社会政策与欧洲一体化
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摘要
罗马条约签署以后欧洲一体化在社会政策领域始终没有取得实质性进展。从目前情况看,成员国的社会政策基本上处于分散状态,欧洲联盟在社会政策领域仅仅发挥支持、协调与辅助作用。建立内部市场和经济与货币联盟是欧洲一体化取得的重要成就。统一的内部市场具有规模经济优势,单一货币能够降低交易成本和风险,对于深化内部市场建设具有积极的推动作用。内部市场机制能否发挥应有的作用在很大程度上取决于能否实现生产要素自由流动、单一货币稳定以及成员国之间的平等分配和公平竞争。成员国分散的社会政策是影响内部市场劳动力自由流动、平等分配和公平竞争以及货币联盟稳定的主要因素。因此欧盟在建立内部市场和经济与货币联盟的同时,应当确立统一的社会政策。
按照政府间主义的解释,统一的社会政策作为一体化目标必须具有功能意义上的必要性,即有助于减少由于经济和社会相互依赖程度不断加深导致的消极外部性。统一的社会政策是否具有功能意义上的必要性取决于应当如何看待一体化的发展状况以及统一的社会政策与一体化之间的关系。从功能意义上看,统一的社会政策的必要性体现在两个方面：第一,能够满足内部市场和经济与货币联盟的实际需要；第二,能够减少经济一体化在缺乏统一的社会政策的情况下可能产生的消极影响。
实现劳动力自由流动,建立统一的劳动力市场,是内部市场计划的必要组成部分。成员国分散的社会政策是影响劳动力自由流动的主要因素。内部市场整个再生产过程的顺利进行依赖于稳定的劳动力要素投入和商品需求。灵活的劳动力市场政策有助于解决成员国普遍面临的失业问题,劳动力自由流动是改善内部市场劳动力供求关系的有效途径。在缺乏必要的货币政策的情况下,劳动力自由流动能够减少需求条件变化对再生产过程产生的消极影响。
内部市场依赖于效率与平等。经济一体化主要依靠市场机制实现资源在成员国之间的分配,内部市场的分配和收益状况在很大程度上取决于成员国的比较优势。由于成员国比较优势存在差异,在缺乏有效的再分配和转移支付机制的情况下,内部市场分配和收益也会存在差异。这会阻碍成员国在建立内部市场和经济与货币联盟的过程中发挥应有的作用。货币联盟依赖于效率与稳定。稳定是效率的前提,影响稳定的因素会对效率产生消极作用,缺乏稳定的单一货币会影响内部市场优势的正常发挥。由于稳定与增长机制更多地强调成本、物价和货币增长率等名义指标趋同,缺乏必要的失业率等实际宏观经济指标趋同措施,经济条件变化会增加成员国短期和长期宏观经济调整成本,最终影响货币联盟稳定。欧洲一体化需要所有成员国的支持和参与。内部市场本身不可能解决效率与平等问题,货币联盟本身也不可能解决效率与稳定问题。欧盟必须通过有效的转移支付机制和实际趋同措施对内部市场和货币联盟进行干预才能够保证一体化的顺利进行。
内部市场规模经济优势的正常发挥依赖于公平竞争,竞争政策是内部市场政策的核心组成部分。成员国分散的社会政策阻碍公平竞争。内部市场生产要素自由流动加剧了成员国之间的竞争,成员国的竞争优势在一定程度上取决于劳动力成本优势。般情况下,较低的经济发展水平和社会保障水平意味着较低的劳动力成本。从内部市场的角度看,较低的劳动力成本能够获得较为明显的竞争优势。由于成员国的社会保障水平和标准存在较大差异,内部市场竞争有可能导致社会倾销和竞次。成员国采取什么样的政策和措施不仅取决于实际需要,而且取决于可供选择的政策手段的构成状况。随着一体化的不断深入,成员国可自主支配的政策手段逐步转移到欧盟的权限范围以内。经济与货币联盟建立以后,社会政策几乎成为成员国协调经济和社会发展的唯一手段。在传统的宏观经济政策不能有效地发挥作用的情况下,降低社会保障水平和标准可能成为成员国缓解竞争压力和获取竞争优势必须采取的措施。
欧洲社会模式概念的提出意味着成员国的社会政策具有一定程度的相似性,为讨论欧盟制定和实施统一的社会政策的可能性提供了合理依据。统一的社会政策必须考虑成员国社会保障水平和标准等形式和内容方面的差异。社会政策的形式和内容是更具根本意义的原则和价值取向的体现。一种能够体现大多数成员国的社会政策原则和价值取向的统一的社会政策更容易为成员国接受。如果成员国的社会政策具有相同的原则和价值取向,具体形式和内容的趋同程度对于欧盟制定和实施统一的社会政策显得更加重要。尽管过多的差异并不意味着完全否定欧盟制定和实施统一的社会政策的可能性,但是会在很大程度上增加立法与决策难度。
成员国社会政策的实际发展状况和欧盟的制度能力是影响欧盟制定和实施统一的社会政策的主要因素。欧盟的社会政策协调以及内部市场和经济与货币联盟的建立能够在一定程度上增加成员国社会政策的相似性,但是不可能从根本上消除成员国社会保障水平和标准差异。随着欧盟的逐步扩大,成员国社会政策的差异程度会不断提高。统一的社会政策必然涉及再分配问题,它要求欧盟必须拥有足够的财政资源,并且能够随着转移支付规模的变化及时做出调整。但是由于欧盟的预算来源十分有限,支出相对集中,再加上成员国之间在预算安排问题上存在分歧,扩大预算来源和调整支出结构的设想至少从目前看难以实现,而且这种状况短期内不会改变。
把统一的社会政策确立为一体化目标是欧盟在社会政策领域获得足够的决策权限的最有效途径。欧盟的权限源于成员国授权,成员国授权的依据是共同确立的一体化目标,只有为实现一体化目标必须共同采取行动的政策领域才会最终被纳入欧盟的权限范围以内。成员国确立的一体化目标具有全局意义。一体化涉及哪些政策领域,采取哪些具体措施,权限范围如何确定,以及采用什么样的决策程序和规则,都取决于一体化目标。由于统一的社会政策不能成为一体化目标,欧盟在社会政策领域的地位、作用和决策能力受到很大程度的限制。权限问题不仅包括权限转移问题,而且包括权限归属问题。把统一的社会政策确立为一体化目标只能解决权限转移问题,不可能从根本上解决权限归属问题。成员国实施社会政策立法与决策的实际效果最终取决于权限归属。统一的社会政策的主要作用是促进劳动力自由流动,与劳动力关系最密切的社会保障问题是成员国社会政策中最重要的组成部分。欧盟实现社会政策领域权限转移和解决权限归属问题会面临很多困难,可能需要很长时间。
欧盟在社会政策领域获得足够的决策权限的另一条重要途径是依靠灵活的程序和规则、通过渐进的方式逐步扩大在社会政策领域的决策能力。这种方式是否有效取决于决策机构在一体化问题上的立场及其在决策过程中的地位和作用。委员会积极的立法建议是推动成员国在社会政策领域加强合作的必要前提。在部长理事会完全支配决策过程的情况下,委员会的许多立法建议不能被及时采纳。议会在立法与决策过程中的地位和作用不断提高能够部分改变部长理事会否决委员会立法建议的局面。但是欧盟条约引入辅助性原则以后,委员会的立法建议权受到很大程度的限制。如果委员会不能提出有助于扩大欧盟社会政策立法与决策权限的建议,有效多数表决方式适用范围的扩展不可能从根本上改变欧盟在社会政策领域的弱势地位。在很多情况下,欧盟的立法与决策不可能完全符合所有成员国的立场。如果适用有效多数表决方式通过的决议不能反映所有成员国的实际需要,成员国之间的立场分歧可能会对社会政策立法与决策的具体实施产生消极影响。
完全统一成员国的社会保障水平和标准是实现内部市场劳动力自由流动、平等分配和公平竞争以及货币联盟稳定的最有效途径。但是由于成员国社会政策立法极为复杂,经济和社会状况与劳动力市场条件存在较大差异,完全统一的设想并不现实。消除社会保障水平和标准差异必须以满足劳动力的实际需要为前提。能否在不降低发达成员国社会保障水平和标准的情况下,通过扩大结构基金支出规模把差距缩小在合理范围以内,取决于成员国能否达成共识。
一体化的最初目的是针对成员国的主权确立有效的约束机制,因为不受任何限制的主权必然影响成员国的稳定与繁荣。条约引入辅助性原则意味着社会政策领域的立法与决策不可能完全转移到欧盟的权限范围以内。成员国不可能在相互限制主权的同时重新建立一种拥有绝对支配能力的主权形式。立法与决策及其组织实施不可能属于同一权限范围。即使社会政策立法与决策成为欧盟的专属权限,社会政策的具体实施仍然必须由成员国完成。成员国、地区以及社会合作伙伴在欧盟立法与决策过程中发挥重要作用,多层治理能够更加真实地反映一体化在社会政策领域的发展状况。
Few substantial advances have been obtained by the EU in the social fields since the signing of the Treaty of Rome. The status quo demonstrates that national social policy is still in a state of decentralization, and the EU can only play roles of support, coordination and supplementation in the social fields. Internal Market and Monetary Union are significant achievements of European integration. Internal Market has the advantage of economies of scale, while the Single Currency can reduce transaction costs and risks. For the Internal Market mechanism to bring its full potential into play, there must be free movement of workers, stable Single Currency, equitable distribution and fair competition between member states, to which decentralized national social policy is the main barrier. The conclusion of this thesis is that harmonized social policy should be drawn and implemented along with the completion of Internal Market and Monetary Union.
Following the requirement of intergovernmentalism, harmonization should possess a functional imperative, or, it can reduce negative externalities resulting from socioeconomic interdependence among member states. Whether one sees harmonization is necessary or not depends on how to evaluate European integration conditions and on how to treat the relationship between harmonization and integration. Two imperatives can be identified:firstly it can accommodate the intrinsic needs of Internal Market and Monetary Union, and secondly it can mitigate the negative impacts of economic integration under circumstances of lack of harmonized social policy.
Decentralized social policy is the main obstacle to the establishment of free movement of workers and integrated labour market, which is an indispensable part of Internal Market project. The reproduction process of Internal Market relies on stable labour input and product demand. Flexible labour market policy is propitious for resolving the problem of unemployment that member states commonly faces, and free movement of workers is an effective mechanism for the adjustment of aggregate supply and demand. Without necessary monetary policy, free movement of workers can act as an alternative to reduce negative impacts of the changes of aggregate demand to reproduction process.
