城市降雨径流磷污染负荷及河岸带生态阻控技术研究
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摘要
随着城市化的快速发展,城区不透水面积比率不断增大,造成城市中暴雨内涝频发；同时,城市降雨径流水质不断恶化,已经成为不可忽视的非点源污染之一。城市降雨径流通过雨水的冲刷和携带作用,向下级受纳水体输移了包括固体颗粒物、重金属、营养盐、有机物污染物以及细菌等在内的大量污染物质,其中氮、磷等营养盐被认为是造成城市水体富营养化的主要因素,因此备受国内外研究者的关注。另一方面,城市化的快速发展同时造成了城市河岸带的面积萎缩、基质硬化以及生态功能退化等严重的环境问题,而河岸带是城市降雨径流进入受纳水体前的最后屏障,因此如何选择合理的技术对城市河岸带进行生态化改造,恢复其原有的生态阻控能力已经成为全球城市环境研究的热点之一。
在国家重大水专项“城市黑臭河道外源阻断、工程修复与原位多级生态净化关键技术研究与示范”、国家自然科学基金“沿海城市河岸带氮素截留效率和转化机制研究”以及上海市优秀学科带头人计划“城市河岸带对面源营养盐的生态阻控机理研究”的资助下,本研究选取了温州这一典型南方沿海城市作为主要研究区域,通过实地调研、现场监测以及室内模拟、分析等方法,系统研究了温州城区不同类型降雨径流中总磷(TP)、溶解态磷(DP)和颗粒态磷(PP)的环境行为特性,探讨了降雨条件(雨前干期、降雨量、降雨强度等)、区域环境、下垫面类型以及径流其他理化性质对于不同形态磷环境行为特征的影响作用；并以实际监测数据为基础,估算了监测区内不同类型降雨径流中TP\DP以及PP的污染负荷和年排放通量,同时对其潜在的影响因素进行了探讨。另一方面,针对温州城区降雨径流的污染特征和岸带实际特点,研发了新型多层介质渗滤系统,并对其在城市硬质型河岸带生态改造中的应用前景进行了实践研究。论文主要结论如下所示：
(1)温州城区夏季降雨pH平均值为5.83,虽然高于酸雨阈值,但相差不大；雨水中TP含量水平普遍较低,优于国家地表水Ⅱ类标准,基本上不会对受纳水体造成环境压力。
(2)温州城区夏季降雨径流中TP的含量介于0.01-4.32mg·L-1, DP含量介于ND-0.88mg· L-1,PP含量则介于ND-4.31mg·L-1。径流中TP、 DP以及PP含量均表现出随径流历时波动下降的趋势,其中TP和PP含量下降趋势较为明显且具有高度的一致性,而DP含量下降趋势相对独立且不甚明显。径流初期,温州城区所有降雨径流样品中PP占据了TP含量绝对主导的地位；而径流的中后期,PP所占比例会有不同程度的下降,甚至会出现DP占据主导地位的情况。
(3)温州城区降雨径流中各种P的含量受多种因素的影响：雨前干期长短对温州夏季降雨径流中TP和PP含量的影响不甚显著,而对DP含量的影响作用较为明显,表现出显著的正相关关系(p<0.05);降雨过程中的瞬时雨强对径流中TP. DP以及PP含量动态变化的影响显著,瞬时雨强的峰值之后径流中P含量均会急剧下降,而后缓慢回升直至达到动态平衡；下垫面类型对径流中各种P含量的影响同样显著,小区路面和交通干道径流中TP和PP污染较为严重,而DP污染则是汇流口径流中最为严重,但是无论对于哪种P而言,屋面径流皆为污染最轻的；降雨径流中TP和PP含量与所有理化指标之间都显著相关(p<0.01),且相关程度较高,其中径流SS和CODcr含量与TP和PP含量的线性拟合程度较好；径流中DP含量只与BOD5、CODcrr.TIC以及TOC等指标显著相关(p<0.01),但线性拟合程度皆较差；另外,区域环境以及人类活动强度等因素也能显著影响降雨径流中各种P的含量。
(4)根据累积曲线法判断可知：从径流类型来看,各种下垫面径流中TP和PP的初始冲刷效应较为普遍,而DP则是以稀释为主。从降雨事件来看,径流中TP和PP的初始冲刷效应同样较为普遍,且强度多为中等或微弱冲刷；而DP在降雨过程中出现初始冲刷效应的情况较少,多以微弱或者中等稀释为主。交通干道径流中TP和PP的初始冲刷强度指数较其他径流要高,而屋面径流中TP和PP的初始冲刷效应强度较低；DP的初始冲刷强度则是以屋面径流和汇流口径流为首,而其余径流中DP的初始冲刷强度差别不大。下垫面类型以及大部分降雨特征参数与径流中P的初始冲刷强度指数之间的相关关系不够显著,只有DP的初始冲刷强度指数与降雨历时之间存在着显著的正相关关系(p<0.05)。
(5)温州夏季降雨径流中TP和PP EMC超出国家地表水V类标准的情况较为普遍,且超标程度较高,最大值甚至可以达到地表水V类标准的6倍以上；而所有监测径流中仅有一例DP EMC超标的情况出现,且超标程度较低,仅为标准阈值的1.2倍。区域环境对降雨径流中TP和DP EMC的影响较大,而下垫面类型则对径流中TP和PP EMC的影响较大。就不同降雨条件而言,雨强干期仅与径流中DP EMC之间存在着显著的正相关关系(p<0.05)；最大雨强则与TP和PP EMC之间皆存在着显著的负相关关系(p<0.05);降雨量、降雨历时以及平均降雨强度与径流P EMC之间的相关关系皆不够显著。就整场降雨径流中各种P的总负荷而言,场次之间、不同类型径流之间以及不同研究区之间,降雨径流中各种P的总负荷差异并不显著(p>0.05);而降雨条件对于径流中各种P负荷的影响较为显著,其中TP、PP负荷与降雨量之间显著正相关(p<0.05),DP负荷则与降雨量和平均雨强皆显著正相关(p<0.01)。
(6)温州九山外河试验小区降雨径流中TP的年排放通量约为367.33k,其中DP贡献率为7%左右,PP的贡献率为93%左右；山下河试验小区降雨径流中TP的年排放通量约为237.85k,其中DP的贡献率为17%左右,PP的贡献率为83%左右。就试验小区内不同下垫面的贡献能力来看,交通干道对降雨径流中TP和PP排放通量的贡献能力最大,而屋面的贡献能力则最小,基本上不会对下级受纳水体构成威胁；而不同下垫面对DP的贡献能力较为复杂,并无统一的结论,由此可见下垫面对DP排放通量的贡献能力受区域环境的影响较大。
(7)多层介质渗滤系统室内微型实验的结果表明,在综合考虑系统对径流中TP和TN去除效果的情况下,沸石和麦饭石以3：7的体积比进行填充时,系统的效率最高,5：5配比次之,而7：3配比的填充柱对TP的去除效果无法满足实际应用需要。中型实验模型对径流中TP和NH3-N的去除效率较高,最高能够达到90%以上;TN和CODcr的去除率虽然略低,但是最高也能够达到50%以上；而由于受滤料本身含有N03--N以及系统内硝化反应的影响,出水中N03--N和N02--N则主要以增加为主,且增加幅度较大。停水期间,多层介质渗滤系统对径流中各种污染物的去除效率随滞留时间的延长虽然有所提高,但是幅度较小,其整体效率与行水期相类似。海绵铁滤料并没有表现出对径流中各种污染物去除效率明显的促进作用,且经过布水实验后甚至会因氧化而形成致密的板结层,阻碍径流的顺利下渗,因此,海绵铁滤料不适合作为多层介质渗滤系统的除氧剂。
