反应机理的认识逐步深化。于是我们考虑纳米化的ⅣA族Si是否也可以驱动LiX发生可逆的分解和形成?同样通过脉冲激光沉积法制备了Li_3N-Si(摩尔比为1:1)纳米复合薄膜,电化学表征结果显示该薄膜除了首次循环容量衰减较大外,具有良好的循环性能。其可逆容量约为700 mAh/g,平均每次循环容量衰减约0.7%。通过对充电过程中薄膜组分和结构的表征,我们发现在首次充电过程中,纳米Si颗粒驱动了Li_3N分解,形成六方结构的多晶Si_3N_4。在随后的可逆过程中,Si_3N_4可逆地和Li_5N_3Si相互转化。
五.纳米结构In_2O_3和GeO_2薄膜的制备及其电化学特性研究。Tarascon等提出了纳米颗粒的过渡金属能够驱动Li_2O可逆地分解和形成。那么,主族金属纳米颗粒能否具有同样的效应呢?我们尝试用脉冲激光沉积法制备了ⅢA族和ⅣA族金属氧化物——纳米结构In_2O_3和GeO_2薄膜电极,并进行了电化学特性表征。结果显示In_2O_3和GeO_2在首次放电中都有较大的比容量,分别为1083mAh/g和2073 mAh/g。第二次放电容量都有较严重衰减,分别降为883 mAh/g和1336 mAh/g,但随后的循环容量衰减很小,显示出良好的可逆性。通过对充电过程中薄膜组分和结构的表征,我们发现可逆过程中的反应主要为In_2O_3,GeO_2和Li_2In,Li_(15)Ge_4的相互转化。这说明纳米金属颗粒(In,Ge)不但能够在充放电过程中驱动Li_2O的分解和形成,还能够和Li发生可逆的合金化反应,从而得到更大的可逆容量。
六、纳米结构NiF_2薄膜的制备及其电化学特性研究。首次采用脉冲激光沉积技术,成功制备了NiF_2纳米薄膜。电化学性能的表征显示这类薄膜都有较大的首次不可逆容量,但从第二周循环开始,可以保持较好的循环性能。NiF_2纳米薄膜在0～3.5V范围的可逆容量可达到540 mAh/g,经过40次循环,容量仍能够保持在450 mAh/g。电化学表征和结构表征结果表明,NiF_2的可逆转换过程包含多步反应,在1.0-3.5 V区间,为NiF_2和Li_2NiF_4的可逆转换过程,在0.01-1.0V区间,为Li_2NiF_4和LiF/Ni的可逆转换过程。
本论文对纳米薄膜材料电化学特性的系统研究有助于澄清纳米金属及非金属驱动含锂惰性基质LiX(X=F,O,S,N)分解产生锂源的电化学反应本质,对制备和研究新型的高性能储锂材料具有一定的指导意义。
另外,附录中介绍了在美国Brookhaven国家实验室交流的一年里主要的工作内容,包括两个方面:
一.新型高温高电位电解质的研究。首次利用二甲基聚乙烯乙二醇(DMPEG)(分子量:500g/mol)作为电解液溶剂。用LiPF_6作为锂盐,制备了高沸点电解液,用循环伏安测得其电化学窗口可达到5.3 V,但由于其粘度较高,室温电导率仅为0.48×10~(-3)S/cm。但随着温度的升高,其电导率显著增大。
二.锂离子电池正极材料热稳定性的研究。用原位透射电子显微镜和选区电子衍射研究了LiNi_(0.8)Co_(0.15)Al_(0.05)O_2在充电态下的热稳定特性。我们在从室温到400℃的升温过程中,实时观察到了正极材料经过从层状结构(R3m)到尖晶石结构(Fd3m),再到NaCl结构(Fm3m)的变化过程。并发现室温下的LiNi_(0.8)Co_(0.15)Al_(0.05)O_2颗粒边缘已存在少量尖晶石结构(Fd3m)和NaCl结构(Fm3m)。在升温过程中,这两种结构逐渐向内部扩散长大。最后全部转变为NaCl结构(Fm3m)。
该部分结果对车载动力锂离子电池的安全性和可靠性研究具有一定的意义和参考价值。
Pursuing high performance lithium storage materials is one of the primary directions in lithium battery development.Due to their particular dimension effect and large specific surface area,nano-materials are considered as next generation electrode materials for lithium ion batteries.This thesis will focus on the investigations of a series of nano-sized thin film materials fabricated by pulsed laser deposition(PLD) technology.Charge/discharge measurements and cyclic voltammograms were used to investigate cycle performance and electrochemical properties of the materials.X-ray diffraction(XRD),high resolution transmission electron microscopy(HRTEM), selected area electron diffraction(SAED) and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy(XPS) were employed to detect the composition and structure information of the materials in certain electrochemical states.Thereby the electrochemical reaction mechanism were discussed.The following systems were included:
1.Fabrication and electrochemical properties of LiF-M(M = Co,Ni,Fe……) nanocomposite thin films.A series of LiF-M nanocomposite thin films were successfully fabricated by pulsed laser deposition for the first time by adjusting composition of targets and deposition parameters.After characterize their electrochemical properties and detecting composition and structure changes in charge and discharge,we found this system contained an electrochemical process of reversible decomposition and formation of inert LiF in charge and discharge.This kind of electrochemical reaction mechanism is different from the traditional lithium ion insertion and extraction mechanism.It is a reversible conversion reaction based on the reversible transformation between MF_2 and LiF in charge and discharge.