Functioning of Internal Market is based on efficiency and equality. Location of production factors and distribution of economic resources are both realized through market mechanism, which together with comparative advantages determines gains and losses. If there is no redistribution, gains from Internal Market will be different because of diverse comparative advantages. Less absolute and relative gains may frustrate positive attitudes of member states in the process of market building. Monetary Union is based on efficiency and stability. The Stability and Growth Pact emphasizes only nominal criteria and the short of real convergence measures may raise short-term and long-term macroeconomic adjustment costs and thus undermine the Single Currency. Integration needs the support and participation of all member states. Economic integration can not coordinate efficiency, equality and stability. EU should intervene with effective transfers and real convergence instruments to encourage the development of integration.
Competition is the key element of Internal Market policy. Decentralized social policy may impede competition. Competitive advantages depend in a large degree on labour costs which are determined by levels and standards of social protection. With free movement of production factors and without social policy harmonization, different levels and standards of social protection can lead to social dumping, capital competition, and race to the bottom. Although differences in productivity levels may offset the differences in labour costs, the increase of intra-trade between member states and the harmonization of tax bases and rates may leave competitive pressures in the social fields untouched. What policy can be introduced depends not only on external pressures, but also on policy alternatives. After the establishment of the Single Currency, social policy becomes almost the only choice for the coordination of socioeconomic development. In order to relieve themselves from competitive pressures, cutting down levels and standards of social protection may be exercised by member states to solve socioeconomic problems.
The concept of European social model implies that national social policies are compatible in terms of principles and values. Harmonization must take into account of policy differentiation in forms and substances which embody principles and values. A European social policy expressing the principles and values of most member states is more acceptable than others. But if principles and values are the same, convergence of forms and substances become more important to harmonization. Although divergence does not deny the possibility of harmonization, it may be an additional burden to EU legislation and decision-making.
Variations of national social policy, which are identified as different models, are one of the determinants of the development of EU social dimension. Convergence is favourable for harmonization. Same trends of demographic and structural changes, as well as negative and positive integration, bring about more similarities in the social fields among old member states, but differences between old and new member states still can be easily distinguished.
EU institutional capabilities, which most importantly involves distributional capability and decision-making capability, is another critical determinant of the prospects of EU social policy. Harmonization presumes that EU budget should bear the responsibility of redistribution between member states. Unfortunately, its financial resources are extremely limited, and expenditures unduly concentrated. Conflicts between member states on budgetary issues make it impossible to expand financial bases and adjust expenditure structures, at least in the foreseeable future.
The most effective way, through which the EU can acquire sufficient competences, is to set harmonization as integration project. EU competences are authorized by member states in accordance with commonly decided projects. Only in those policy areas that member states should take common actions can the EU have exclusive competences. Integration projects have general impacts in the sense that they qualify which policy areas and solutions are concerned, what competences should be conferred on the EU, and what decision-making procedures and rules should be adopted. Because harmonization has always been excluded from integration projects, EU competences and capabilities in the social fields are limited. There are two kinds of competences:transfer and control. Integration projects can only define the transfer, not the control, of competences. The outcome of the implementation of EU legislation hinges ultimately on the control of competences. Harmonization intends to promote free movement of workers, to which social protection, arguably the most important part of national social policy, is closely associated. There are so many perplexities for the EU to resolve that it may take long time to materialize the transfer and control of competences in the social fields.
Another way for the EU to acquire sufficient competences is progressive empowerment through flexible decision-making procedures and rules, the outcome of which relies on positions and influences of EU decision-making institutions and member states. The Commission has always been active in the integration process. Positive initiatives are necessary prerequisites to enhance member states cooperation. Constructive initiatives can not be adopted when the Council dominates decision-making procedures under unanimity rule. Balance can be partly shifted with the EU treaty conferring more competences on the Parliament. But the principle of subsidiarity poses severe strains on the role played by the Commission. If there are less positive proposals initiated by the Commission, extension of majority rule is of no help in transforming the unfavorable conditions. EU legislations do not necessarily reflect the stances of all member states, disagreement may result in passive implementation.
Harmonization is the most effective approach for the realization of free movement of workers, stability of Monetary Union, equal distribution and fair competition. But it may be unrealistic because of complex and dynamic nature of national social policy and socioeconomic and labour market conditions. The more pragmatic way is to limit differences in levels and standards of national social policy within a commonly acceptable scope, which can only be facilitated on the basis of consensus among member states. Convergence is not an end in itself. EU social policy should start with the concern of labour protection. Rational EU transfers through structural funds may be the only viable way to narrow the gap between levels and standards of national social protection.
The original motive for European integration is to establish an effectively restrictive mechanism for national sovereignty, which if without restriction may obstruct stability and prosperity. The principle of subsidiarity means that competences in the social fields can not be transferred to the EU completely. It is impossible that member states shall let a new absolute sovereignty to come true at the same time as they check each other. The competences of decision-making and implementation can not belong to the same authority. Even if decision-making in the social fields becomes exclusive EU competence, its implementation still needs to be carried out by member states. The importance of member states, regional authority, and social partners can not be denied, multi-level governance may be useful for explaining more exactly the future development of EU social policy.
按照政府间主义的解释,统一的社会政策作为一体化目标必须具有功能意义上的必要性,即有助于减少由于经济和社会相互依赖程度不断加深导致的消极外部性。统一的社会政策是否具有功能意义上的必要性取决于应当如何看待一体化的发展状况以及统一的社会政策与一体化之间的关系。从功能意义上看,统一的社会政策的必要性体现在两个方面：第一,能够满足内部市场和经济与货币联盟的实际需要；第二,能够减少经济一体化在缺乏统一的社会政策的情况下可能产生的消极影响。
实现劳动力自由流动,建立统一的劳动力市场,是内部市场计划的必要组成部分。成员国分散的社会政策是影响劳动力自由流动的主要因素。内部市场整个再生产过程的顺利进行依赖于稳定的劳动力要素投入和商品需求。灵活的劳动力市场政策有助于解决成员国普遍面临的失业问题,劳动力自由流动是改善内部市场劳动力供求关系的有效途径。在缺乏必要的货币政策的情况下,劳动力自由流动能够减少需求条件变化对再生产过程产生的消极影响。
内部市场依赖于效率与平等。经济一体化主要依靠市场机制实现资源在成员国之间的分配,内部市场的分配和收益状况在很大程度上取决于成员国的比较优势。由于成员国比较优势存在差异,在缺乏有效的再分配和转移支付机制的情况下,内部市场分配和收益也会存在差异。这会阻碍成员国在建立内部市场和经济与货币联盟的过程中发挥应有的作用。货币联盟依赖于效率与稳定。稳定是效率的前提,影响稳定的因素会对效率产生消极作用,缺乏稳定的单一货币会影响内部市场优势的正常发挥。由于稳定与增长机制更多地强调成本、物价和货币增长率等名义指标趋同,缺乏必要的失业率等实际宏观经济指标趋同措施,经济条件变化会增加成员国短期和长期宏观经济调整成本,最终影响货币联盟稳定。欧洲一体化需要所有成员国的支持和参与。内部市场本身不可能解决效率与平等问题,货币联盟本身也不可能解决效率与稳定问题。欧盟必须通过有效的转移支付机制和实际趋同措施对内部市场和货币联盟进行干预才能够保证一体化的顺利进行。
内部市场规模经济优势的正常发挥依赖于公平竞争,竞争政策是内部市场政策的核心组成部分。成员国分散的社会政策阻碍公平竞争。内部市场生产要素自由流动加剧了成员国之间的竞争,成员国的竞争优势在一定程度上取决于劳动力成本优势。般情况下,较低的经济发展水平和社会保障水平意味着较低的劳动力成本。从内部市场的角度看,较低的劳动力成本能够获得较为明显的竞争优势。由于成员国的社会保障水平和标准存在较大差异,内部市场竞争有可能导致社会倾销和竞次。成员国采取什么样的政策和措施不仅取决于实际需要,而且取决于可供选择的政策手段的构成状况。随着一体化的不断深入,成员国可自主支配的政策手段逐步转移到欧盟的权限范围以内。经济与货币联盟建立以后,社会政策几乎成为成员国协调经济和社会发展的唯一手段。在传统的宏观经济政策不能有效地发挥作用的情况下,降低社会保障水平和标准可能成为成员国缓解竞争压力和获取竞争优势必须采取的措施。
欧洲社会模式概念的提出意味着成员国的社会政策具有一定程度的相似性,为讨论欧盟制定和实施统一的社会政策的可能性提供了合理依据。统一的社会政策必须考虑成员国社会保障水平和标准等形式和内容方面的差异。社会政策的形式和内容是更具根本意义的原则和价值取向的体现。一种能够体现大多数成员国的社会政策原则和价值取向的统一的社会政策更容易为成员国接受。如果成员国的社会政策具有相同的原则和价值取向,具体形式和内容的趋同程度对于欧盟制定和实施统一的社会政策显得更加重要。尽管过多的差异并不意味着完全否定欧盟制定和实施统一的社会政策的可能性,但是会在很大程度上增加立法与决策难度。
成员国社会政策的实际发展状况和欧盟的制度能力是影响欧盟制定和实施统一的社会政策的主要因素。欧盟的社会政策协调以及内部市场和经济与货币联盟的建立能够在一定程度上增加成员国社会政策的相似性,但是不可能从根本上消除成员国社会保障水平和标准差异。随着欧盟的逐步扩大,成员国社会政策的差异程度会不断提高。统一的社会政策必然涉及再分配问题,它要求欧盟必须拥有足够的财政资源,并且能够随着转移支付规模的变化及时做出调整。但是由于欧盟的预算来源十分有限,支出相对集中,再加上成员国之间在预算安排问题上存在分歧,扩大预算来源和调整支出结构的设想至少从目前看难以实现,而且这种状况短期内不会改变。
把统一的社会政策确立为一体化目标是欧盟在社会政策领域获得足够的决策权限的最有效途径。欧盟的权限源于成员国授权,成员国授权的依据是共同确立的一体化目标,只有为实现一体化目标必须共同采取行动的政策领域才会最终被纳入欧盟的权限范围以内。成员国确立的一体化目标具有全局意义。一体化涉及哪些政策领域,采取哪些具体措施,权限范围如何确定,以及采用什么样的决策程序和规则,都取决于一体化目标。由于统一的社会政策不能成为一体化目标,欧盟在社会政策领域的地位、作用和决策能力受到很大程度的限制。权限问题不仅包括权限转移问题,而且包括权限归属问题。把统一的社会政策确立为一体化目标只能解决权限转移问题,不可能从根本上解决权限归属问题。成员国实施社会政策立法与决策的实际效果最终取决于权限归属。统一的社会政策的主要作用是促进劳动力自由流动,与劳动力关系最密切的社会保障问题是成员国社会政策中最重要的组成部分。欧盟实现社会政策领域权限转移和解决权限归属问题会面临很多困难,可能需要很长时间。
欧盟在社会政策领域获得足够的决策权限的另一条重要途径是依靠灵活的程序和规则、通过渐进的方式逐步扩大在社会政策领域的决策能力。这种方式是否有效取决于决策机构在一体化问题上的立场及其在决策过程中的地位和作用。委员会积极的立法建议是推动成员国在社会政策领域加强合作的必要前提。在部长理事会完全支配决策过程的情况下,委员会的许多立法建议不能被及时采纳。议会在立法与决策过程中的地位和作用不断提高能够部分改变部长理事会否决委员会立法建议的局面。但是欧盟条约引入辅助性原则以后,委员会的立法建议权受到很大程度的限制。如果委员会不能提出有助于扩大欧盟社会政策立法与决策权限的建议,有效多数表决方式适用范围的扩展不可能从根本上改变欧盟在社会政策领域的弱势地位。在很多情况下,欧盟的立法与决策不可能完全符合所有成员国的立场。如果适用有效多数表决方式通过的决议不能反映所有成员国的实际需要,成员国之间的立场分歧可能会对社会政策立法与决策的具体实施产生消极影响。
完全统一成员国的社会保障水平和标准是实现内部市场劳动力自由流动、平等分配和公平竞争以及货币联盟稳定的最有效途径。但是由于成员国社会政策立法极为复杂,经济和社会状况与劳动力市场条件存在较大差异,完全统一的设想并不现实。消除社会保障水平和标准差异必须以满足劳动力的实际需要为前提。能否在不降低发达成员国社会保障水平和标准的情况下,通过扩大结构基金支出规模把差距缩小在合理范围以内,取决于成员国能否达成共识。
一体化的最初目的是针对成员国的主权确立有效的约束机制,因为不受任何限制的主权必然影响成员国的稳定与繁荣。条约引入辅助性原则意味着社会政策领域的立法与决策不可能完全转移到欧盟的权限范围以内。成员国不可能在相互限制主权的同时重新建立一种拥有绝对支配能力的主权形式。立法与决策及其组织实施不可能属于同一权限范围。即使社会政策立法与决策成为欧盟的专属权限,社会政策的具体实施仍然必须由成员国完成。成员国、地区以及社会合作伙伴在欧盟立法与决策过程中发挥重要作用,多层治理能够更加真实地反映一体化在社会政策领域的发展状况。
Few substantial advances have been obtained by the EU in the social fields since the signing of the Treaty of Rome. The status quo demonstrates that national social policy is still in a state of decentralization, and the EU can only play roles of support, coordination and supplementation in the social fields. Internal Market and Monetary Union are significant achievements of European integration. Internal Market has the advantage of economies of scale, while the Single Currency can reduce transaction costs and risks. For the Internal Market mechanism to bring its full potential into play, there must be free movement of workers, stable Single Currency, equitable distribution and fair competition between member states, to which decentralized national social policy is the main barrier. The conclusion of this thesis is that harmonized social policy should be drawn and implemented along with the completion of Internal Market and Monetary Union.