(8)城市硬质型河岸带生态修复模型垂直径流对于除了N03-N以外的各个监测指标都有较好的去除效果,其含量基本上都低于国家地表水V类标准的阈值,明显优于温州城区地表水质,而最底端的原土层出水水质甚至优于国家地表水III类标准。
(9)对比具备不同透水铺装层的两模型可知,以草皮为表层的A模型整体透水性要明显优于以生态透水砖为表层的B模型,进而造成A模型表层径流产流时间比B模型晚60min左右,而且A模型下渗水量也较B模型明显要高,即相同条件下A模型处理水样的体积要多于B模型。表层透水性的差异进一步造成了系统对污染物综合净化能力的差异,A模型对TP、 NH3-N、 NO2--N、 TN以及CODcr的最高净化能力分别能够达到73.2、479.2、25.2、171.2以及2372.4mg·m-2·h-1,而B模型对于上述污染物的最大净化能力分别为54.0、173.8、9.2、156.4以及2525.2mg-m-2-h-1,只有CODcr的最高净化能力高于A模型,主要是因为A模型的草皮表层容易造成SS的流失。因此,在条件允许的情况下,城市硬质型河岸带生态化改造过程中,表层宜选用草皮等植被型透水材料铺装。植被的重新栽种以及长时间静置等措施都会对系统的净化能力产生负面影响,尤其是以草皮为表层的A模型,且系统达到重新稳定的耗时较长。另外,本研究中因为入水污染物含量波动较小,所以只有A模型的NO2--N净化能力与其入水浓度之间的相关关系达到了显著水平(p<0.05),其余各指标的净化能力与入水浓度之间的相关关系均不显著。
(10)温州市九山外河岸带的改造工作应主要着眼于现有绿化区域的基质改造,以增加其下渗速率；同时,还应尽可能丰富其植被类型,以达到增强河岸带对降雨径流污染阻控能力的目的。对于山下河岸带而言,在对硬化基质进行替换的同时,还应选取草皮或矮灌丛等植被型透水铺装对其硬化表面进行置换：而针对其承接径流量较少的特点,可以适当降低基质改造深度,以达到经济效应最大化的目的。
With the rapid development of urbanization, the ratio of impervious surface in urban areas increased gradually, leading to the frequent waterlogging by rainstorm and the degradation of water quality of urban storm runoff, and urban storm runoff becomes an important non-point pollution source that can not be ignored. Urban storm runoff from different underlying hard-surface types can transport high pollutant loads to receiving water, including solids, nutrients, heavy metals, oils, hydrocarbons, organic pollutants and bacteria, and so on. Of all pollutants, nutrients such as nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P), have been paid the most attention due to their role in eutrophication. Moreover, the rapid development of urbanization also causes conspicuous contraction of area, matrix hardening and degeneration of ecological function to urban riparian zone; meanwhile riparian zone is the final hurdle for urban storm runoff to flow into receiving water. Hence, selecting the reasonable technology to carry out the ecological reconstruction for urban riparian zone, increasing the infiltration capacity for urban storm runoff and restoring its original ecological removal ability for pollutants have become one of the hot spots of studies about urban environment in the world today.
With the support of the National Key Water Special Project of China, the National Natural Science Foundation of China and the project of Excellent Academic Leaders of Shanghai, Wenzhou, a typical coastal city in southern China, was chosen as the main research area in this study. By means of field investigation, field monitoring, indoor simulation and analysis, environmental behavior characteristics of total phosphorus (TP), dissolved phosphorus (DP) and particulate phosphorus (PP) in different types of urban storm runoff were studied; in addition, and the effects of characteristics of rainfall (Antecedent Dry Weather Period, ADWP; precipitation; rainfall intensity, etc.), regional environment, underlying surface type and other characteristics of storm runoff on phosphorus pollution were also investigated. Based on the data of field observation, pollution loads in one single rainfall