俄国犹太人移居美国研究（1881-1920年）
摘要
本文选取1881年至1920年间涌入美国的俄裔犹太人作为研究对象,充分利用1881年至1920年间美国公开发行的主要犹太人报纸、美国国会的报告等一手资料,运用唯物主义历史观和辩证法,结合社会学方法,对1881年至1920年间俄裔犹太人移民美国的原因以及美国政府所做出的回应进行了考察,并对俄裔犹太人的现代化问题进行深入探讨,揭示俄国犹太人在移民美国之后参与了现代经济分工的状况、走出“隔都”融入城市化的过程、逐步接受世俗化观念的过程以及积极参与政治生活的情况。
本文分为绪论、正文和结论三大部分。正文部分分为五章。第一章解释俄国犹太人移民美国的原因。这方面的分析首先涉及当时美国与俄国两方面的政治经济环境,指出俄国频频发生的针对犹太人的迫害事件是导致俄国犹太人远走他乡的重要推力,同时大西洋两岸的犹太移民机构在俄国犹太人迁徙美国过程中发挥重要作用。这一部分还试图解决的一个问题就是,在导致俄国犹太人迁徙的两个原因——集体迫害和集体贫困——中哪一个才是最重要的,本文指出在俄国犹太人1881年第一次向美国迁徙过程中,集体贫困是最重要原因,但是后来集体迫害成为最主要原因,因为越来越多的俄国犹太人中产阶级加入了移民美国的大潮中。
第二章分析美国政府针对俄国移民到来在政策方面所作的调整。美国政府虽然并没有出台专门针对犹太人群体的移民法案,但是美国的每一次移民政策的调整似乎都跟俄国犹太移民大规模到来有关系。美国1881年移民法、1893年移民法、1903年移民法以及1921年移民法的出台与俄国发生的迫害事件导致大批犹太人外迁在时间上高度一致。整体上看,这一时期的美国移民政策逐渐走向严厉,这与美国当时国内经济大环境密切相关。此时国内边疆开拓已经进入尾声,城市里的劳资矛盾日益突出,在间歇性经济萧条中,移民问题变得异常尖锐,劳工领袖经常在移民问题上大做文章。移民政策的严厉主要表现在移民法中增加许多限制性条款,并加强移民法的执法力度,引起犹太社团领袖的不满。在这一章,本文将着重探讨美国的移民社团领袖在为俄国犹太移民争取权利的过程中所作的种种努力。
第三章探讨俄国犹太人在美国的适应过程。这个部分主要围绕三个方面问题,即经济适应、“隔都”问题和文化适应,展开论述。通过分析,我们可以看出,俄国犹太人通过自身的努力,改变生活状况,打消了美国犹太社会担心他们成为社会慈善负担的疑虑,证明了他们的生存能力不比德裔犹太人差。本文指出,俄国犹太人最初主要从事服装行业和商贩活动,为此他们忍受着血汗工厂的恶劣环境,但在他们攒够足够的资金后,转向了其他更有前途的行业。
“隔都”问题也是美国社会普遍关心的问题。本文对这个问题的分析主要立足于纽约下东区“隔都”的经历之上。纽约“隔都”是美国最大的俄裔犹太人社区,他们选择在“隔都”生存实际上是延续他们在欧洲的生活方式。在这样的环境里,他们感到安全，因为这里的人多讲意第绪语,而且多信仰犹太教正统派。但是“隔都”的拥挤、肮脏损害了俄裔犹太人的形象,引起老一代美国犹太移民的反感,所以纽约犹太社团为改变这一状况,成立工业转移办公室,鼓励“隔都”里血汗工厂向内陆城镇转移,并为转移提供资金支持,最终成功地将5万俄国犹太人转移出了纽约“隔都”。
文化适应问题也是这一部分内容的关注重点。宗教是文化的核心,所以在探讨文化适应时,本文着重探讨东欧犹太人的宗教信仰的变化。本文指出,在东欧犹太移民大规模到达美国之前,美国犹太人的主体成分是德裔犹太人,他们信仰犹太教改革派。这种信仰受启蒙运动的影响较大,与美国的基督教清教主义非常类似,而东欧犹太人多信仰犹太教正统派。俄国犹太人大规模涌入美国之后发现真正能够维持俄国犹太人过正统信仰生活的设施和场所非常少,纽约的犹太教神学院是为数不多的犹太教正统派布道的讲坛。美国犹太社会的领袖决定给犹太教正统派给予资助,但是这种资助是有前提的,即要求正统派在传教布道的过程中不可过于拘泥于犹太教的传统。这样,正统派与改革派之间达成了某种妥协,其结果就是美国犹太教又出现了另外一个派别,即犹太教保守派,从而形成了当今美国犹太教信仰的格局,即犹太教正统派、改革派和保守派。
第四章着重探讨美国犹太社会权力重新分配的情况。随着俄国犹太人的到来,德裔犹太人占美国犹太社会多数的格局被打破。本文认为,在这个权力交替的过程中,俄裔犹太人代言人布兰代斯起到了关键性作用。布兰代斯成功地利用了犹太复国主义运动以及当时美国的进步主义运动,创立美国犹太人大会,并根据“一人一票”的民主原则,实现了俄裔犹太人对美国犹太事务的掌控。在这一部分,本文还试图分析俄裔犹太人同情犹太复国主义运动的原因,以及德裔犹太人持非复国主义立场的原因,并对双方的辩论进行了史学意义上的再现。