Following the requirement of intergovernmentalism, harmonization should possess a functional imperative, or, it can reduce negative externalities resulting from socioeconomic interdependence among member states. Whether one sees harmonization is necessary or not depends on how to evaluate European integration conditions and on how to treat the relationship between harmonization and integration. Two imperatives can be identified:firstly it can accommodate the intrinsic needs of Internal Market and Monetary Union, and secondly it can mitigate the negative impacts of economic integration under circumstances of lack of harmonized social policy.
Decentralized social policy is the main obstacle to the establishment of free movement of workers and integrated labour market, which is an indispensable part of Internal Market project. The reproduction process of Internal Market relies on stable labour input and product demand. Flexible labour market policy is propitious for resolving the problem of unemployment that member states commonly faces, and free movement of workers is an effective mechanism for the adjustment of aggregate supply and demand. Without necessary monetary policy, free movement of workers can act as an alternative to reduce negative impacts of the changes of aggregate demand to reproduction process.
Functioning of Internal Market is based on efficiency and equality. Location of production factors and distribution of economic resources are both realized through market mechanism, which together with comparative advantages determines gains and losses. If there is no redistribution, gains from Internal Market will be different because of diverse comparative advantages. Less absolute and relative gains may frustrate positive attitudes of member states in the process of market building. Monetary Union is based on efficiency and stability. The Stability and Growth Pact emphasizes only nominal criteria and the short of real convergence measures may raise short-term and long-term macroeconomic adjustment costs and thus undermine the Single Currency. Integration needs the support and participation of all member states. Economic integration can not coordinate efficiency, equality and stability. EU should intervene with effective transfers and real convergence instruments to encourage the development of integration.
Competition is the key element of Internal Market policy. Decentralized social policy may impede competition. Competitive advantages depend in a large degree on labour costs which are determined by levels and standards of social protection. With free movement of production factors and without social policy harmonization, different levels and standards of social protection can lead to social dumping, capital competition, and race to the bottom. Although differences in productivity levels may offset the differences in labour costs, the increase of intra-trade between member states and the harmonization of tax bases and rates may leave competitive pressures in the social fields untouched. What policy can be introduced depends not only on external pressures, but also on policy alternatives. After the establishment of the Single Currency, social policy becomes almost the only choice for the coordination of socioeconomic development. In order to relieve themselves from competitive pressures, cutting down levels and standards of social protection may be exercised by member states to solve socioeconomic problems.
The concept of European social model implies that national social policies are compatible in terms of principles and values. Harmonization must take into account of policy differentiation in forms and substances which embody principles and values. A European social policy expressing the principles and values of most member states is more acceptable than others. But if principles and values are the same, convergence of forms and substances become more important to harmonization. Although divergence does not deny the possibility of harmonization, it may be an additional burden to EU legislation and decision-making.
Variations of national social policy, which are identified as different models, are one of the determinants of the development of EU social dimension. Convergence is favourable for harmonization. Same trends of demographic and structural changes, as well as negative and positive integration, bring about more similarities in the social fields among old member states, but differences between old and new member states still can be easily distinguished.
EU institutional capabilities, which most importantly involves distributional capability and decision-making capability, is another critical determinant of the prospects of EU social policy. Harmonization presumes that EU budget should bear the responsibility of redistribution between member states. Unfortunately, its financial resources are extremely limited, and expenditures unduly concentrated. Conflicts between member states on budgetary issues make it impossible to expand financial bases and adjust expenditure structures, at least in the foreseeable future.
The most effective way, through which the EU can acquire sufficient competences, is to set harmonization as integration project. EU competences are authorized by member states in accordance with commonly decided projects. Only in those policy areas that member states should take common actions can the EU have exclusive competences. Integration projects have general impacts in the sense that they qualify which policy areas and solutions are concerned, what competences should be conferred on the EU, and what decision-making procedures and rules should be adopted. Because harmonization has always been excluded from integration projects, EU competences and capabilities in the social fields are limited. There are two kinds of competences:transfer and control. Integration projects can only define the transfer, not the control, of competences. The outcome of the implementation of EU legislation hinges ultimately on the control of competences. Harmonization intends to promote free movement of workers, to which social protection, arguably the most important part of national social policy, is closely associated. There are so many perplexities for the EU to resolve that it may take long time to materialize the transfer and control of competences in the social fields.
Another way for the EU to acquire sufficient competences is progressive empowerment through flexible decision-making procedures and rules, the outcome of which relies on positions and influences of EU decision-making institutions and member states. The Commission has always been active in the integration process. Positive initiatives are necessary prerequisites to enhance member states cooperation. Constructive initiatives can not be adopted when the Council dominates decision-making procedures under unanimity rule. Balance can be partly shifted with the EU treaty conferring more competences on the Parliament. But the principle of subsidiarity poses severe strains on the role played by the Commission. If there are less positive proposals initiated by the Commission, extension of majority rule is of no help in transforming the unfavorable conditions. EU legislations do not necessarily reflect the stances of all member states, disagreement may result in passive implementation.
Harmonization is the most effective approach for the realization of free movement of workers, stability of Monetary Union, equal distribution and fair competition. But it may be unrealistic because of complex and dynamic nature of national social policy and socioeconomic and labour market conditions. The more pragmatic way is to limit differences in levels and standards of national social policy within a commonly acceptable scope, which can only be facilitated on the basis of consensus among member states. Convergence is not an end in itself. EU social policy should start with the concern of labour protection. Rational EU transfers through structural funds may be the only viable way to narrow the gap between levels and standards of national social protection.
The original motive for European integration is to establish an effectively restrictive mechanism for national sovereignty, which if without restriction may obstruct stability and prosperity. The principle of subsidiarity means that competences in the social fields can not be transferred to the EU completely. It is impossible that member states shall let a new absolute sovereignty to come true at the same time as they check each other. The competences of decision-making and implementation can not belong to the same authority. Even if decision-making in the social fields becomes exclusive EU competence, its implementation still needs to be carried out by member states. The importance of member states, regional authority, and social partners can not be denied, multi-level governance may be useful for explaining more exactly the future development of EU social policy.
引文
①周弘：《国内欧盟社会政策研究之我见》,载《欧洲研究》2003年第1期,第121-132页。
②田德文：《论欧盟的社会政策》,载《欧洲》2000年第4期,第41-49页。
③周弘：《“第三条道路”与欧盟的社会模式》,载《欧洲》2000年第5期,第11-18页。
④杨逢珉：《欧盟推行社会政策的实践与障碍》,载《世界经济与政治》1997年第2期,第53-57页。
①田德文：《论欧盟的社会政策》。
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③ Commission of the European Communities, Communication from the Commission:Partnership for Change in an Enlarged Europe-Enhancing the Contribution of European Social Dialogue, COM (2004) 557 final, Brussels,12 August 2004.
① Dale L. Smith and Jurgen Wanke, "Completing the Single European Market:An Analysis of the Impact on the Member States," American Journal of Political Science, Vol.37, No.2 (May 1993), pp.529-554.
② Charles Bean, Samuel Bentolila, Giuseppe Bertola and Juan Dolado, Social Europe:One for All? (London:Centre for Economic Policy Research,1998), pp.21-24.
①Smith and Wanke, "Completing the Single European Market:An Analysis of the Impact on the Member States".
①Smith and Wanke, "Completing the Single European Market:An Analysis of the Impact on the Member States".
① Smith and Wanke, "Completing the Single European Market:An Analysis of the Impact on the Member States."
② Committee for the Study of Economic and Monetary Union, Report on Economic and Monetary Union in the European Community (Luxembourg:Office for Official Publications of the European Communities,1989), p.18.
③ Marco Buti and Andre Sapir eds., Economic Policy in EMU:A Study by the European Commission Services (Oxford: Oxford University Press,1998), pp. XIII-XIV.