event and annual emission fluxes of TP, DP and PP from different urban runoff sources were estimated, and their potential influence factors were discussed at the same time. On the other hand, based on the characteristics of urban storm runoff pollution in Wenzhou, a new type of multilayer filter system was developed, and then practice researches about its application prospect in ecological reconstruction of urban hard-type riparian zone were carried out. The main conclusions can be summed up as follows.
(1) The average pH value of rainfall during the study period in Wenzhou was5.83. Although higher than the threshold of acid rain, it was quite close. TP concentrations in rainfall samples were generally low and below the threshold of Class Ⅱ suggested by environmental quality standard for surface water, which implied that summer rainfall in Wenzhou was not a pollution source for urban receiving water.
(2) TP, DP and PP concentrations in summer urban storm runoff of Wenzhou ranged from0.01to4.32mg·L-1, ND to0.88mg·L-1and ND to4.31mg·L-1, respectively. Meanwhile, concentrations of different kinds of phosphorus in runoff all showed a downward trend with runoff duration, especially for the concentrations of TP and PP, while the downward trend of DP was not so significant due to its relative low concentration. In the initial period of storm runoff, PP was generally the dominant component of TP in all kinds of runoff, while the major form of P varied over time, especially in both roof runoff and outlet runoff in Jiushanwai River study area, where TDP made up the largest portion in the latter stages of runoff events.
(3) There were many kinds of influence factors that could affect the concentrations of P in Wenzhou urban storm runoff. Though the relationships between ADWP and concentrations of TP and PP in runoff were not significant, DP concentrations were positively correlated to AWDP at the0.05level (2-tailed). Instantaneous rainfall intensity also had an influence on P concentrations during the runoff duration, P concentrations would decline sharply just after the rainfall intensity reached its peak, and then rose again slowly until achieving their dynamic balance. Underlying surface type was another important influence factor on P concentrations in storm runoff. Both urban community road and main road runoff were noticeable for their high concentrations of TP and PP, and DP concentration in outlet runoff was significantly higher than others, while P concentrations in roof runoff were almost the lowest among the various runoff sources, which implied that urban roof runoff was not a significant source of P in the present study areas. Both TP and PP concentrations were positively correlated with pH, SS, BOD5, CODcr, TIC and TOC concentrations (p<0.01), while TDP was just positively correlated with BOD5, CODCr, TIC and TOC (p<0.01). In addition, regional environmental conditions and human activity intensity could also affect P concentrations in urban storm runoff.