第五章考察了俄裔犹太人的重生及其对美国社会所作出的贡献,指出俄裔犹太人要实现重生,不能仅仅被动地等待美国社会为他们提供法律保障和权利救济,而且还要通过行动积极争取权利。争取到的权利之大小实际上有赖于他们自身对美国社会贡献的多寡。俄裔犹太人为美国社会创造作出诸多贡献,在商业、文学艺术、学术研究、社会活动等领域都涌现出俄裔犹太籍社会精英。此外,本章还指出俄裔犹太人在美国取得成功的最主要原因在于他们对教育的重视以及及早进行人生职业规划。
在结论部分,本文指出,俄裔犹太人通过自身的不断努力,全面融入美国现代经济的大潮之中,思想观念趋向世俗化,政治参与的积极性提高,走出了一条独特的现代化之路,并为美国社会经济的发展做出了贡献。俄裔犹太人在美国社会取得的成功也对犹太民族的未来产生重大影响。他们通过院外游说活动,对美国的国家政策施加影响,最终使美国后来成为支持犹太复国运动的核心力量。
With the study object of the Russian-Jews pouring into the U.S. between1881and1920, taking full advantage of the first-handed materials like the U.S. Congress reports and the main public released Jewish newspapers in the U.S. between1881and1920, adapting materialist view of history and dialectic method, this essay sociologically explores the reason for the Russian-Jews to pour into the U.S. between1881and1920and the American government's response to their immigration. It also probes deeply into the modernization issue of the Russian-Jews, revealing the situation how the Russian-Jews were involved in modern economic division of labor and actively in political life, how they got out of their ghettos and blended into the process of urbanization, and how they gradually accepted secularity.
The essay is made up of three parts, namely, the introduction, the body, and the conclusion. The body part has five chapters. Chapter One accounts for the reasons why the Russian-Jews immigrated into the U.S. The first analysis goes to the political and economic environment both in the U.S. and Russia. It points out that it was the endless persecutions directed towards the Jews in Russia that expelled them from their homeland. Besides, the Jewish immigrants departments on both sides of the Atlantic played an important role in the journey of the Russian-Jews. This essay also raises other issues, i.e. group persecution and group poverty, which were more crucial factors accounting for the immigration. It indicates that group poverty was the foremost reason for the first immigration in1881, which was later replaced by group persecution in which an increasing number of middle-class Russian-Jews suffered.