① Heylen and Poeck, "National Labour Market Institutions and the European Economic and Monetary Integration Process".
① Heylen and Poeck, "National Labour Market Institutions and the European Economic and Monetary Integration Process".
① Heylen and Poeck, "National Labour Market Institutions and the European Economic and Monetary Integration Process".
① Heylen and Poeck, "National Labour Market Institutions and the European Economic and Monetary Integration Process".
② Esping-Andersen, "Who is Harmed by Labour Market Regulations? Quantitative Evidence"; and Esping-Andersen, "Regulation and Context. Reconsidering the Correlates of Unemployment".
① Christopher L. Erickson and Sarosh Kuruvilla, "Labor Costs and the Social Dumping Debate in the European Union," Industrial and Labor Relations Review, Vol.48, No.1 (October 1994), pp.28-47;Nick Adnett, "Social Dumping and European Economic Integration," Journal of European Social Policy, Vol.5, No.1 (February 1995), pp.1-12; and Ana M. Guillen and Santiago Alvarez, "Southern European Welfare States Facing Globalization:Is There Social Dumping?" in Roland Sigg and Christina Behrendt eds., Social Security in the Global Village (London:Transaction Publishers,2002), pp.67-82.
② Donaghey and Teague, "The Free Movement of Workers and Social Europe:Maintaining the European Ideal".
①Adnett,"Social Dumping and European Economic Integration".
② Ibid.
① Adnett, "Social Dumping and European Economic Integration".
② Vaughan-Whitehead, EU Enlargement versus Social Europe? The Uncertain Future of the European Social Model, p. 324.
③ Erickson and Kuruvilla, "Labor Costs and the Social Dumping Debate in the European Union"; and Adnett, "Social Dumping and European Economic Integration".
① Adnett, "Social Dumping and European Economic Integration".
② George R. Zodrow and Peter Mieszkowski, "Pigou, Tiebout, Property Taxation, and the Underprovision of Local Public Goods," Journal of Urban Economics, Vol.19, No.3 (May 1986), pp.356-370; John Douglas Wilson, "Theories of Tax Competition," National Tax Journal, Vol.52, No.2 (June 1999), pp.269-304; and George R. Zodrow, "Tax Competition and Tax Coordination in the European Union," International Tax and Public Finance, Vol.10, No.6 (November 2003), pp.651-671.
① Scharpf, "The European Social Model:Coping with the Challenges of Diversity".
② Kleinman, A European Welfare State? European Union Social Policy in Context, p.147.
① Peslieau, The Welfare State in the European Union:Economic and Social Perspective, pp.42-43.
② Kvist, "Does EU Enlargement Start a Race to the Bottom? Strategic Interaction among EU Member States in Social
Policy"; Carrera, "What Does Free Movement Mean in Theory and Practice in an Enlarged EU?" and Donaghey and
Teague, "The Free Movement of Workers and Social Europe:Maintaining the European Ideal".
① Kvist, "Does EU Enlargement Start a Race to the Bottom? Strategic Interaction among EU Member States in Social Policy".
①Kleinman, A European Welfare State? European Union Social Policy in Context, pp.162-166.
①Kleinman, A European Welfare State? European Union Social Policy in Context, pp.181-184.
① Commission of the European Communities, European Social Policy-a Way Forward for the Union:A White Paper, COM (1994) 333 final, Brussels,27 July 1994.
① Maria Jepsen and Amparo Serrano Pascual, "The European Social Model:An Exercise in Deconstruction," Journal of European Social Policy, Vol.15, No.3 (August 2005), pp.231-245.
① Bernd Schulte, "The Welfare State and European Integration," European Journal of Social Security, Vol.1, No.1 (March 1999), pp.7-61.
② Karen J. Alter, "Who Are the'Masters of the Treaty'?:European Governments and the European Court of Justice," International Organization, Vol.52, No.1 (Winter 1998), pp.121-147; Geoffrey Garrett, R. Daniel Kelemen, and Heiner Schulz, "The European Court of Justice, National Governments, and Legal Integration in the European Union," ibid., pp. 149-176; Walter Mattli and Anne-Marie Slaughter, "Revisiting the European Court of Justice," ibid., pp.177-209; and Karen J. Alter, "The European Union's Legal System and Domestic Policy:Spillover or Backlash?" International Organization, Vol.54, No.3 (Summer 2000), pp.489-518.
① Fritz W. Scharpf, "Balancing Positive and Negative Integration:The Regulatory Options for Europe," in Dieter Dettke ed., The Challenge of Globalization for Germany's Social Democracy:A Policy Agenda for the 21st Century (Oxford: Berghahn Books,1998), pp.30-31; Fritz W. Scharpf, "Negative and Positive Integration in the Political Economy," in Gary Marks, Fritz W. Scharpf, Philippe C. Schmitter, and Wolfgang Streeck eds., Governance in the European Union (London:Sage Publications,1998), p.15; and Fritz W. Scharpf, Governing in Europe:Effective and Democratic? (Oxford:Oxford University Press,1999), pp.43-83.
① Jochen Clasen, Reforming European Welfare States:Germany and the United Kingdom Compared (Oxford:Oxford University Press,2005), pp.4-5,24-28,190-192.
② Monica Threlfall, "European Social Integration:Harmonization, Convergence and Single Social Areas," Journal of European Social Policy, Vol.13, No.2 (May 2003), pp.121-139.
① Commission of the European Communities, Growth, Competitiveness, Employment:The Challenges and Ways Forward into the 21st Century-White Paper, COM (1993) 700 final, Brussels,5 December 1993.
② Gerda Falkner, EU Social Policy in the 1990s:Towards a Corporatist Policy Community (London:Routledge,1998), pp.56-57; Scharpf, "The European Social Model:Coping with the Challenges of Diversity"; Caporaso, The European Union:Dilemmas of Regional Integration, p.22; and Kleinman, A European Welfare State? European Union Social Policy in Context, p.84.
③ Jepsen and Pascual, "The European Social Model:An Exercise in Deconstruction".
④ Robert Geyer, "The State of European Union Social Policy", Policy Studies, Vol.21, No.3 (September 2000), pp. 245-261; and Kleinman, A European Welfare State? European Union Social Policy in Context, p.111.
① Doreen Collins, "Towards a European Social Policy," Journal of Common Market Studies, Vol.5, No.1 (September 1966), pp.26-48; Caporaso, The European Union:Dilemmas of Regional Integration, pp.21-23; Kleinman, A European Welfare State? European Union Social Policy in Context, pp.83-85; and Threlfall, "European Social Integration: Harmonization, Convergence and Single Social Areas".
② Giandomenico Majone, "The European Community between Social Policy and Social Regulation," Journal of Common Market Studies, Vo.31, No.2 (June 1993), pp.153-170; and Falkner, EU Social Policy in the 1990s:Towards a Corporatist Policy Community, pp.60-61.
① Falkner, EU Social Policy in the 1990s:Towards a Corporatist Policy Community, pp.57-58.
② Kleinman, A European Welfare State? European Union Social Policy in Context, p.85.
③ Council Directive 68/360/EEC of 15 October 1968 on the abolition of restrictions on movement and residence within the Community for workers of Member States and their families.
④ Council Regulation (EEC) No 1612/68 of the Council of 15 October 1968 on freedom of movement for workers within the Community.
⑤ Council Regulation (EEC) No 1408/71 of the Council of 14 June 1971 on the application of social security schemes to employed persons and their families moving within the Community, Official Journal of the European Communities, L 149,5 July 1971, pp.2-50; and Council Regulation (EEC) No 574/72 of the Council of 21 March 1972 fixing the procedure for implementing Regulation (EEC) No 1408/71 on the application of social security schemes to employed persons and their families moving within the Community, Official Journal of the European Communities, L 74,27 March 1972, pp.1-83.
⑥ Bean, Bentolila, Bertola and Dolado, Social Europe:One for All? pp.3,5-6.
① Commission of the European Communities, Social Action Programme, COM (1973) 1600 final, Brussels,24 October 1973.
② Council Directive 75/117/EEC of 10 February 1975 on the approximation of the laws of the Member States relating to the application of the principle of equal pay for men and women, Official Journal of the European Communities, L 45,19 February 1975, pp.19-20; Council Directive 76/207/EEC of 9 February 1976 on the implementation of the principle of equal treatment for men and women as regards access to employment, vocational training and promotion, and working conditions, Official Journal of the European Communities, L 39,14 February 1976, pp.40-42; Council Directive 79/7/EEC of 19 December 1978 on the progressive implementation of the principle of equal treatment for men and women in matters of social security, Official Journal of the European Communities, L 6,10 January 1979, pp.24-25; Council Directive 86/378/EEC of 24 July 1986 on the implementation of the principle of equal treatment for men and women in occupational social security schemes, Official Journal of the European Communities, L 225,12 august 1986, pp.40-42; and Council Directive 86/613/EEC of 11 December 1986 on the application of the principle of equal treatment between men and women engaged in an activity, including agriculture, in a self-employed capacity, and on the protection of self-employed women during pregnancy and motherhood, Official Journal of the European Communities, L 359,19 December 1986, pp.56-58.
③ Council Directive 75/129/EEC of 17 February 1975 on the approximation of the laws of the Member States relating to collective redundancies, Official Journal of the European Communities, L 48,22 February 1975, pp.29-30.
④ Council Directive 77/187/EEC of 14 February 1977 on the approximation of the laws of the Member States relating to the safeguarding of employees' rights in the event of transfers of undertakings, businesses or parts of businesses, Official Journal of the European Communities, L 61,5 March 1977, pp.26-28; and Council Directive 80/987/EEC of 20 October 1980 on the approximation of the laws of the Member States relating to the protection of employees in the event of the insolvency of their employer, Official Journal of the European Communities, L283,28 October 1980, pp.23-27.
⑤ Bean, Bentolila, Bertola and Dolado, Social Europe:One for All? pp.3,6-7; and Falkner, EU Social Policy in the 1990s:Towards a Corporatist Policy Community, pp.61-62.
⑥ Kleinman, A European Welfare State? European Union Social Policy in Context, p.85.
① Alasdair R. Young, "The Single Market," in Helen Wallace, William Wallace and Mark A. Pollack eds., Policy-Making in the European Union, Fifth Edition (Oxford:Oxford University Press,2005), pp.95-96; and Brian Ardy and Ali El-Agraa, "The Economics of the Single Market," in Ali M. El-Agraa ed., The European Union:Economics and Policies, Eighth Edition (Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,2007), pp.130-131.
② Kleinman, A European Welfare State? European Union Social Policy in Context, p.85.