(4) The accumulative characteristics of TP, DP and PP in urban storm runoff were judged using the method of M (V) curve suggested by Geiger. The results showed that the first flush effect of TP and PP in the various runoff were frequent while that of DP was not. Among different rainfall events, the first flush effect of TP and PP were also frequent, and the strength of the first flush was medium or negligible; meanwhile the first flush effect of DP was infrequent, and medium or negligible dilution of DP was dominant. Additionally, the strength of the first flush of TP and PP in main road runoff was higher than those in others; on the contrary, the strength of the first flush of DP in roof and outlet runoff was the highest. The effects of underlying surface types and most rainfall characteristics on the strength of the first flush of P in runoff were not very significant, only the strength of the first flush of DP was positively correlated with rainfall duration at the level of0.05.
(5) The EMCs of TP and PP in urban runoff samples frequently exceeded the threshold of Class V suggested by environmental quality standard for surface water, and excessive degree was quite high, the max of them were as high as six times of the threshold; whereas low EMCs for TDP was observed in all runoff samples, there was only one exception that DP EMC in outlet runoff was1.2times of the threshold. Regional environmental conditions affected EMCs of TP and DP significantly, while underlying surface type affected EMCs of TP and PP significantly. The EMCs of TP and PP were negatively correlated with maximum rainfall intensity (p<0.05), while the EMCs of TDP positively correlated with AWDP (p<0.05). On the other hand, there were no significant differences of P loads among various rainfall events, runoff types or study areas; while TP and PP loads positively correlated with precipitation (p<0.05), and DP load was positively correlated with both precipitation and mean rainfall intensity (p<0.01).
(6) The annual TP emission fluxes from Jiushanwai River study areas were367.33kg, with about7%of DP and93%of PP; meanwhile, the annual TP emission fluxes from Shanxia River study areas were237.85kg, and DP made up17%while PP made up83%. Underlying surface type determined the TP and PP loadings in storm runoff, but regional environmental conditions affected the export of TDP more significantly.
(7) The results of micro experiments about multilayer filtration system showed that, in considering the removal efficiencies of TP and TN, the system constructed from zeolite and medical stone with the combination of3:7was the best choice, the combination of5:5was the second, while the system with the combination of7:3could not meet the need of TP removal. The removal efficiencies of both TP and NH3-N of medium experimental models were more than90%; though removal efficiencies of TN and CODCr were not so high, their max still could be about50%; the concentrations of NO3--N and NO2--N in infiltrated water increased greatly comparing with their initial concentrations due to dissolution from materials and nitration reaction. In addition, although removal efficiencies of pollutants in stagnant water showed a rising trend with duration during the interval between water distribution events, the rate was negligible. On the other hand, sponge iron did not show a significant acceleration effect on removal efficiencies of pollutants; moreover it would harden and form a blockage that slowed the infiltration if it was buried shallower.
(8) The layered filtration systems showed high removal efficiencies of pollutants with an exception of NO3--N, especially in the infiltration flow. The concentrations of pollutants except NO3--N in infiltrated water were all below the threshold of Class Ⅴ even Class Ⅲ suggested by environmental quality standard for surface water, which were also better than the quality of urban water in Wenzhou.
(9) The comparison between two layered filtration systems (LFS) with different permeable pavement layers suggested that permeability of turf layer was much better than that of permeable brick, causing an approximate60min gap of runoff-yielding time between two systems and more infiltration under the same constraints. The difference of permeability also affected the comprehensive removal rates (CRRs) for pollutants of LFS significantly. The max CRRs for TP, NH3-N, NO2--N, TN and CODCr of LFS-A with turf layer were73.2,479.2,25.2,171.2and2372.4mg-m-2·h-1, respectively; while those of LFS-B with permeable brick layer were54.0,173.8,9.2,156.4and2525.2mg-m'2·h-1, respectively. Hence, turf is a better option than permeable brick as a choice of permeable surface for a layered filtration system. Additionally, some engineering measures, such as the utilization of replanted turf, may reduce the CRRs for pollutants for long periods of time, especially for a LFS with turf layer. The CRR of NO2--N of LFS-A was positively correlated to its initial concentrations at the level of0.05, while no other significant relationships between the CRRs of pollutants and their initial concentrations were observed due to their slight change.