Chapter Two sets out the American policy adjustments aiming at the immigrated Russian-Jews. Although there was no immigration act directing at groups of Jews, every immigration policy adjustment seemed to be connected with the large-scale arrival of the Russian-Jews. The Enactment of the Immigration Laws in1881,1893,1903and1921coincided the persecutions which exiled large quantities of Russian-Jews. As a whole, gradually American immigration policy became more and more strict due to the general economic environment exacerbated by the end of domestic frontier exploiting, the increasingly serious conflicts between labor and capital, and intermittent economic depressions. The severity of the immigration policy mainly was focused on aspects below:more restrictive clauses and strengthened enforcement of immigration laws, which caused discontent in the circle of Jewish society leaders. The major emphasis of this chapter is the appealing of the American immigration society leaders for more rights to be given to the Russian-Jews.
Chapter Three unfolds the Russian-Jews' adaptation to America. It is woven around three sectors:economic adaptation, cultural adaptation, and the issue of ghettos. It's made clear that the Russian-Jews, by improving their living state through their own efforts, refuted the skepticism upon them from the American Jew society and proved that their vital capacity was, if not better than, at least as good as German-Jews. The Russian-Jews in general first engaged in apparel industry and peddling, tolerating adverse circumstances in sweatshops, but after saving enough money they finally moved into other promising business.
The issue of Ghetto is also a widely social concern in America. The analysis of this issue is based on the great changes that the Ghetto on Manhattan's Lower East Side has experienced. The Russian Jewry chose to inhabit here mainly to continue their European way of life, for they had a greater sense of security to live in such a community where Yiddish was spoken by most residents and Orthodox Judaist was the dominant religion. But the congestion and squalidity in the ghetto was abominated by earlier Jewish immigrants. As a result the industrial shift office was established by the Jewish society in New York and to encourage sweatshops there to move to inland towns by providing financial support. Hereby,50,000Russian-Jewish migrated out of the ghetto in New York eventually.
This part also emphasizes cultural adaptation. Religion is the nucleus of culture, so emphasis is put on the change of religion beliefs on the part of the East European Jews in the adaptation process. Before the arrival of the Orthodox Judaist East European Jews, the American Jews were mainly composed of German-Jews who worshiped Reform Judaism. After their arrival, the East European Jews found very few facilities and places but the Jewish Theological Seminary of America (JTSA), one of the few, to maintain their orthodox religious life. The leaders of American Jewish society decided to sponsor the Orthodox Judaist on the condition that they shouldn't cling too much to traditional Judaism, and a compromise was made between the Orthodox Judaist and Reform Judaist with the emerging of Conservative Judaists as the result. Consequently, Orthodox, Reform and Conservative Judaism co-exist today in America.
Chapter Four mainly probes into power redistribution in American Jewish society. The arrival of the Russian-Jews broke up the dominance of the German-Jews in the American Jew society. Brandeis, the Russian-Jew spokesman, played a crucial role in helping the Russian-Jews come into power. Taking advantage of the Zionist movements and American Progressive movements then, he successfully originated the American Jews assembly and realized the Russian-Jews'command of Jewish affairs in the U.S. according to the democratic principle of One Man One Vote. This part of the essay also tries to analyze the reasons why the Russian-Jews had much sympathy with Zionist movements and why the German-Jews took a position on non-Zionism, and historically re-creates the dispute between them.
Chapter Five explores the revival of the Russian-Jews and the contributions they have made to American society, and points out the fact that this revival depends on protest for right rather than on passively waiting for the America society as they provide legal protection and relief.In fact, the secured right size depends on the amount of the social contribution they have made to the United States of America. Russian Jews have created many great contributions to the United States of America and many a Russian-born Jewish elite has emerged in business, literature and art, academic research, social activities and other fields.
In the conclusion part, this essay points out secularized Russian-Jews, by themselves, positively participated in political affairs, fully integrated into and made contributions to American economic modernization in their own characteristic way, and accordingly, successfully influenced the future of Jewish Nation. By lobbying, they exerted impact on public policy and eventually made America the force at the core that supports Zionism.