③ Jorn Henrik Petersen, "Harmonization of Social Security in the EC Revisited," Journal of Common Market Studies, Vol. 29, No.5 (September 1991), pp.505-526.
④ Caporaso, The European Union:Dilemmas of Regional Integration, p.25; and Kleinman, A European Welfare State? European Union Social Policy in Context, pp.85-86.
⑤ Kleinman, A European Welfare State? European Union Social Policy in Context, pp.86-87.
① Commission of the European Communities, Completing the Internal Market:White Paper from the Commission to the European Council, COM (1985) 310 final, Brussels,14 June 1985.
② Majone, "The European Community between Social Policy and Social Regulation"; Falkner, EU Social Policy in the 1990s:Towards a Corporatist Policy Community, pp.58-60;Caporaso, The European Union:Dilemmas of Regional Integration, pp.25-26; and Kleinman, A European Welfare State? European Union Social Policy in Context, p.87.
③ Kleinman, A European Welfare State? European Union Social Policy in Context, p.87.
① Commission of the European Communities, Communication from the Commission Concerning Its Action Programme Relating to the Implementation of the Community Charter of Basic Social Rights for Workers, COM (1989) 568 final, Brussels,29 November 1989.
② Majone, "The European Community between Social Policy and Social Regulation"; Falkner, EU Social Policy in the 1990s:Towards a Corporatist Policy Community, pp.66-68; Caporaso, The European Union:Dilemmas of Regional Integration, pp.25; and Kleinman, A European Welfare State? European Union Social Policy in Context, pp.87-88.
③ Council Directive 89/391/EEC of 12 June 1989 on the introduction of measures to encourage improvements in the safety and health of workers at work, Official Journal of the European Communities, L 183,29 June 1989, pp.1-8.
④ Council Directive 91/533/EEC of 14 October 1991 on an employer's obligation to inform employees of the conditions applicable to the contract or employment relationship, Official Journal of the European Communities, L 288,18 October 1991, pp.32-35.
⑤ Council Directive 92/56/EEC of 24 June 1992 amending Directive 75/129/EEC on the approximation of the laws of the Member States relating to collective redundancies, Official Journal of the European Communities, L 245,26 August 1992, pp.3-5.
⑥ Council Directive 93/104/EC of 23 November 1993 concerning certain aspects of the organization of working time, Official Journal of the European Communities, L 307,13 December 1993, pp.18-24.
⑦ Council Directive 94/33/EC of 22 June 1994 on the protection of young people at work, Official Journal of the European Communities, L 216,20 August 1994, pp.12-20.
⑧ Bean, Bentolila, Bertola and Dolado, Social Europe:One for All? pp.3-4.
⑨ Falkner, EU Social Policy in the 1990s:Towards a Corporatist Policy Community, pp.78-79; Caporaso, The European Union:Dilemmas of Regional Integration, p.26; and Kleinman, A European Welfare State? European Union Social Policy in Context, pp.88-89.
⑩ Falkner, EU Social Policy in the 1990s:Towards a Corporatist Policy Community, p.81; and Kleinman, A European Welfare State? European Union Social Policy in Context, p.89.
11 Falkner, EU Social Policy in the 1990s:Towards a Corporatist Policy Community, pp.79-96; and Kleinman, A European Welfare State? European Union Social Policy in Context, p.89.
① Commission of the European Communities, Communication from the Commission to the Council, the European Parliament, the Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions:Medium Term Social Action Programme 1995-1997, COM (1995) 134 final, Brussels,12 April 1995.
② Council Directive 94/45/EC of 22 September 1994 on the establishment of a European Works Council or a procedure in Community-scale undertakings and Community-scale groups of undertakings for the purposes of informing and consulting employees, Official Journal of the European Communities, L 254,30 September 1994, pp.64-72.
③ Council Directive 96/34/EC of 3 June 1996 on the framework agreement on parental leave concluded by UNICE, CEEP and the ETUC, Official Journal of the European Communities, L 145,19 June 1996, pp.4-9.
④ Council Directive 97/80/EC of 15 December 1997 on the burden of proof in cases of discrimination based on sex, Official Journal of the European Communities, L 14,20 January 1998, pp.6-8.
⑤ Council Directive 96/97/EC of 20 December 1996 amending Directive 86/378/EEC on the implementation of the principle of equal treatment for men and women in occupational social security schemes, Official Journal of the European Communities, L 46,17 February 1997, pp.20-24; and Council Directive 97/81/EC of 15 December 1997 concerning the Framework Agreement on part-time work concluded by UNICE, CEEP and the ETUC, Official Journal of the European Communities, L 14,20 January 1998, pp.9-14.
⑥ Bean, Bentolila, Bertola and Dolado, Social Europe:One for All? pp.4,8-9.
⑦ Falkner, EU Social Policy in the 1990s:Towards a Corporatist Policy Community, pp.79-80; and Kleinman, A European Welfare State? European Union Social Policy in Context, p.89.
⑧ Bean, Bentolila, Bertola and Dolado, Social Europe:One for All? p.4; and Kleinman, A European Welfare State? European Union Social Policy in Context, pp.89-90.
⑨ Ardy and El-Agraa, "The Economics of the Single Market," p.135.
① Ardy and El-Agraa, "The Economics of the Single Market," p.135.
② Kleinman, A European Welfare State? European Union Social Policy in Context, p.93.
③ Commission of the European Communities, Communication from the Commission:Social Action Programme 1998-2000, COM (1998) 259 final, Brussels,29 April 1998.
④ Kleinman, A European Welfare State? European Union Social Policy in Context, p.101.
① Falkner, EU Social Policy in the 1990s:Towards a Corporatist Policy Community, pp.71-72; and Janine Goetschy, "The European Employment Strategy:Genesis and Development," European Journal of Industrial Relations, Vol.5, No. 2 (July 1999), pp.117-137.
② Michael Glod, "Social Partnership at the EU Level:Initiatives, Problems and Implications for Member States," in David Hime and Hussein Kassim eds., Beyond the Market (London:Routledge,1998), pp.107-133.
① Commission of the European Communities, Communication from the Commission:Adapting and Promoting the Social Dialogue at Community Level, COM (1998) 322 final, Brussels,20 May 1998.
② Goetschy, "The European Employment Strategy:Genesis and Development".
① James S. Mosher and David M. Trubek, "Alternative Approaches to Governance in the EU:EU Social Policy and the European Employment Strategy," Journal of Common Market Studies, Vol.41, No.1 (March 2003). pp.63-88; and David M. Trubek and Louise G.Trubek, "Hard and Soft Law in the Construction of Social Europe:The Role of the Open Method of Co-ordination," European Law Journal, Vol.11, No.3 (May 2005), pp.343-364.
② Ibid.
③ Youri Devuyst, "The Community-Method after Amsterdam," Journal of Common Market Studies, Vol.37, No:1 (March 1999), pp.109-120; Dermot Hodson and Imelda Maher, "The Open Method as a New Mode of Governance:The Case of Soft Economic Policy Co-ordination," Journal of Common Market Studies, Vol.39, No.4 (November 2001), pp. 719-746; Burkard Eberlein and Dieter Kerwer, "New Governance in the European Union:A Theoretical Perspective," Journal of Common Market Studies, Vol.42, No.1 (March 2004), pp.121-142; Susana Borras and Kerstin Jacobsson, "The Open Method of Co-ordination and New Governance Patterns in the EU," Journal of European Public Policy, Vol. 11, No.2 (April 2004), pp.185-208; and Erika Szyszczak, "Experimental Governance:The Open Method of Coordination," European Law Journal, Vol.12, No.4 (July 2006), pp.486-502.
① Commission of the European Communities, Community-Wide Framework for Employment, COM (1993) 238 final, Brussels,26 May 1993.
② Goetschy, "The European Employment Strategy:Genesis and Development".
③ Ibid.
① Goetschy, "The European Employment Strategy:Genesis and Development"; Janine Goetschy, "The European Employment Strategy from Amsterdam to Stockholm:Has It Reached Its Cruising Speed?" Industrial Relations Journal, Vol.32, No.5 (December 2001), pp.401-418; Mosher and Trubek, "Alternative Approaches to Governance in the EU: EU Social Policy and the European Employment Strategy"; Caroline de la Porte and Patrizia Nanz, "The OMC-a Deliberative-Democratic Mode of Governance? The Cases of Employment and Pensions," Journal of European Public Policy, Vol.11, No.2 (April 2004), pp.267-288; and Andrew Watt, "Reform of the European Employment Strategy after Five Years:A Change of Course or Merely of Presentation?" European Journal of Industrial Relations, Vol.10, No.2 (July 2004), pp.117-137.
① Goetschy, "The European Employment Strategy:Genesis and Development"; Mosher and Trubek, "Alternative Approaches to Governance in the EU:EU Social Policy and the European Employment Strategy"; Porte and Nanz, "The OMC-a Deliberative-Democratic Mode of Governance? The Cases of Employment and Pensions"; and Watt, "Reform of the European Employment Strategy after Five Years:A Change of Course or Merely of Presentation?"
② Council Regulation (EEC) No 1408/71 of the Council of 14 June 1971 on the application of social security schemes to employed persons and their families moving within the Community.
③ Council Recommendation of 27 July 1992 on the convergence of social protection objectives and policies, Official Journal of the European Communities, L 245,26 August 1992, pp.49-52.
④ Commission of the European Communities, Communication from the Commission:Modernizing and Improving Social Protection in the European Union.
⑤ Council Decision of 29 June 2000 setting up a Social Protection Committee, Official Journal of the European Communities, L 172,12 July 2000, pp.26-27.
① Council Regulation (EEC) No 1390/81 of 12 May 1981 extending to self-employed persons and members of their families Regulation (EEC) No 1408/71 on the application of social security schemes to employed persons and their families moving within the Community, Official Journal of the European Communities,;L 143,29 May 1981, pp.1-32.
② Council Directive 98/49/EC of 29 June 1998 on safeguarding the supplementary pension rights of employed and self-employed persons moving within the Community, Official Journal of the European Communities, L 209,25 July 1998, pp.46-49.
③ Council Regulation (EC) No 883/2004 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 29 April 2004 on the coordination of social security systems, Official Journal of the European Union, L 166,30 April 2004, pp.1-123.
④ Commission of the European Communities, Communication from the Commission to the Council, the European Parliament and the Economic and Social Committee:Supporting National Strategies for Safe and Sustainable Pensions through an Integrated Approach, COM (2001) 362 final, Brussels,3 July 2001.
⑤ Porte and Nanz, "The OMC-a Deliberative-Democratic Mode of Governance? The Cases of Employment and Pensions".
① Liesbet Hooghe, "Introduction:Reconciling EU-Wide Policy and National Diversity," in Liesbet Hooghe ed., Cohesion Policy and European Integration:Building Multi-Level Governance (Oxford:Oxford University Press,1996), p.6.