(10) The most important renovation measure for the riparian zone of Jiushanwai River is to replace the matrixes of the existing greening area, which will increase its infiltration rate significantly; meanwhile, enriching the vegetation types is also very important for the increasing of its ability to removal pollutants from urban storm runoff. On the other hand, in Shanxia River study area, besides replacing the matrixes of the existing greening area, its harden surface also should be substituted for vegetation pavement such as grass or dwarf shrub. However, because there was less quantity of runoff flow into the riparian zone of Shanxia River, the depth of replacement could be shallower comparing with that in Jiushanwai River study area.
在国家重大水专项“城市黑臭河道外源阻断、工程修复与原位多级生态净化关键技术研究与示范”、国家自然科学基金“沿海城市河岸带氮素截留效率和转化机制研究”以及上海市优秀学科带头人计划“城市河岸带对面源营养盐的生态阻控机理研究”的资助下,本研究选取了温州这一典型南方沿海城市作为主要研究区域,通过实地调研、现场监测以及室内模拟、分析等方法,系统研究了温州城区不同类型降雨径流中总磷(TP)、溶解态磷(DP)和颗粒态磷(PP)的环境行为特性,探讨了降雨条件(雨前干期、降雨量、降雨强度等)、区域环境、下垫面类型以及径流其他理化性质对于不同形态磷环境行为特征的影响作用；并以实际监测数据为基础,估算了监测区内不同类型降雨径流中TP\DP以及PP的污染负荷和年排放通量,同时对其潜在的影响因素进行了探讨。另一方面,针对温州城区降雨径流的污染特征和岸带实际特点,研发了新型多层介质渗滤系统,并对其在城市硬质型河岸带生态改造中的应用前景进行了实践研究。论文主要结论如下所示：
(1)温州城区夏季降雨pH平均值为5.83,虽然高于酸雨阈值,但相差不大；雨水中TP含量水平普遍较低,优于国家地表水Ⅱ类标准,基本上不会对受纳水体造成环境压力。
(2)温州城区夏季降雨径流中TP的含量介于0.01-4.32mg·L-1, DP含量介于ND-0.88mg· L-1,PP含量则介于ND-4.31mg·L-1。径流中TP、 DP以及PP含量均表现出随径流历时波动下降的趋势,其中TP和PP含量下降趋势较为明显且具有高度的一致性,而DP含量下降趋势相对独立且不甚明显。径流初期,温州城区所有降雨径流样品中PP占据了TP含量绝对主导的地位；而径流的中后期,PP所占比例会有不同程度的下降,甚至会出现DP占据主导地位的情况。
(3)温州城区降雨径流中各种P的含量受多种因素的影响：雨前干期长短对温州夏季降雨径流中TP和PP含量的影响不甚显著,而对DP含量的影响作用较为明显,表现出显著的正相关关系(p<0.05);降雨过程中的瞬时雨强对径流中TP. DP以及PP含量动态变化的影响显著,瞬时雨强的峰值之后径流中P含量均会急剧下降,而后缓慢回升直至达到动态平衡；下垫面类型对径流中各种P含量的影响同样显著,小区路面和交通干道径流中TP和PP污染较为严重,而DP污染则是汇流口径流中最为严重,但是无论对于哪种P而言,屋面径流皆为污染最轻的；降雨径流中TP和PP含量与所有理化指标之间都显著相关(p<0.01),且相关程度较高,其中径流SS和CODcr含量与TP和PP含量的线性拟合程度较好；径流中DP含量只与BOD5、CODcrr.TIC以及TOC等指标显著相关(p<0.01),但线性拟合程度皆较差；另外,区域环境以及人类活动强度等因素也能显著影响降雨径流中各种P的含量。
(4)根据累积曲线法判断可知：从径流类型来看,各种下垫面径流中TP和PP的初始冲刷效应较为普遍,而DP则是以稀释为主。从降雨事件来看,径流中TP和PP的初始冲刷效应同样较为普遍,且强度多为中等或微弱冲刷；而DP在降雨过程中出现初始冲刷效应的情况较少,多以微弱或者中等稀释为主。交通干道径流中TP和PP的初始冲刷强度指数较其他径流要高,而屋面径流中TP和PP的初始冲刷效应强度较低；DP的初始冲刷强度则是以屋面径流和汇流口径流为首,而其余径流中DP的初始冲刷强度差别不大。下垫面类型以及大部分降雨特征参数与径流中P的初始冲刷强度指数之间的相关关系不够显著,只有DP的初始冲刷强度指数与降雨历时之间存在着显著的正相关关系(p<0.05)。
(5)温州夏季降雨径流中TP和PP EMC超出国家地表水V类标准的情况较为普遍,且超标程度较高,最大值甚至可以达到地表水V类标准的6倍以上；而所有监测径流中仅有一例DP EMC超标的情况出现,且超标程度较低,仅为标准阈值的1.2倍。区域环境对降雨径流中TP和DP EMC的影响较大,而下垫面类型则对径流中TP和PP EMC的影响较大。就不同降雨条件而言,雨强干期仅与径流中DP EMC之间存在着显著的正相关关系(p<0.05)；最大雨强则与TP和PP EMC之间皆存在着显著的负相关关系(p<0.05);降雨量、降雨历时以及平均降雨强度与径流P EMC之间的相关关系皆不够显著。就整场降雨径流中各种P的总负荷而言,场次之间、不同类型径流之间以及不同研究区之间,降雨径流中各种P的总负荷差异并不显著(p>0.05);而降雨条件对于径流中各种P负荷的影响较为显著,其中TP、PP负荷与降雨量之间显著正相关(p<0.05),DP负荷则与降雨量和平均雨强皆显著正相关(p<0.01)。