本文分为绪论、正文和结论三大部分。正文部分分为五章。第一章解释俄国犹太人移民美国的原因。这方面的分析首先涉及当时美国与俄国两方面的政治经济环境,指出俄国频频发生的针对犹太人的迫害事件是导致俄国犹太人远走他乡的重要推力,同时大西洋两岸的犹太移民机构在俄国犹太人迁徙美国过程中发挥重要作用。这一部分还试图解决的一个问题就是,在导致俄国犹太人迁徙的两个原因——集体迫害和集体贫困——中哪一个才是最重要的,本文指出在俄国犹太人1881年第一次向美国迁徙过程中,集体贫困是最重要原因,但是后来集体迫害成为最主要原因,因为越来越多的俄国犹太人中产阶级加入了移民美国的大潮中。
第二章分析美国政府针对俄国移民到来在政策方面所作的调整。美国政府虽然并没有出台专门针对犹太人群体的移民法案,但是美国的每一次移民政策的调整似乎都跟俄国犹太移民大规模到来有关系。美国1881年移民法、1893年移民法、1903年移民法以及1921年移民法的出台与俄国发生的迫害事件导致大批犹太人外迁在时间上高度一致。整体上看,这一时期的美国移民政策逐渐走向严厉,这与美国当时国内经济大环境密切相关。此时国内边疆开拓已经进入尾声,城市里的劳资矛盾日益突出,在间歇性经济萧条中,移民问题变得异常尖锐,劳工领袖经常在移民问题上大做文章。移民政策的严厉主要表现在移民法中增加许多限制性条款,并加强移民法的执法力度,引起犹太社团领袖的不满。在这一章,本文将着重探讨美国的移民社团领袖在为俄国犹太移民争取权利的过程中所作的种种努力。
第三章探讨俄国犹太人在美国的适应过程。这个部分主要围绕三个方面问题,即经济适应、“隔都”问题和文化适应,展开论述。通过分析,我们可以看出,俄国犹太人通过自身的努力,改变生活状况,打消了美国犹太社会担心他们成为社会慈善负担的疑虑,证明了他们的生存能力不比德裔犹太人差。本文指出,俄国犹太人最初主要从事服装行业和商贩活动,为此他们忍受着血汗工厂的恶劣环境,但在他们攒够足够的资金后,转向了其他更有前途的行业。
“隔都”问题也是美国社会普遍关心的问题。本文对这个问题的分析主要立足于纽约下东区“隔都”的经历之上。纽约“隔都”是美国最大的俄裔犹太人社区,他们选择在“隔都”生存实际上是延续他们在欧洲的生活方式。在这样的环境里,他们感到安全，因为这里的人多讲意第绪语,而且多信仰犹太教正统派。但是“隔都”的拥挤、肮脏损害了俄裔犹太人的形象,引起老一代美国犹太移民的反感,所以纽约犹太社团为改变这一状况,成立工业转移办公室,鼓励“隔都”里血汗工厂向内陆城镇转移,并为转移提供资金支持,最终成功地将5万俄国犹太人转移出了纽约“隔都”。
文化适应问题也是这一部分内容的关注重点。宗教是文化的核心,所以在探讨文化适应时,本文着重探讨东欧犹太人的宗教信仰的变化。本文指出,在东欧犹太移民大规模到达美国之前,美国犹太人的主体成分是德裔犹太人,他们信仰犹太教改革派。这种信仰受启蒙运动的影响较大,与美国的基督教清教主义非常类似,而东欧犹太人多信仰犹太教正统派。俄国犹太人大规模涌入美国之后发现真正能够维持俄国犹太人过正统信仰生活的设施和场所非常少,纽约的犹太教神学院是为数不多的犹太教正统派布道的讲坛。美国犹太社会的领袖决定给犹太教正统派给予资助,但是这种资助是有前提的,即要求正统派在传教布道的过程中不可过于拘泥于犹太教的传统。这样,正统派与改革派之间达成了某种妥协,其结果就是美国犹太教又出现了另外一个派别,即犹太教保守派,从而形成了当今美国犹太教信仰的格局,即犹太教正统派、改革派和保守派。
第四章着重探讨美国犹太社会权力重新分配的情况。随着俄国犹太人的到来,德裔犹太人占美国犹太社会多数的格局被打破。本文认为,在这个权力交替的过程中,俄裔犹太人代言人布兰代斯起到了关键性作用。布兰代斯成功地利用了犹太复国主义运动以及当时美国的进步主义运动,创立美国犹太人大会,并根据“一人一票”的民主原则,实现了俄裔犹太人对美国犹太事务的掌控。在这一部分,本文还试图分析俄裔犹太人同情犹太复国主义运动的原因,以及德裔犹太人持非复国主义立场的原因,并对双方的辩论进行了史学意义上的再现。
第五章考察了俄裔犹太人的重生及其对美国社会所作出的贡献,指出俄裔犹太人要实现重生,不能仅仅被动地等待美国社会为他们提供法律保障和权利救济,而且还要通过行动积极争取权利。争取到的权利之大小实际上有赖于他们自身对美国社会贡献的多寡。俄裔犹太人为美国社会创造作出诸多贡献,在商业、文学艺术、学术研究、社会活动等领域都涌现出俄裔犹太籍社会精英。此外,本章还指出俄裔犹太人在美国取得成功的最主要原因在于他们对教育的重视以及及早进行人生职业规划。
在结论部分,本文指出,俄裔犹太人通过自身的不断努力,全面融入美国现代经济的大潮之中,思想观念趋向世俗化,政治参与的积极性提高,走出了一条独特的现代化之路,并为美国社会经济的发展做出了贡献。俄裔犹太人在美国社会取得的成功也对犹太民族的未来产生重大影响。他们通过院外游说活动,对美国的国家政策施加影响,最终使美国后来成为支持犹太复国运动的核心力量。
With the study object of the Russian-Jews pouring into the U.S. between1881and1920, taking full advantage of the first-handed materials like the U.S. Congress reports and the main public released Jewish newspapers in the U.S. between1881and1920, adapting materialist view of history and dialectic method, this essay sociologically explores the reason for the Russian-Jews to pour into the U.S. between1881and1920and the American government's response to their immigration. It also probes deeply into the modernization issue of the Russian-Jews, revealing the situation how the Russian-Jews were involved in modern economic division of labor and actively in political life, how they got out of their ghettos and blended into the process of urbanization, and how they gradually accepted secularity.