② European Commission, Cohesion Policy 2007-13-Commentaries and Official Texts (Luxembourg:Office for Official
Publications of the European Communities,2007).
③ Council Regulation (EC) No 2012/2002 of 11 November 2002 establishing the European Union Solidarity Fund, Official Journal of the European Communities, L 311,14 November 2002, pp.3-8.
④ Council Regulation (EC) No 1164/94 of 16 May 1994 establishing a Cohesion Fund, Official Journal of the European Communities, L 130,25 May 1994, pp.1-13.
⑤ Council Regulation (EC) No 1264/1999 of 21 June 1999 amending Regulation (EC) No 1164/94 establishing a Cohesion Fund, Official Journal of the European Communities, L 161,26 June 1999, pp.57-61.
⑥ Council Regulation (EC) No 1083/2006 of 11 July 2006 laying down general provisions on the European Regional Development Fund, the European Social Fund and the Cohesion Fund and repealing Regulation (EC) No 1260/1999, Official Journal of the European Union, L 210,31 July 2006, pp.25-78.
⑦ Kleinman, A European Welfare State? European Union Social Policy in Context, pp.116-117.
⑧ Jeffrey J. Anderson, "Structural Funds and the Social Dimension of EU Policy:Springboard or Stumbling Block?" in Stephan Leibfried and Paul Pierson eds., European Social Policy:Between Fragmentation and Integration (Washington, D.C.:The Brookings Institution,1995), pp.123-158.
① Jacqueline Brine, The European Social Fund and the EU:Flexibility, Growth, Stability (London:Sheffield Academic Press,2002), pp.11-12.
② Kleinman, A European Welfare State? European Union Social Policy in Context, p.85.
③ Fiona Wishlade, "EU Cohesion Policy:Facts, Figures, and Issues," in Liesbet Hooghe ed., Cohesion Policy and European Integration:Building Multi-Level Governance (Oxford:Oxford University Press,1996), pp.29-30.
④ Brine, The European Social Fund and the EU:Flexibility, Growth, Stability, p.12.
⑤ Wishlade, "EU Cohesion Policy:Facts, Figures, and Issues," p.33.
⑥ Council Regulation (EEC) No 2052/88 of 24 June 1988 on the tasks of the Structural Funds and their effectiveness and on coordination of their activities between themselves and with the operations of the European Investment Bank and the other existing financial instruments, Official Journal of the European Communities, L 185,15 July 1988, pp.9-20.
⑦ Council Regulation (EEC) No 2081/93 of 20 July 1993 amending Regulation (EEC) No 2052/88 on the tasks of the Structural Funds and their effectiveness and on coordination of their activities between themselves and with the operations of the European Investment Bank and the other existing financial instruments, Official Journal of the European Union, L 193,31 July 1993, pp.5-19.
① Council Regulation (EC) No 1260/1999 of 21 June 1999 laying down general provisions on the Structural Funds, Official Journal of the European Communities, L 161,26 June 1999, pp.1-42.
② Council Regulation (EC) No 1083/2006 of 11 July 2006 laying down general provisions on the European Regional Development Fund, the European Social Fund and the Cohesion Fund and repealing Regulation (EC) No 1260/1999, Official Journal of the European Union, L 210,31 July 2006, pp.25-78.
③ Kleinman, A European Welfare State? European Union Social Policy in Context, p.114.
④ Commission of the European Communities, Communication from the Commission:Community Structural Assistance and Employment, COM (1996) 109 final, Brussels,20 March 1996.
⑤ Goetschy, "The European Employment Strategy:Genesis and Development".
①Kleinman, A European Welfare State? European Union Social Policy in Context, pp.114-119.
①Kleinman, A European Welfare State? European Union Social Policy in Context, pp.28-29.
① Kleinman, A European Welfare State? European Union Social Policy in Context, pp.30-31.
② Paul Pierson, "Post-Industrial Pressures on the Mature Welfare States," in Paul Pierson ed., The New Politics of the Welfare State (Oxford:Oxford University Press,2001), pp.80-104; and Peter Taylor-Gooby, "New Risks and Social Change," in Peter Taylor-Gooby ed., New Risks, New Welfare:The Transformation of the European Welfare State (Oxford: Oxford University Press,2004), pp.1-28.
① Bent Greve, "Indications of Social Policy Convergence in Europe," Social Policy & Administration, Vol.30, No.4 (December 1996), pp.348-367.
① Decision No 189 of 18 June 2003 aimed at introducing a European health insurance card to replace the forms necessary for the application of Council Regulations (EEC) No 1408/71 and (EEC) No 574/72 as regards access to health care during a temporary stay in a Member State other than the competent State or the State of residence, Official Journal of the European Union, L 276,27 October 2003, pp.1-3; Decision No 190 of 18 June 2003 concerning the technical specifications of the European health insurance card, Official Journal of the European Union, L 276,27 October 2003, pp. 4-18; and Decision No 191 of 18 June 2003 concerning the replacement of forms E 111 and E 111 B by the European health insurance card, Official Journal of the European Union, L 276,27 October 2003, pp.19-21.
② Stephan Leibfried and Paul Pierson, "Semisovereign Welfare States:Social Policy in a Multitiered Europe," in Stephan Leibfried and Paul Pierson eds., European Social Policy:Between Fragmentation and Integration (Washington, D.C.: The Brookings Institution,1995), pp.43-65.
①Leibfried and Pierson, "Semisovereign Welfare States:Social Policy in a Multitiered Europe", pp.65-70.
②Ibid., pp.70-74.
① Greve, "Indications of Social Policy Convergence in Europe".
② Kleinman, A European Welfare State? European Union Social Policy in Context, pp.37-40.
①Kleinman, A European Welfare State? European Union Social Policy in Context, pp.40-43.
① Kleinman, A European Welfare State? European Union Social Policy in Context, pp.52-57.
② Peslieau, The Welfare State in the European Union:Economic and Social Perspective, pp.31-33.
① Greve, "Indications of Social Policy Convergence in Europe".
② Peslieau, The Welfare State in the European Union:Economic and Social Perspective, pp.102-115.
③ Ibid., pp.116-124.
① Peslieau, The Welfare State in the European Union:Economic and Social Perspective, pp.125-136.
② Ibid., pp.137-145.
③ Greve, "Indications of Social Policy Convergence in Europe".
① Vaughan-Whitehead, EU Enlargement versus Social Europe? The Uncertain Future of the European Social Model, pp. 109-163.
① Fritz W. Scharpf, "Economic Changes, Vulnerabilities, and Institutional Capabilities," in Fritz W. Scharpf and Vivien A. Schmidt eds., Welfare and Work in the Open Economy, VOL. I (Oxford:Oxford University Press,2000), pp.21-124.
② European Communities, The Social Situation in the European Union 2005-2006:The Balance between Generations in an Ageing Europe (Luxembourg:Office for Official Publications of the European Communities,2007), p.52.
③ European Communities, Joint Report on Social Protection and Social Inclusion 2008:Social Inclusion, Pensions, Healthcare and Long-Term Care (Luxembourg:Office for Official Publications of the European Communities,2008), pp. 38-39.
① Neill Nugent, The Government and Politics of the European Union (Durham:Duke University Press,2006), pp. 438-439.
①Nugent, The Government and Politics of the European Union, pp.430,439-441.
① John Lambert, "The Constitutional Crisis:1965-66," Journal of Common Market Studies, Vol.4, No.3 (May 1966), pp. 195-228; Anthony L. Teasdale, "The Life and Death of the Luxembourg Compromise," Journal of Common Market Studies, Vol.31, No.4 (December 1993), pp.567-579; and Mark Gilbert, Surpassing Realism:The Politics of European Integration since 1945 (Lanham:Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc.,2003), pp.88-89,107-108.
② Lambert, "The Constitutional Crisis:1965-66"; Teasdale, "The Life and Death of the Luxembourg Compromise"; and Gilbert, Surpassing Realism:The Politics of European Integration since 1945, pp.104-107.
① Lambert, "The Constitutional Crisis:1965-66"; Teasdale, "The Life and Death of the Luxembourg Compromise"; and Gilbert, Surpassing Realism:The Politics of European Integration since 1945, pp.108-111.
② Nugent, The Government and Politics of the European Union, p.431.
① Nugent, The Government and Politics of the European Union, pp.430,-455-482; David Colman, "The Common Agricultural Policy," in Mike Artis and Frederick Nixson eds., The Economics of the European Union:Policy and Analysis, Fourth Edition (Oxford:Oxford University Press,2007), pp.77-104.
② Gilbert, Surpassing Realism:The Politics of European Integration since 1945, pp.160-161; and G.J. Croxford, M. Wise, and B. S. Chalkley, "The Reform of the European Regional Development Fund:A Preliminary Assessment," Journal of Common Market Studies, Vol.26, No.1 (September 1987), pp.25-38.
①Gilbert, Surpassing Realism:The Politics of European Integration since 1945, pp.161-162.
②Ibid., pp.163-164.
①Nugent, The Government and Politics of the European Union, pp.431-433.
①Nugent, The Government and Politics of the European Union, pp.433-438.
① Nugent, The Government and Politics of the European Union, pp.43-44.
② Ibid., pp.80-81,180-184; Chris Allen, Michael Gasiorek and Alasdair Smith, "The Competition Effects of the Single Market in Europe," Economic Policy, Vol.13, No.27 (October 1998), pp.439-486; and Ginsberg, Demystifying the European Union:The Enduring Logic of Regional Integration, pp.230-235.
③ Nugent, The Government and Politics of the European Union, pp.82-93; Ginsberg, Demystifying the European Union: The Enduring Logic of Regional Integration, pp.247-254; Peter B. Kenen, Economic and Monetary Union in Europe: Moving Beyond Maastricht (Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1995), pp.19-20; and Grauwe, Economics of Monetary Union, pp.144-150.
① Anthony L. Teasdale, "Subsidiarity in Post-Maastricht Europe," Political Quarterly, Vol.64, No.2 (April 1993), pp. 187-197.
① Teasdale, "Subsidiarity in Post-Maastricht Europe"; Kees van Kersbergen and Bertjan Verbeek, "The Politics of Subsidiarity in the European Union," Journal of Common Market Studies, Vol.32, No.2 (June 1994), pp.215-236; and Kees van Kersbergen and Bertjan Verbeek, "Subsidiarity as a Principle of Governance in the European Union," Comparative European Politics, Vol.2, No.2 (August 2004), pp.142-162.
② Kersbergen and Verbeek, "Subsidiarity as a Principle of Governance in the European Union".
③ John Peterson and Michael Shackleton, The Institutions of the European Union (Oxford:Oxford University Press, 2006), p.3.