(6)温州九山外河试验小区降雨径流中TP的年排放通量约为367.33k,其中DP贡献率为7%左右,PP的贡献率为93%左右；山下河试验小区降雨径流中TP的年排放通量约为237.85k,其中DP的贡献率为17%左右,PP的贡献率为83%左右。就试验小区内不同下垫面的贡献能力来看,交通干道对降雨径流中TP和PP排放通量的贡献能力最大,而屋面的贡献能力则最小,基本上不会对下级受纳水体构成威胁；而不同下垫面对DP的贡献能力较为复杂,并无统一的结论,由此可见下垫面对DP排放通量的贡献能力受区域环境的影响较大。
(7)多层介质渗滤系统室内微型实验的结果表明,在综合考虑系统对径流中TP和TN去除效果的情况下,沸石和麦饭石以3：7的体积比进行填充时,系统的效率最高,5：5配比次之,而7：3配比的填充柱对TP的去除效果无法满足实际应用需要。中型实验模型对径流中TP和NH3-N的去除效率较高,最高能够达到90%以上;TN和CODcr的去除率虽然略低,但是最高也能够达到50%以上；而由于受滤料本身含有N03--N以及系统内硝化反应的影响,出水中N03--N和N02--N则主要以增加为主,且增加幅度较大。停水期间,多层介质渗滤系统对径流中各种污染物的去除效率随滞留时间的延长虽然有所提高,但是幅度较小,其整体效率与行水期相类似。海绵铁滤料并没有表现出对径流中各种污染物去除效率明显的促进作用,且经过布水实验后甚至会因氧化而形成致密的板结层,阻碍径流的顺利下渗,因此,海绵铁滤料不适合作为多层介质渗滤系统的除氧剂。
(8)城市硬质型河岸带生态修复模型垂直径流对于除了N03-N以外的各个监测指标都有较好的去除效果,其含量基本上都低于国家地表水V类标准的阈值,明显优于温州城区地表水质,而最底端的原土层出水水质甚至优于国家地表水III类标准。
(9)对比具备不同透水铺装层的两模型可知,以草皮为表层的A模型整体透水性要明显优于以生态透水砖为表层的B模型,进而造成A模型表层径流产流时间比B模型晚60min左右,而且A模型下渗水量也较B模型明显要高,即相同条件下A模型处理水样的体积要多于B模型。表层透水性的差异进一步造成了系统对污染物综合净化能力的差异,A模型对TP、 NH3-N、 NO2--N、 TN以及CODcr的最高净化能力分别能够达到73.2、479.2、25.2、171.2以及2372.4mg·m-2·h-1,而B模型对于上述污染物的最大净化能力分别为54.0、173.8、9.2、156.4以及2525.2mg-m-2-h-1,只有CODcr的最高净化能力高于A模型,主要是因为A模型的草皮表层容易造成SS的流失。因此,在条件允许的情况下,城市硬质型河岸带生态化改造过程中,表层宜选用草皮等植被型透水材料铺装。植被的重新栽种以及长时间静置等措施都会对系统的净化能力产生负面影响,尤其是以草皮为表层的A模型,且系统达到重新稳定的耗时较长。另外,本研究中因为入水污染物含量波动较小,所以只有A模型的NO2--N净化能力与其入水浓度之间的相关关系达到了显著水平(p<0.05),其余各指标的净化能力与入水浓度之间的相关关系均不显著。
(10)温州市九山外河岸带的改造工作应主要着眼于现有绿化区域的基质改造,以增加其下渗速率；同时,还应尽可能丰富其植被类型,以达到增强河岸带对降雨径流污染阻控能力的目的。对于山下河岸带而言,在对硬化基质进行替换的同时,还应选取草皮或矮灌丛等植被型透水铺装对其硬化表面进行置换：而针对其承接径流量较少的特点,可以适当降低基质改造深度,以达到经济效应最大化的目的。
With the rapid development of urbanization, the ratio of impervious surface in urban areas increased gradually, leading to the frequent waterlogging by rainstorm and the degradation of water quality of urban storm runoff, and urban storm runoff becomes an important non-point pollution source that can not be ignored. Urban storm runoff from different underlying hard-surface types can transport high pollutant loads to receiving water, including solids, nutrients, heavy metals, oils, hydrocarbons, organic pollutants and bacteria, and so on. Of all pollutants, nutrients such as nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P), have been paid the most attention due to their role in eutrophication. Moreover, the rapid development of urbanization also causes conspicuous contraction of area, matrix hardening and degeneration of ecological function to urban riparian zone; meanwhile riparian zone is the final hurdle for urban storm runoff to flow into receiving water. Hence, selecting the reasonable technology to carry out the ecological reconstruction for urban riparian zone, increasing the infiltration capacity for urban storm runoff and restoring its original ecological removal ability for pollutants have become one of the hot spots of studies about urban environment in the world today.