The essay is made up of three parts, namely, the introduction, the body, and the conclusion. The body part has five chapters. Chapter One accounts for the reasons why the Russian-Jews immigrated into the U.S. The first analysis goes to the political and economic environment both in the U.S. and Russia. It points out that it was the endless persecutions directed towards the Jews in Russia that expelled them from their homeland. Besides, the Jewish immigrants departments on both sides of the Atlantic played an important role in the journey of the Russian-Jews. This essay also raises other issues, i.e. group persecution and group poverty, which were more crucial factors accounting for the immigration. It indicates that group poverty was the foremost reason for the first immigration in1881, which was later replaced by group persecution in which an increasing number of middle-class Russian-Jews suffered.
Chapter Two sets out the American policy adjustments aiming at the immigrated Russian-Jews. Although there was no immigration act directing at groups of Jews, every immigration policy adjustment seemed to be connected with the large-scale arrival of the Russian-Jews. The Enactment of the Immigration Laws in1881,1893,1903and1921coincided the persecutions which exiled large quantities of Russian-Jews. As a whole, gradually American immigration policy became more and more strict due to the general economic environment exacerbated by the end of domestic frontier exploiting, the increasingly serious conflicts between labor and capital, and intermittent economic depressions. The severity of the immigration policy mainly was focused on aspects below:more restrictive clauses and strengthened enforcement of immigration laws, which caused discontent in the circle of Jewish society leaders. The major emphasis of this chapter is the appealing of the American immigration society leaders for more rights to be given to the Russian-Jews.
Chapter Three unfolds the Russian-Jews' adaptation to America. It is woven around three sectors:economic adaptation, cultural adaptation, and the issue of ghettos. It's made clear that the Russian-Jews, by improving their living state through their own efforts, refuted the skepticism upon them from the American Jew society and proved that their vital capacity was, if not better than, at least as good as German-Jews. The Russian-Jews in general first engaged in apparel industry and peddling, tolerating adverse circumstances in sweatshops, but after saving enough money they finally moved into other promising business.