① Nugent, The Government and Politics of the European Union, pp.84-85,93-95.
② Ibid., p.106.
③ Geoffrey Garrett, "From the Luxembourg Compromise to Codecision:Decision Making in the European Union," Electoral Studies, Vol.14, No.3 (September 1995), pp.289-308; Geoffrey Garrett and George Tsebelis, "An Institutional Critique of Intergovernmentalism," International Organization, Vol.50, No.2 (Spring 1996), pp.269-299; and George Tsebelis and Geoffrey Garrett, "Agenda Setting Power, Power Indices, and Decision Making in the European Union," International Review of Law and Economics, Vol.16, No.3 (September 1996), pp.345-361.
① Ibid.
② Ibid.; John Fitzmaurice, "An Analysis of the European Community's Co-operation Procedure," Journal of Common Market Studies, Vol.26, No.4 (June 1988), pp.389-400; Christophe Crombez, "Legislative Procedures in the European Community," British Journal of Political Science, Vol.26, No.2 (April 1996), pp.199-228.; and Nugent, The Government and Politics of the European Union, pp.81,87,242-243,400-405.
③ Garrett, "From the Luxembourg Compromise to Codecision:Decision Making in the European Union"; Garrett and Tsebelis, "An Institutional Critique of Intergovernmentalism"; and Tsebelis and Garrett, "Agenda Setting Power, Power Indices, and Decision Making in the European Union".
①.Garrett, "From the Luxembourg Compromise to Codecision:Decision Making in the European Union"; Garrett and Tsebelis, "An Institutional Critique of Intergovernmentalism"; Tsebelis and Garrett, "Agenda Setting Power, Power Indices, and Decision Making in the European Union"; Crombez, "Legislative Procedures in the European Community"; Wolfgang Wessels, "Nice Results:The Millennium IGC in the EU's Evolution," Journal of Common Market Studies, Vol. 39, No.2 (June 2001), pp.197-219; and Nugent, The Government and Politics of the European Union, pp.81,87,112, 243-244,413-414.
② Fitzmaurice, "An Analysis of the European Community's Co-operation Procedure"; Garrett, "From the Luxembourg Compromise to Codecision:Decision Making in the European Union"; Garrett and Tsebelis, "An Institutional Critique of Intergovernmentalism"; Tsebelis and Garrett, "Agenda Setting Power, Power Indices, and Decision Making in the European Union"; Crombez, "Legislative Procedures in the European Community"; and Nugent, The Government and Politics of the European Union, pp.81,87,100,243.
① Garrett, "From the Luxembourg Compromise to Codecision:Decision Making in the European Union"; Garrett and Tsebelis, "An Institutional Critique of Intergovernmentalism"; Tsebelis and Garrett, "Agenda Setting Power, Power Indices, and Decision Making in the European Union"; Crombez, "Legislative Procedures in the European Community"; and Nugent, The Government and Politics of the European Union, pp.87,100,111-112,243,407-413.
①Nugent, The Government and Politics of the European Union, pp.87,100,101-102,111.
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Jochen Clasen, Reforming European Welfare States:Germany and the United Kingdom Compared (Oxford:Oxford University Press,2005).
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Jorn Henrik Petersen, "Harmonization of Social Security in the EC Revisited," Journal of Common Market Studies, Vol.29, No.5 (September 1991), pp.505-526.
Karen J. Alter, "Who Are the 'Masters of the Treaty'?:European Governments and the European Court of Justice," International Organization, Vol.52, No.1 (Winter 1998), pp.121-147.
Karen J. Alter, "The European Union's Legal System and Domestic Policy:Spillover or Backlash?" International Organization, Vol.54, No.3 (Summer 2000), pp.489-518.
Kathleen R. McNamara, "Economic and Monetary Union," in William Wallace, Helen Wallace and Mark Pollack eds., Policy-Making in the European Union, Fifth Edition (Oxford:Oxford University Press,2005), pp.141-160.
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Marco Buti and Andre Sapir eds., Economic Policy in EMU:A Study by the European Commission Services (Oxford:Oxford University Press,1998).
Maria Jepsen and Amparo Serrano Pascual, "The European Social Model:An Exercise in Deconstruction," Journal of European Social Policy, Vol.15, No.3 (August 2005), pp. 231-245.
Mark Gilbert, Surpassing Realism:The Politics of European Integration since 1945 (Lanham:Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc.,2003).
Mark Kleinman, A European Welfare State? European Union Social Policy in Context (Basingstoke:Palgrave,2002).
Mauro F. Guill'en, "Is Globalization Civilizing, Destructive or Feeble? A Critique of Five Key Debates in the Social Science Literature," Annual Review of Sociology, Vol.27, No. 1 (August 2001), pp.235-260.
Michael Glod, "Social Partnership at the EU Level:Initiatives, Problems and Implications for Member States," in David Hime and Hussein Kassim eds., Beyond the Market (London:Routledge,1998), pp.107-133.
Monica Threlfall, "European Social Integration:Harmonization, Convergence and Single Social Areas," Journal of European Social Policy, Vol.13, No.2 (May 2003), pp. 121-139.
Neill Nugent, The Government and Politics of the European Union (Durham:Duke University Press,2006).
Nick Adnett, "Social Dumping and European Economic Integration," Journal of European Social Policy, Vol.5, No.1 (February 1995), pp.1-12.
Patrick Leblond, "The Political Stability and Growth Pact is Dead:Long Live the Economic Stability and Growth Pact," Journal of Common Market Studies, Vol.44, No. 5 (December 2006), pp.969-990.
Paul De Grauwe, Economics of Monetary Union, Seventh Edition (Oxford:Oxford University Press,2007).
Paul Pierson, "Post-Industrial Pressures on the Mature Welfare States," in Paul Pierson ed., The New Politics of the Welfare State (Oxford:Oxford University Press,2001), pp. 80-104.
Peter B. Kenen, Economic and Monetary Union in Europe:Moving Beyond Maastricht (Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1995).
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Philipp Genschel, "Globalization and the Welfare State:A Retrospective," Journal of European Public Policy, Vol.11, No.4 (August 2004), pp.613-636.
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Roy H. Ginsberg, Demystifying the European Union:The Enduring Logic of Regional Integration (Lanham:Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc.,2007).
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Stephen D. Krasner, Sovereignty:Organized Hypocrisy (Princeton, N.J.:Princeton University Press,1999).
Stephan Leibfried and Paul Pierson, "Semisovereign Welfare States:Social Policy in a Multitiered Europe," in Stephan Leibfried and Paul Pierson eds., European Social Policy: Between Fragmentation and Integration (Washington, D.C.:The Brookings Institution, 1995), pp.43-77.
Susana Borras and Kerstin Jacobsson, "The Open Method of Co-ordination and New Governance Patterns in the EU," Journal of European Public Policy, Vol.11, No.2 (April 2004), pp.185-208.
Vivien A. Schmidt, The Futures of European Capitalism (Oxford:Oxford University Press, 2002).
Walter Mattli and Anne-Marie Slaughter, "Revisiting the European Court of Justice," International Organization, Vol.52, No.1 (Winter 1998), pp.177-209.
Walter Mattli, The Logic of regional Integration:Europe and Beyond (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,1999).
Wolfgang Wessels, "Nice Results:The Millennium IGC in the EU's Evolution," Journal of Common Market Studies, Vol.39, No.2 (June 2001), pp.197-219.
Youri Devuyst, "The Community-Method after Amsterdam," Journal of Common Market Studies, Vol.37, No.1 (March 1999), pp.109-120.
刘玉安：《福利国家与社会和谐—北欧模式探源》,载《文史哲》2008年第5期,第159-168页。
田德文：《论欧洲联盟的社会政策》,载《欧洲》2000年第4期,第41-49页。
杨逢珉：《欧洲联盟推行社会政策的实践与障碍》,载《世界经济与政治》1997年第2期,第53-57页。
周弘：《“第三条道路”与欧洲联盟的社会模式》,载《欧洲》2000年第5期,第11-18页。
周弘：《国内欧洲联盟社会政策研究之我见》,载《欧洲研究》2003年第1期,第121-132页。
②田德文：《论欧盟的社会政策》,载《欧洲》2000年第4期,第41-49页。
③周弘：《“第三条道路”与欧盟的社会模式》,载《欧洲》2000年第5期,第11-18页。
④杨逢珉：《欧盟推行社会政策的实践与障碍》,载《世界经济与政治》1997年第2期,第53-57页。
①田德文：《论欧盟的社会政策》。
① Alish Johnson, "EU Social Policy, or, How Far Up Do You Like Your Safety Net?" in Sophie Meunier and Kathleen R. Mcnamara eds., Making History:European Integration and Institutional Change at Fifty (Oxford:Oxford University Press,2007), pp.247-248.
② Mark Kleinman, A European Welfare State? European Union Social Policy in Context (Basingstoke:Palgrave,2002), pp.59-81; Mauro F. Guill'en, "Is Globalization Civilizing, Destructive or Feeble? A Critique of Five Key Debates in the Social Science Literature," Annual Review of Sociology, Vol.27, No.1 (August 2001), pp.235-260; and Philipp Genschel, "Globalization and the Welfare State:A Retrospective," Journal of European Public Policy, Vol.11, No.4 (August 2004), pp.613-636.
③ Dani Rodrik, Has Globalization Gone Too Far? (Washington, D.C.:Institute for International Economics,1997).
① Geoffrey Garrett, Partisan Politics in the Global Economy (New York:Cambridge University Press,1998); and Geoffrey Garrett, "Global Markets and National Politics:Collision Course or Virtuous Circle?" International Organization, Vol.52, No.4 (Autumn 1998), pp.787-824.
① Kleinman, A European Welfare State? European Union Social Policy in Context, pp.71-78; and Pierre Peslieau, The Welfare State in the European Union:Economic and Social Perspective (Oxford:Oxford University Press,2006), pp. 51-52.
① Commission of the European Communities, Communication from the Commission:Modernising and Improving Social Protection in the European Union, COM (1997) 102 final, Brussels,12 May 1997.
② Vivien A. Schmidt, The Futures of European Capitalism (Oxford:Oxford University Press,2002).
① Andrew Moravcsik, "The European Constitutional Settlement," in Sophie Meunier and Kathleen R. Mcnamara eds., Making History:European Integration and Institutional Change at Fifty (Oxford:Oxford University Press,2007), pp. 23-31.
① Johnson, "EU Social Policy, or, How Far Up Do You Like Your Safety Net?" pp.249-264.
② Andrew Moravcsik, "Liberal Intergovernmentalism and Integration:A Rejoinder," Journal of Common Market Studies, Vol.33, No.4 (December 1995), pp.611-628; and Andrew Moravcsik "Preferences and Power in the European Community:A Liberal Intergovernmentalist Approach," Journal of Common Market Studies, Vol.31, No.4 (December 1993), pp.473-523.