2.Fabrication and electrochemical properties of Li_2S-M nanocomposite thin films.We fabricated Li_2S-M nanocomposite thin films by pulsed laser deposition. Electrochemical performance and reaction mechanism were investigated.For Li_2S-Co, we found this thin film yielded best electrochemical performance when the mole ratio of Li_2S and Co was 2:1.It exhibited large first discharge capacity up to 1257 mAh/g in a current density of 28μA/cm~2.The capacity in second cycle faded quickly. Discharge capacity was 819 mAh/g.However,in the subsequence cycles,capacity fading decreased significantly with better reversibility.After characterize the composition and structure of thin films in charge and discharge,we found it contained multi-step electrochemical reactions.In first charging,not only CoS_2 was formed,but also simple substance S was produced.In the discharging process,CoS_2 transformed to a ternary compound LiCoS,as well as S transformed to Li_2S.
3.Fabrication and electrochemical properties of Li_3N-M nanocomposite thin films.Li_3N-M nanocomposite thin films were fabricated by pulsed laser deposition for the first time.Electrochemical characterization results showed that it produced a specific capacity of 515 mAh/g in the first discharge.The reversible capacity in subsequent cycles was about 400 mAh/g.The capacity fading per cycle was less than 0.2%.The results revealed that the conversion between Li_3N and CO_2N was involved. Furthermore,the reversible transformation between Li_(2.57)Co_(0.43)N and Co_2N was also discovered.
4.Fabrication and electrochemical properties of Li_3N-Si nanocomposite thin films.After the research work above,we have got a deep understanding on the electrochemical reaction mechanism of LiX-M(X = F,S,N;M = Co,Ni,Fe……) as electrode materials for lithium ion batteries.So we started to think about whether Si could also drive the reversible decomposition and formation of LiX.Using pulsed laser deposition technology we fabricated Li_3N-Si nanocomposite thin films with a mole ratio 1:1 of Li_3N and Si.Electrochemical characterization showed good cycle performance except large capacity fading in the first cycle.Li_3N-Si exhibited a large reversible capacity of 700 mAh/g.Capacity fading per cycle was about 0.7%.After charactering the composition and structure of the thin film after charging and discharging,we found the nanosized Si particles drove the decomposition of Li_3N in charging process,then polycrystalline hexagonal Si_3N_4 was formed.In the subsequent cycles,It was a reversible conversion process between Si_3N_4 and Li_5N_3Si.