The issue of Ghetto is also a widely social concern in America. The analysis of this issue is based on the great changes that the Ghetto on Manhattan's Lower East Side has experienced. The Russian Jewry chose to inhabit here mainly to continue their European way of life, for they had a greater sense of security to live in such a community where Yiddish was spoken by most residents and Orthodox Judaist was the dominant religion. But the congestion and squalidity in the ghetto was abominated by earlier Jewish immigrants. As a result the industrial shift office was established by the Jewish society in New York and to encourage sweatshops there to move to inland towns by providing financial support. Hereby,50,000Russian-Jewish migrated out of the ghetto in New York eventually.
This part also emphasizes cultural adaptation. Religion is the nucleus of culture, so emphasis is put on the change of religion beliefs on the part of the East European Jews in the adaptation process. Before the arrival of the Orthodox Judaist East European Jews, the American Jews were mainly composed of German-Jews who worshiped Reform Judaism. After their arrival, the East European Jews found very few facilities and places but the Jewish Theological Seminary of America (JTSA), one of the few, to maintain their orthodox religious life. The leaders of American Jewish society decided to sponsor the Orthodox Judaist on the condition that they shouldn't cling too much to traditional Judaism, and a compromise was made between the Orthodox Judaist and Reform Judaist with the emerging of Conservative Judaists as the result. Consequently, Orthodox, Reform and Conservative Judaism co-exist today in America.
Chapter Four mainly probes into power redistribution in American Jewish society. The arrival of the Russian-Jews broke up the dominance of the German-Jews in the American Jew society. Brandeis, the Russian-Jew spokesman, played a crucial role in helping the Russian-Jews come into power. Taking advantage of the Zionist movements and American Progressive movements then, he successfully originated the American Jews assembly and realized the Russian-Jews'command of Jewish affairs in the U.S. according to the democratic principle of One Man One Vote. This part of the essay also tries to analyze the reasons why the Russian-Jews had much sympathy with Zionist movements and why the German-Jews took a position on non-Zionism, and historically re-creates the dispute between them.
Chapter Five explores the revival of the Russian-Jews and the contributions they have made to American society, and points out the fact that this revival depends on protest for right rather than on passively waiting for the America society as they provide legal protection and relief.In fact, the secured right size depends on the amount of the social contribution they have made to the United States of America. Russian Jews have created many great contributions to the United States of America and many a Russian-born Jewish elite has emerged in business, literature and art, academic research, social activities and other fields.
In the conclusion part, this essay points out secularized Russian-Jews, by themselves, positively participated in political affairs, fully integrated into and made contributions to American economic modernization in their own characteristic way, and accordingly, successfully influenced the future of Jewish Nation. By lobbying, they exerted impact on public policy and eventually made America the force at the core that supports Zionism.
引文
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① 锡安山是指犹太教圣地,位于巴勒斯坦。犹太复国主义,音译为锡安主义。
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② Vincent N.Parrillo, Steangers to the shores:racial and ethnic relations in the United States, New York:Wiley, 1985.p.127.
① United Hebrew Charities,Seventeenth annual report(1891).
② Yiddishe Gazetten,Dec.10,1902,p.8.
① Yiddishe Gazetten,Dec.24,1902,p.8.
② Yiddishe Gazetten,Dec.10,1902,p.8.
③ Yiddishe Gazetten,Dec.29,1902,p.7.
④ Yiddishe Gazetten,Dec.22,1902,p.8.
① Stephen Steinberg, The ethnic myth:race, ethnicity, and class in America, New York:Atheneum,1981, p 136.
② Vincent N.Parrillo, Steangers to the shores:racial and ethnic relations in the United States, New York:Wiley, 1985, p.101.
① John Bodnar, The transplanted:A history of immigrants in urban America, India university press,1985, p.91.
② Selma Berrol, The empire city:New York and its people,1624～1996, Westport:Praeger Publishers,1997, p.197.
① 乔纳森·休斯、路易斯·凯恩,美国经济史,邸小燕、邢露译,北京：北京大学出版社,2011,p.338.
① Luois Greenbery, The Jews in Russia (vol.2), Yale university press,1944, p.36.