With the support of the National Key Water Special Project of China, the National Natural Science Foundation of China and the project of Excellent Academic Leaders of Shanghai, Wenzhou, a typical coastal city in southern China, was chosen as the main research area in this study. By means of field investigation, field monitoring, indoor simulation and analysis, environmental behavior characteristics of total phosphorus (TP), dissolved phosphorus (DP) and particulate phosphorus (PP) in different types of urban storm runoff were studied; in addition, and the effects of characteristics of rainfall (Antecedent Dry Weather Period, ADWP; precipitation; rainfall intensity, etc.), regional environment, underlying surface type and other characteristics of storm runoff on phosphorus pollution were also investigated. Based on the data of field observation, pollution loads in one single rainfall event and annual emission fluxes of TP, DP and PP from different urban runoff sources were estimated, and their potential influence factors were discussed at the same time. On the other hand, based on the characteristics of urban storm runoff pollution in Wenzhou, a new type of multilayer filter system was developed, and then practice researches about its application prospect in ecological reconstruction of urban hard-type riparian zone were carried out. The main conclusions can be summed up as follows.
(1) The average pH value of rainfall during the study period in Wenzhou was5.83. Although higher than the threshold of acid rain, it was quite close. TP concentrations in rainfall samples were generally low and below the threshold of Class Ⅱ suggested by environmental quality standard for surface water, which implied that summer rainfall in Wenzhou was not a pollution source for urban receiving water.
(2) TP, DP and PP concentrations in summer urban storm runoff of Wenzhou ranged from0.01to4.32mg·L-1, ND to0.88mg·L-1and ND to4.31mg·L-1, respectively. Meanwhile, concentrations of different kinds of phosphorus in runoff all showed a downward trend with runoff duration, especially for the concentrations of TP and PP, while the downward trend of DP was not so significant due to its relative low concentration. In the initial period of storm runoff, PP was generally the dominant component of TP in all kinds of runoff, while the major form of P varied over time, especially in both roof runoff and outlet runoff in Jiushanwai River study area, where TDP made up the largest portion in the latter stages of runoff events.
(3) There were many kinds of influence factors that could affect the concentrations of P in Wenzhou urban storm runoff. Though the relationships between ADWP and concentrations of TP and PP in runoff were not significant, DP concentrations were positively correlated to AWDP at the0.05level (2-tailed). Instantaneous rainfall intensity also had an influence on P concentrations during the runoff duration, P concentrations would decline sharply just after the rainfall intensity reached its peak, and then rose again slowly until achieving their dynamic balance. Underlying surface type was another important influence factor on P concentrations in storm runoff. Both urban community road and main road runoff were noticeable for their high concentrations of TP and PP, and DP concentration in outlet runoff was significantly higher than others, while P concentrations in roof runoff were almost the lowest among the various runoff sources, which implied that urban roof runoff was not a significant source of P in the present study areas. Both TP and PP concentrations were positively correlated with pH, SS, BOD5, CODcr, TIC and TOC concentrations (p<0.01), while TDP was just positively correlated with BOD5, CODCr, TIC and TOC (p<0.01). In addition, regional environmental conditions and human activity intensity could also affect P concentrations in urban storm runoff.