5.Fabrication and electrochemical properties of nanostructured In2O_3 and GeO_2 thin films.Tarascon et al.found the reversible decomposition and formation of Li_2O could be driven by nanosized transition metal particles.Is it possible that nanosized main group metal particles also have this effect? We fabricated nanostructuredⅢA metal oxide(In_2O_3) and IVA metal oxide(GeO_2) thin films by pulsed laser deposition, then characterized their electrochemical properties.The results showed that they both exhibited large specific capacity in first discharge,which were 1083 mAh/g and 2073 mAh/g for In_2O_3 and GeO_2,respectively.There is large capacity fading in the second cycle.The discharging capacity decreased to 883 mAh/g and 1336 mAh/g, respectively.However,in the subsequent cycles,the capacity could be maintained very well with excellent reversibility.After characterizing the composition and structure of thin films in charge and discharge,we found the reversible reaction process was mainly due to the reversible conversion between In_2O_3(GeO_2) and Li_2In (Li_(15)Ge_4).This indicated that nanosized metal particles(In and Ge) could drive the decomposition and formation of Li_2O in charging and discharging.Furthermore,they could participate the reversible alloying/dealloying reactions with lithium.This contributed extra reversible capacity for this system.
6.Fabrication and electrochemical properties of nanostructured NiF_2 thin films. Nanostructured NiF_2 thin films were fabricated by pulsed laser deposition for the first time.Electrochemical characterization showed a large irreversible capacity in the first cycle.However,the capacity could be well kept from second cycle.The reversible capacity was about 540 mAh/g in the potential range from 0.01 to 3.5 V.After 40 cycles,the specific capacity was around 450 mAh/g.Electrochemical and structural characterizations indicated that the reversible process of nanostructured NiF_2 thin film in charging and discharging contained multi-step reactions.In the range of 1.0 to 3.5 V, it was the reversible conversion between NiF_2 and Li_2NiF_4.In the range of 0.01 to 1.0V,it was the reversible conversion between Li_2NiF_4 and LiF/Ni.
The in-depth and systemic investigations of electrochemical properties on nanosized thin films in this paper are very helpful to uncover electrochemical reaction essences,which is on the decomposition of inert matter LiX(X = F,O,S,N) driven by nanosized metal and nonmetal.It has certain directive significance for preparing and developing new kinds of high performance lithium storage materials.
In addition,appendix introduced the research work I made as a visiting student in Brookhaven National Laboratory(BNL) last year.It contains two topics:
1.Investigations of new high temperature and high voltage electrolyte
Dimethyl poly(ethylene glycol)(MW=500) was used as electrolyte solvent for the first time.Combining with salt LiPF_6,we prepared a new electrolyte with high boiling point.Cyclic voltammogram test showed a large electrochemical window up to 5.3 V.The conductivity of this electrolyte at room temperature was about 0.39×10~(-3) S/cm,which was low due to its high viscosity,but it increased quickly during temperature increasing.
2.Thermal stability investigations of cathode materials for lithium battery
By using in-situ transmission electron microscopy and selected area electron diffraction,we have studied the thermal stability properties of overcharged LiNi_(0.8)Co_(0.15)Al_(0.05)O_2 cathode material.During heating from room temperature to 400℃,we observed the local structure changes of LiNi_(0.8)Co_(0.15)Al_(0.05)O_2 in the real time.It was a process from layered structure(R3m) to spinel structure(Fd3m),then to NaCl structure(Fm3m).We found that a little spinel structure and NaCl structure existed at the room temperature.During heating,both of the structures diffused and expanded from surface to the bulk.Eventually,all of the particles convert to NaCl structure.
These results provide some significance and reference value for the safety and reliability for high power lithium ion battery used in HEV and EV.