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③ Selma Berrol, The empire city:New York and its people,1624～1996, Westport:Praeger Publishers,1997, p.171.
④ Selma Berrol, The empire city:New York and its people,1624～1996, Westport:Praeger Publishers,1997, p.236.
① Stephen Birminghan, The rise of 'us':The rise of America's east European Jews, Boston:Little Brown,1984, p.27.
① Selma Berrol, The empire city:New York and its people,1624～1996, Westport:Praeger Publishers,1997, p.209.
② Roger Daniels, Coming to America:A history and enthnicity in American life, New York:Harper Collins university publishers,1990, p.136.
① Stephen Birminghan, The rise of 'us':The rise of America's east European Jews, Boston:Little Brown,1984, p.95.
② Stephen Birminghan, The rise of 'us':The rise of America's east European Jews, Boston:Little Brown,1984, p.101.
① Jewish Messenger, May 14,1897, pp.4-5.
① Roger Daniels, Coming to America:A history and enthnicity in American life, New York:Harper Collins university publishers,1990, p.165.
② Roger Daniels, Coming to America:A history and enthnicity in American life, New York:Harper Collins university publishers,1990, p.177.
③ Selma Berrol, The empire city:New York and its people,1624～1996, Westport:Praeger Publishers,1997, p.174.
④ Selma Berrol, The empire city:New York and its people,1624～1996, Westport:Praeger Publishers,1997, p.163.
① Jacob Marcus Rader ed.The Jews in America world.a source book, Detroit:wagne state university press,1996.p.187
② United Hebrew Charities,29th annual report(1903)
① Yiddishe Gazetten,Feb.10,1897, p.4.
② Selma Berrol, The empire city:New York and its people,1624～1996, Westport:Praeger Publishers,1997, p.181.
③ Selma Berrol, The empire city:New York and its people,1624～1996, Westport:Praeger Publishers,1997, p.165.
① John Bodnar, The transplanted:A history of immigrants in urban America, India university press,1985, p.99.
② Selma Berrol, The empire city:New York and its people,1624-1996, Westport:Praeger Publishers,1997, p.171.
① Jacob Marcus Rader ed. The Jews in America world:a source book, Detroit:wagne state university press, 1996, p.113.
① John Bodnar, The transplanted:A history of immigrants in urban America, India university press,1985, p.109.
② Selma Berrol, The empire city:New York and its people,1624-1996, Westport:Praeger Publishers,1997, p.143.
③ David Ward, Poverty, ethnicity, and the America city,1940～1925:changing concepts of the slums and Ghetto, Cambridge:Cambridge University,1989, p.212.
① John C.Kurphy, An analysis of the attitude of American Catholics toward the immigrant and the negro, 1825-1925, Catholic university of America studies in society,vol.1,1940, p.145.
② American Hebrew, Dec 27,1912, p.6.
① American Hebrew, June 8,1906, p.9.
② John C.Kurphy, An analysis of the attitude of American Catholics toward the immigrant and the negro, 1825-1925, Catholic university of America studies in society, vol.1,1940, p.145-146.
③ John C.Kurphy, An analysis of the attitude of American Catholics toward the immigrant and the negro, 1825-1925, Catholic university of America studies in society, vol.1,1940, p.146.
① American Hebrew,Sep 11,1905,p.1.
① 锡安山是指犹太教圣地,位于巴勒斯坦。犹太复国主义,音译为锡安主义。
① Alpheus Thomas Mason, Brandeis:A free man s life, New York,1946, p.26.
① Philippa Strum, Louis D.Brandeis:Justice for the people, Cambridge university press,1984, p.59.
② Cyrus Adler, Jacob H.Schiff:His life and letters, New York,1922, p.36.
① Philippa Strum, Louis D.Brandeis:Justice for the people, Cambridge university press,1984, p.86.
② New York Times, May 26, p.5.
③ Alpheus Thomas Mason, Brandeis:A free man's life, New York,1946, p.63.
① Alpheus Thomas Mason, Brandeis,Bfree man's life, New York,1946, p.78.