(4) The accumulative characteristics of TP, DP and PP in urban storm runoff were judged using the method of M (V) curve suggested by Geiger. The results showed that the first flush effect of TP and PP in the various runoff were frequent while that of DP was not. Among different rainfall events, the first flush effect of TP and PP were also frequent, and the strength of the first flush was medium or negligible; meanwhile the first flush effect of DP was infrequent, and medium or negligible dilution of DP was dominant. Additionally, the strength of the first flush of TP and PP in main road runoff was higher than those in others; on the contrary, the strength of the first flush of DP in roof and outlet runoff was the highest. The effects of underlying surface types and most rainfall characteristics on the strength of the first flush of P in runoff were not very significant, only the strength of the first flush of DP was positively correlated with rainfall duration at the level of0.05.
(5) The EMCs of TP and PP in urban runoff samples frequently exceeded the threshold of Class V suggested by environmental quality standard for surface water, and excessive degree was quite high, the max of them were as high as six times of the threshold; whereas low EMCs for TDP was observed in all runoff samples, there was only one exception that DP EMC in outlet runoff was1.2times of the threshold. Regional environmental conditions affected EMCs of TP and DP significantly, while underlying surface type affected EMCs of TP and PP significantly. The EMCs of TP and PP were negatively correlated with maximum rainfall intensity (p<0.05), while the EMCs of TDP positively correlated with AWDP (p<0.05). On the other hand, there were no significant differences of P loads among various rainfall events, runoff types or study areas; while TP and PP loads positively correlated with precipitation (p<0.05), and DP load was positively correlated with both precipitation and mean rainfall intensity (p<0.01).
(6) The annual TP emission fluxes from Jiushanwai River study areas were367.33kg, with about7%of DP and93%of PP; meanwhile, the annual TP emission fluxes from Shanxia River study areas were237.85kg, and DP made up17%while PP made up83%. Underlying surface type determined the TP and PP loadings in storm runoff, but regional environmental conditions affected the export of TDP more significantly.
(7) The results of micro experiments about multilayer filtration system showed that, in considering the removal efficiencies of TP and TN, the system constructed from zeolite and medical stone with the combination of3:7was the best choice, the combination of5:5was the second, while the system with the combination of7:3could not meet the need of TP removal. The removal efficiencies of both TP and NH3-N of medium experimental models were more than90%; though removal efficiencies of TN and CODCr were not so high, their max still could be about50%; the concentrations of NO3--N and NO2--N in infiltrated water increased greatly comparing with their initial concentrations due to dissolution from materials and nitration reaction. In addition, although removal efficiencies of pollutants in stagnant water showed a rising trend with duration during the interval between water distribution events, the rate was negligible. On the other hand, sponge iron did not show a significant acceleration effect on removal efficiencies of pollutants; moreover it would harden and form a blockage that slowed the infiltration if it was buried shallower.
(8) The layered filtration systems showed high removal efficiencies of pollutants with an exception of NO3--N, especially in the infiltration flow. The concentrations of pollutants except NO3--N in infiltrated water were all below the threshold of Class Ⅴ even Class Ⅲ suggested by environmental quality standard for surface water, which were also better than the quality of urban water in Wenzhou.
(9) The comparison between two layered filtration systems (LFS) with different permeable pavement layers suggested that permeability of turf layer was much better than that of permeable brick, causing an approximate60min gap of runoff-yielding time between two systems and more infiltration under the same constraints. The difference of permeability also affected the comprehensive removal rates (CRRs) for pollutants of LFS significantly. The max CRRs for TP, NH3-N, NO2--N, TN and CODCr of LFS-A with turf layer were73.2,479.2,25.2,171.2and2372.4mg-m-2·h-1, respectively; while those of LFS-B with permeable brick layer were54.0,173.8,9.2,156.4and2525.2mg-m'2·h-1, respectively. Hence, turf is a better option than permeable brick as a choice of permeable surface for a layered filtration system. Additionally, some engineering measures, such as the utilization of replanted turf, may reduce the CRRs for pollutants for long periods of time, especially for a LFS with turf layer. The CRR of NO2--N of LFS-A was positively correlated to its initial concentrations at the level of0.05, while no other significant relationships between the CRRs of pollutants and their initial concentrations were observed due to their slight change.
(10) The most important renovation measure for the riparian zone of Jiushanwai River is to replace the matrixes of the existing greening area, which will increase its infiltration rate significantly; meanwhile, enriching the vegetation types is also very important for the increasing of its ability to removal pollutants from urban storm runoff. On the other hand, in Shanxia River study area, besides replacing the matrixes of the existing greening area, its harden surface also should be substituted for vegetation pavement such as grass or dwarf shrub. However, because there was less quantity of runoff flow into the riparian zone of Shanxia River, the depth of replacement could be shallower comparing with that in Jiushanwai River study area.
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