一.纳米复合LiF-M(M=Co,Ni……)薄膜的制备及其电化学特性研究。我们首次采用脉冲激光沉积技术,通过调节靶的组成与脉冲激光沉积的参数,制备颗粒在纳米尺度的一系列LiF-M复合薄膜电极。通过对其电化学过程的表征和充放电中薄膜组分及结构的变化,发现该类纳米薄膜在充放电循环过程中都包含了含锂惰性基质LiF可逆的分解和生成的过程。充放电反应机理有别于传统的锂离子脱嵌过程,而是一种可逆转换反应,主要包含了金属氟化物MF_2和LiF的可逆转换反应。
二.纳米复合Li_2S-M薄膜的制备及其电化学特性研究。采用脉冲激光沉积技术,制备了纳米复合Li_2S-M薄膜电极,并研究了其电化学性能和反应机理。以Li_2S-Co为例,通过调节靶材组分和优化制备条件,我们发现在Li_2S和Co的摩尔比为2:1时具有最佳的电化学性能。在以28μA/cm~2的电流密度循环时,首次放电容量达到1257 mAh/g,而第二次循环容量衰减较大,放电容量为819mAh/g,但在随后的循环中,可逆性明显改善,容量衰减减小。通过对充放电过程中薄膜组分和结构的表征。我们发现Li_2S-Co薄膜在充放电过程中包括了多步电化学反应。在首次充电过程中,不但有CoS_2生成,还有单质S生成。在放电过程中,CoS_2转化成三元化合物LiCoS,而单质S转化成Li_2S。
三.纳米复合Li_3N-M薄膜的制备及其电化学特性研究。首次采用脉冲激光沉积法制备了Li_3N-Co纳米复合薄膜电极。电化学表征结果显示其首次放电可得到515 mAh/g的比容量,随后的可逆容量为约为400 mAh/g,平均每次循环容量衰减小于0.2%。研究发现其在可逆过程中发生的电化学反应,既包括Li_3N和Co_2N的可逆转化反应,也包括Li_(2.57)Co_(0.43)N和Co_2N的可逆转化反应。
四.纳米复合Li_3N-Si薄膜的制备及其电化学特性研究。经过前面的研究,我们对LiX-M(X=F,S,N;M=Co,Ni……)作为锂离子电池电极材料的电化学反应机理的认识逐步深化。于是我们考虑纳米化的ⅣA族Si是否也可以驱动LiX发生可逆的分解和形成?同样通过脉冲激光沉积法制备了Li_3N-Si(摩尔比为1:1)纳米复合薄膜,电化学表征结果显示该薄膜除了首次循环容量衰减较大外,具有良好的循环性能。其可逆容量约为700 mAh/g,平均每次循环容量衰减约0.7%。通过对充电过程中薄膜组分和结构的表征,我们发现在首次充电过程中,纳米Si颗粒驱动了Li_3N分解,形成六方结构的多晶Si_3N_4。在随后的可逆过程中,Si_3N_4可逆地和Li_5N_3Si相互转化。
五.纳米结构In_2O_3和GeO_2薄膜的制备及其电化学特性研究。Tarascon等提出了纳米颗粒的过渡金属能够驱动Li_2O可逆地分解和形成。那么,主族金属纳米颗粒能否具有同样的效应呢?我们尝试用脉冲激光沉积法制备了ⅢA族和ⅣA族金属氧化物——纳米结构In_2O_3和GeO_2薄膜电极,并进行了电化学特性表征。结果显示In_2O_3和GeO_2在首次放电中都有较大的比容量,分别为1083mAh/g和2073 mAh/g。第二次放电容量都有较严重衰减,分别降为883 mAh/g和1336 mAh/g,但随后的循环容量衰减很小,显示出良好的可逆性。通过对充电过程中薄膜组分和结构的表征,我们发现可逆过程中的反应主要为In_2O_3,GeO_2和Li_2In,Li_(15)Ge_4的相互转化。这说明纳米金属颗粒(In,Ge)不但能够在充放电过程中驱动Li_2O的分解和形成,还能够和Li发生可逆的合金化反应,从而得到更大的可逆容量。
六、纳米结构NiF_2薄膜的制备及其电化学特性研究。首次采用脉冲激光沉积技术,成功制备了NiF_2纳米薄膜。电化学性能的表征显示这类薄膜都有较大的首次不可逆容量,但从第二周循环开始,可以保持较好的循环性能。NiF_2纳米薄膜在0～3.5V范围的可逆容量可达到540 mAh/g,经过40次循环,容量仍能够保持在450 mAh/g。电化学表征和结构表征结果表明,NiF_2的可逆转换过程包含多步反应,在1.0-3.5 V区间,为NiF_2和Li_2NiF_4的可逆转换过程,在0.01-1.0V区间,为Li_2NiF_4和LiF/Ni的可逆转换过程。
本论文对纳米薄膜材料电化学特性的系统研究有助于澄清纳米金属及非金属驱动含锂惰性基质LiX(X=F,O,S,N)分解产生锂源的电化学反应本质,对制备和研究新型的高性能储锂材料具有一定的指导意义。
另外,附录中介绍了在美国Brookhaven国家实验室交流的一年里主要的工作内容,包括两个方面:
一.新型高温高电位电解质的研究。首次利用二甲基聚乙烯乙二醇(DMPEG)(分子量:500g/mol)作为电解液溶剂。用LiPF_6作为锂盐,制备了高沸点电解液,用循环伏安测得其电化学窗口可达到5.3 V,但由于其粘度较高,室温电导率仅为0.48×10~(-3)S/cm。但随着温度的升高,其电导率显著增大。
二.锂离子电池正极材料热稳定性的研究。用原位透射电子显微镜和选区电子衍射研究了LiNi_(0.8)Co_(0.15)Al_(0.05)O_2在充电态下的热稳定特性。我们在从室温到400℃的升温过程中,实时观察到了正极材料经过从层状结构(R3m)到尖晶石结构(Fd3m),再到NaCl结构(Fm3m)的变化过程。并发现室温下的LiNi_(0.8)Co_(0.15)Al_(0.05)O_2颗粒边缘已存在少量尖晶石结构(Fd3m)和NaCl结构(Fm3m)。在升温过程中,这两种结构逐渐向内部扩散长大。最后全部转变为NaCl结构(Fm3m)。
该部分结果对车载动力锂离子电池的安全性和可靠性研究具有一定的意义和参考价值。
Pursuing high performance lithium storage materials is one of the primary directions in lithium battery development.Due to their particular dimension effect and large specific surface area,nano-materials are considered as next generation electrode materials for lithium ion batteries.This thesis will focus on the investigations of a series of nano-sized thin film materials fabricated by pulsed laser deposition(PLD) technology.Charge/discharge