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① Norman Bentwich, For the zion's sake.a biography ofJudah L.Magnes, Philadelphia,1954,p.77.
① S.Aron Klieman eds, American Zionism:a documentary history, vol1, New York,1990, p.203.
② S.Aron Klieman eds, American Zionism:a documentary history, vol1, New York,1990, p.199.
① Athur Hertzberg, The Jews in America:four centuries of an uneasy encounter:a history, New York:Columbia university press,1997, p220.
① Athur Hertzberg, The Jews in America:four centuries of an uneasy encounter:a history, New York:Columbia university press,1997, p221.
① Moses Rischin, The early attitude of the American Jewish committee to Zionism,1906-1922, American Jewish Historical Quarterly, March 1960, p.36.
① Athur Hertzberg, The Jews in America:four centuries of an uneasy encounter:a history, New York:Columbia university press,1997, p221.
② Alpheus Thomas Mason, Brandeis:A free man's life, New York,1946, p.91.
① Athur Hertzberg, The Jews in America:four centuries of an uneasy encounter:a history, New York:Columbia university press,1997, p.223.
② S.Aron Klieman eds, American Zionism:a documentary history, voll, New York,1990, p.202.
③ Athur Hertzberg, The Jews in America:four centuries of an uneasy encounter:a history, New York:Columbia university press,1997, p223.
① 沃尔特·拉克,犹太复国主义史,徐方等译,上海：三联书店,1992,p.567.
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① Alpheus Thomas Mason, Brandeis:A free man's life, New York,1946, p.103.
② Athur Hertzberg, The Jews in America:four centuries of an uneasy encounter:a history, New York:Columbia university press,1997, p227.
③ S.Aron Klieman eds, American Zionism:a documentary history, voll, New York,1990, p.206.
① Morton Rosenstock, Louis Marshall:Defender of Jewish right, Detriot,1965, p.119.
① John Higham, Ethnic Leadership in America, Baltimore:The Johns Hopkins University Press,1978, p.89.
② 邓蜀生,世代悲欢“美国梦”——美国的移民历程及种族矛盾,北京：社会科学出版社,2001年版,第342页。
① Ronald Takaki, A Large Memory:A history of our diversity with the voives, Boston:Little brown company, 1998, p.68.
① Gerald Sorin, A time for building the third migration, Baltimore:The Johns Hopkins University press,1992, p.3.
② 转引自李爱慧,文化的移植与适应——东欧犹太移民的“美国化”之路,北京：光明日报出版社,2010年版,第74页。
① Ronald Takaki, A Large Memory:A history of our diversity with the voives, Boston:Little brown company, 1998, p.115.
① 托马斯·索维尔,美国种族简史,沈美宗译,南京：南京大学出版社,1992年版,第111页。
② 托马斯·索维尔,美国种族简史,沈美宗译,南京：南京大学出版社,1992年版,第114页。
① George Pozzetta ed,America Ethnicity and Immigration Serial(Vol 2),New York:Garland publisher,1991.p.279.
② George Pozzetta ed,America Ethnicity and Immigration Serial(Vol 1),New York:Garland publisher,1991.p.20.
③ Nancy Foner,From Ellis island to JFK:New York's two great waves of immigration,New Haven:Yale university press,2000,p.186.
④ George Pozzetta ed,America Ethnicity and Immigration Serial(Vol 2),New York:Garland publisher,1991,pp.183-265.
① 汤天一、胡新航,《操纵美国命运的犹太人》,南昌：百花洲文艺出版社,2006年版,第166页。
① 汤天一、胡新航,《操纵美国命运的犹太人》,南昌：百花洲文艺出版社,2006年版,第209页。
① Ronald Takaki, A Large Memory:A history of our diversity with the voives, Boston:Little brown company, 1998, p.265.
① George Pozzetta ed., Immigrant institutions:the organization of immigrant life, New York, p.289.
① Auther Hertzberg, The Jews in America:four centuries of an uneasy encounter,a history, New York, Columbia university,1986, p.192.
② 殷陆君编,人的现代化—心理·思想·态度·行为,成都：四川人民出版社,1985,p.5.
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