measurements and cyclic voltammograms were used to investigate cycle performance and electrochemical properties of the materials.X-ray diffraction(XRD),high resolution transmission electron microscopy(HRTEM), selected area electron diffraction(SAED) and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy(XPS) were employed to detect the composition and structure information of the materials in certain electrochemical states.Thereby the electrochemical reaction mechanism were discussed.The following systems were included:
1.Fabrication and electrochemical properties of LiF-M(M = Co,Ni,Fe……) nanocomposite thin films.A series of LiF-M nanocomposite thin films were successfully fabricated by pulsed laser deposition for the first time by adjusting composition of targets and deposition parameters.After characterize their electrochemical properties and detecting composition and structure changes in charge and discharge,we found this system contained an electrochemical process of reversible decomposition and formation of inert LiF in charge and discharge.This kind of electrochemical reaction mechanism is different from the traditional lithium ion insertion and extraction mechanism.It is a reversible conversion reaction based on the reversible transformation between MF_2 and LiF in charge and discharge.
2.Fabrication and electrochemical properties of Li_2S-M nanocomposite thin films.We fabricated Li_2S-M nanocomposite thin films by pulsed laser deposition. Electrochemical performance and reaction mechanism were investigated.For Li_2S-Co, we found this thin film yielded best electrochemical performance when the mole ratio of Li_2S and Co was 2:1.It exhibited large first discharge capacity up to 1257 mAh/g in a current density of 28μA/cm~2.The capacity in second cycle faded quickly. Discharge capacity was 819 mAh/g.However,in the subsequence cycles,capacity fading decreased significantly with better reversibility.After characterize the composition and structure of thin films in charge and discharge,we found it contained multi-step electrochemical reactions.In first charging,not only CoS_2 was formed,but also simple substance S was produced.In the discharging process,CoS_2 transformed to a ternary compound LiCoS,as well as S transformed to Li_2S.
3.Fabrication and electrochemical properties of Li_3N-M nanocomposite thin films.Li_3N-M nanocomposite thin films were fabricated by pulsed laser deposition for the first time.Electrochemical characterization results showed that it produced a specific capacity of 515 mAh/g in the first discharge.The reversible capacity in subsequent cycles was about 400 mAh/g.The capacity fading per cycle was less than 0.2%.The results revealed that the conversion between Li_3N and CO_2N was involved. Furthermore,the reversible transformation between Li_(2.57)Co_(0.43)N and Co_2N was also discovered.
4.Fabrication and electrochemical properties of Li_3N-Si nanocomposite thin films.After the research work above,we have got a deep understanding on the electrochemical reaction mechanism of LiX-M(X = F,S,N;M = Co,Ni,Fe……) as electrode materials for lithium ion batteries.So we started to think about whether Si could also drive the reversible decomposition and formation of LiX.Using pulsed laser deposition technology we fabricated Li_3N-Si nanocomposite thin films with a mole ratio 1:1 of Li_3N and Si.Electrochemical characterization showed good cycle performance except large capacity fading in the first cycle.Li_3N-Si exhibited a large reversible capacity of 700 mAh/g.Capacity fading per cycle was about 0.7%.After charactering the composition and structure of the thin film after charging and discharging,we found the nanosized Si particles drove the decomposition of Li_3N in charging process,then polycrystalline hexagonal Si_3N_4 was formed.In the subsequent cycles,It was a reversible conversion process between Si_3N_4 and Li_5N_3Si.
5.Fabrication and electrochemical properties of nanostructured In2O_3 and GeO_2 thin films.Tarascon et al.found the reversible decomposition and formation of Li_2O could be driven by nanosized transition metal particles.Is it possible that nanosized main group metal particles also have this effect? We fabricated nanostructuredⅢA metal oxide(In_2O_3) and IVA metal oxide(GeO_2) thin films by pulsed laser deposition, then characterized their electrochemical properties.The results showed that they both exhibited large specific capacity in first discharge,which were 1083 mAh/g and 2073 mAh/g for In_2O_3 and GeO_2,respectively.There is large capacity fading in the second cycle.The discharging capacity decreased to 883 mAh/g and 1336 mAh/g, respectively.However,in the subsequent cycles,the capacity could be maintained very well with excellent reversibility.After characterizing the composition and structure of thin films in charge and discharge,we found the reversible reaction process was mainly due to the reversible conversion between In_2O_3(GeO_2) and Li_2In (Li_(15)Ge_4).This indicated that nanosized metal particles(In and Ge) could drive the decomposition and formation of Li_2O in charging and discharging.Furthermore,they could participate the reversible alloying/dealloying reactions with lithium.This contributed extra reversible capacity for this system.
6.Fabrication and electrochemical properties of nanostructured NiF_2 thin films. Nanostructured NiF_2 thin films were fabricated by pulsed laser deposition for the first time.Electrochemical characterization showed a large irreversible capacity in the first cycle.However,the capacity could be well kept from second cycle.The reversible capacity was about 540 mAh/g in the potential range from 0.01 to 3.5 V.After 40 cycles,the specific capacity was around 450 mAh/g.Electrochemical and structural characterizations indicated that the reversible process of nanostructured NiF_2 thin film in charging and discharging contained multi-step reactions.In the range of 1.0 to 3.5 V, it was the reversible conversion between NiF_2 and Li_2NiF_4.In the range of 0.01 to 1.0V,it was the reversible conversion between Li_2NiF_4 and LiF/Ni.
The in-depth and systemic investigations of electrochemical properties on nanosized thin films in this paper are very helpful to uncover electrochemical reaction essences,which is on the decomposition of inert matter LiX(X = F,O,S,N) driven by nanosized metal and nonmetal.It has certain directive significance for preparing and developing new kinds of high performance lithium storage materials.
In addition,appendix introduced the research work I made as a visiting student in Brookhaven National Laboratory(BNL) last year.It contains two topics:
1.Investigations of new high temperature and high voltage electrolyte
Dimethyl poly(ethylene glycol)(MW=500) was used as electrolyte solvent for the first time.Combining with salt LiPF_6,we prepared a new electrolyte with high boiling point.Cyclic voltammogram test showed a large electrochemical window up to 5.3 V.The conductivity of this electrolyte at room temperature was about 0.39×10~(-3) S/cm,which was low due to its high viscosity,but it increased quickly during temperature increasing.
2.Thermal stability investigations of cathode materials for lithium battery
By using in-situ transmission electron microscopy and selected area electron diffraction,we have studied the thermal stability properties of overcharged LiNi_(0.8)Co_(0.15)Al_(0.05)O_2 cathode material.During heating from room temperature to 400℃,we observed the local structure changes of LiNi_(0.8)Co_(0.15)Al_(0.05)O_2 in the real time.It was a process from layered structure(R3m) to spinel structure(Fd3m),then to NaCl structure(Fm3m).We found that a little spinel structure and NaCl structure existed at the room temperature.During heating,both of the structures diffused and expanded from surface to the bulk.Eventually,all of the particles convert to NaCl structure.
These results provide some significance and reference value for the safety and reliability for high power lithium ion battery used in HEV and EV.
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