③ Johnson, "EU Social Policy, or, How Far Up Do You Like Your Safety Net?" p.249.
① Commission of the European Communities, Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament and the Council:Draft Action Plan for the Single Market, COM (1997) 184 final, Brussels,6 May 1997; and Communication from the Commission to the Council, the European Parliament, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions:Internal Market Strategy-Priorities 2003-2006, COM (2003) 238 final, Brussels,7 May 2003.
② Kathleen R. McNamara, "Economic and Monetary Union," in William Wallace, Helen Wallace and Mark Pollack eds., Policy-Making in the European Union, Fifth Edition (Oxford:Oxford University Press,2005), p.156; Patrick Leblond, "The Political Stability and Growth Pact is Dead:Long Live the Economic Stability and Growth Pact," Journal of Common Market Studies, Vol.44, No.5 (December 2006), pp.969-990; and Roy H. Ginsberg, Demystifying the European Union:The Enduring Logic of Regional Integration (Lanham:Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc.,2007), pp.251-254.
③ Walter Mattli, The Logic of regional Integration:Europe and Beyond (Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1999), p.12.
④ Fritz W. Scharpf, "The European Social Model:Coping with the Challenges of Diversity," Journal of Common Market Studies, Vol.40, No.4 (November 2002), pp.645-670.
⑤ Commission of the European Communities, Communication from the Commission to the Council, the European Parliament, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions:Report on the Implementation of the Internal Market Strategy (2003-2006), COM (2004) 22 final, Brussels,21 January 2004; and Communication from the Commission to the Council, the European Parliament, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions:Second Implementation Report of the Internal Market Strategy 2003-2006, COM (2005) 11 final, Brussels,27 January 2005.
① Freddy Heylen and Andre Van Poeck, "National Labour Market Institutions and the European Economic and Monetary Integration Process," Journal of Common Market Studies, Vol.33, No.4 (December 1995), pp.573-595.
① Scharpf, "The European Social Model:Coping with the Challenges of Diversity".
② James A. Caporaso, The European Union:Dilemmas of Regional Integration (Oxford:Westview Press,2000), pp. 16-21; and Ginsberg, Demystifying the European Union:The Enduring Logic of Regional Integration, pp.235-239.
③刘玉安：《福利国家与社会和谐—北欧模式探源》,载《文史哲》2008年第5期,第159-168页。
① Charles R. Bean, "Economic and Monetary Union in Europe," The Journal of Economic Perspectives, Vol.6, No.4 (Autumn 1992), pp.31-52.
① Michael Emerson, Daniel Gros, Alexander Italianer, Jean Pisani-Ferry, and Horst Reichenbach, One Market, One Money:An Evaluation of the Potential Benefits and Costs of Forming an Economic and Monetary Union (Oxford: Oxford University Press,1992), pp.9,20.
① Ginsberg, Demystifying the European Union:The Enduring Logic of Regional Integration,pp.226-227. Process".
② Heylen and Poeck, "National Labour Market Institutions and the European Economic and Monetary Integration
①刘玉安：《福利国家与社会和谐—北欧模式探源》。
① Daniel C. Vaughan-Whitehead, EU Enlargement versus Social Europe? The Uncertain Future of the European Social Model (Cheltenham:Edward Elgar,2003), pp.411-455; Jon Kvist, "Does EU Enlargement Start a Race to the Bottom? Strategic Interaction among EU Member States in Social Policy," Journal of European Social Policy, Vol.14, No.3 (August 2004), pp.301-318; Sergio Carrera, "What Does Free Movement Mean in Theory and Practice in an Enlarged EU?" European Law Journal, Vol.11, No.6 (November 2005), pp.699-721; and Jimmy Donaghey and Paul Teague, "The Free Movement of Workers and Social Europe:Maintaining the European Ideal," Industrial Relations Journal, Vol. 37, No.6 (November 2006), pp.652-666.
② Commission of the European Communities, Communication from the Commission to the Council, the European Parliament, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions:Report on the Functioning of the Transitional Arrangements Set Out in the 2003 Accession Treaty (Period 1 May 2004-30 April 2006), COM (2006) 48 final, Brussels,8 February 2006.
① Gosta Esping-Andersen, "Who is Harmed by Labour Market Regulations? Quantitative Evidence," in Gosta Esping-Andersen and Marino Regini eds., Why Deregulate Labour Markets? (Oxford:Oxford University Press,2000), pp.66-98; and Gosta Esping-Andersen, "Regulation and Context. Reconsidering the Correlates of Unemployment," in ibid., pp.99-112.
① Paul De Grauwe, Economics of Monetary Union, Seventh Edition (Oxford:Oxford University Press,2007), pp.5-9.
the Community, Official Journal of the European Communities, L257,19 October 1968, pp.2-12; and Council Directive
② Council Regulation (EEC) No 1612/68 of the Council of 15 October 1968 on freedom of movement for workers within 68/360/EEC of 15 October 1968 on the abolition of restrictions on movement and residence within the Community for workers of Member States and their families, Official Journal of the European Communities, L 257,19 October 1968, pp. 13-16.
① Commission of the European Communities, An Action Plan for free Movement of Workers:Communication from the Commission, COM (1997) 586 final, Brussels,12 November 1997.
① Commission of the European Communities, An Action Plan for free Movement of Workers:Communication from the Commission, COM (1997) 586 final, Brussels,12 November 1997.
② Commission of the European Communities, Proposal for a European Parliament and Council Directive on the Right of Citizens of the Union and Their Family Members to Move and Reside Freely within the Territory of the Member States, COM (2001) 257 final, Brussels,23 May 2001.
③ Council Directive 2004/38/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 29 April 200 on the right of citizens of the Union and their family members to move and reside freely within the territory of the Member States amending Regulation (EEC) No 1612/68 and repealing Directives 64/221/EEC,68/360/EEC,72/194/EEC,73/148/EEC,75/34/EEC, 75/35/EEC,90/364/EEC,90/365/EEC and 93/96/EEC, Official Journal of the European Union, L 158,30 April 2004, pp. 77-123.
① Brendan Burchell, Simon Deakin, Jonathan Michie and Jill Rubery eds., Systems of Production:Markets, Organisations and Performance (London:Routledge,2003).
① Commission of the European Communities, Communication from the Commission:Adapting and Promoting the Social Dialogue at Community Level, COM (1998) 322 final, Brussels,20 May 1998.
② Commission of the European Communities, Communication from the Commission:The European Social Dialogue, a Force for Innovation and Change, COM (2002) 341 final, Brussels,26 June 2002.
③ Commission of the European Communities, Communication from the Commission:Partnership for Change in an Enlarged Europe-Enhancing the Contribution of European Social Dialogue, COM (2004) 557 final, Brussels,12 August 2004.
① Dale L. Smith and Jurgen Wanke, "Completing the Single European Market:An Analysis of the Impact on the Member States," American Journal of Political Science, Vol.37, No.2 (May 1993), pp.529-554.
② Charles Bean, Samuel Bentolila, Giuseppe Bertola and Juan Dolado, Social Europe:One for All? (London:Centre for Economic Policy Research,1998), pp.21-24.
①Smith and Wanke, "Completing the Single European Market:An Analysis of the Impact on the Member States".
①Smith and Wanke, "Completing the Single European Market:An Analysis of the Impact on the Member States".
① Smith and Wanke, "Completing the Single European Market:An Analysis of the Impact on the Member States."
② Committee for the Study of Economic and Monetary Union, Report on Economic and Monetary Union in the European Community (Luxembourg:Office for Official Publications of the European Communities,1989), p.18.
③ Marco Buti and Andre Sapir eds., Economic Policy in EMU:A Study by the European Commission Services (Oxford: Oxford University Press,1998), pp. XIII-XIV.
① Heylen and Poeck, "National Labour Market Institutions and the European Economic and Monetary Integration Process".
① Heylen and Poeck, "National Labour Market Institutions and the European Economic and Monetary Integration Process".
① Heylen and Poeck, "National Labour Market Institutions and the European Economic and Monetary Integration Process".
① Heylen and Poeck, "National Labour Market Institutions and the European Economic and Monetary Integration Process".
② Esping-Andersen, "Who is Harmed by Labour Market Regulations? Quantitative Evidence"; and Esping-Andersen, "Regulation and Context. Reconsidering the Correlates of Unemployment".
① Christopher L. Erickson and Sarosh Kuruvilla, "Labor Costs and the Social Dumping Debate in the European Union," Industrial and Labor Relations Review, Vol.48, No.1 (October 1994), pp.28-47;Nick Adnett, "Social Dumping and European Economic Integration," Journal of European Social Policy, Vol.5, No.1 (February 1995), pp.1-12; and Ana M. Guillen and Santiago Alvarez, "Southern European Welfare States Facing Globalization:Is There Social Dumping?" in Roland Sigg and Christina Behrendt eds., Social Security in the Global Village (London:Transaction Publishers,2002), pp.67-82.
② Donaghey and Teague, "The Free Movement of Workers and Social Europe:Maintaining the European Ideal".
①Adnett,"Social Dumping and European Economic Integration".
② Ibid.
① Adnett, "Social Dumping and European Economic Integration".
② Vaughan-Whitehead, EU Enlargement versus Social Europe? The Uncertain Future of the European Social Model, p. 324.
③ Erickson and Kuruvilla, "Labor Costs and the Social Dumping Debate in the European Union"; and Adnett, "Social Dumping and European Economic Integration".
① Adnett, "Social Dumping and European Economic Integration".
② George R. Zodrow and Peter Mieszkowski, "Pigou, Tiebout, Property Taxation, and the Underprovision of Local Public Goods," Journal of Urban Economics, Vol.19, No.3 (May 1986), pp.356-370; John Douglas Wilson, "Theories of Tax Competition," National Tax Journal, Vol.52, No.2 (June 1999), pp.269-304; and George R. Zodrow, "Tax Competition and Tax Coordination in the European Union," International Tax and Public Finance, Vol.10, No.6 (November 2003), pp.651-671.
① Scharpf, "The European Social Model:Coping with the Challenges of Diversity".
② Kleinman, A European Welfare State? European Union Social Policy in Context, p.147.
① Peslieau, The Welfare State in the European Union:Economic and Social Perspective, pp.42-43.
② Kvist, "Does EU Enlargement Start a Race to the Bottom? Strategic Interaction among EU Member States in Social
Policy"; Carrera, "What Does Free Movement Mean in Theory and Practice in an Enlarged EU?" and Donaghey and
Teague, "The Free Movement of Workers and Social Europe:Maintaining the European Ideal".
① Kvist, "Does EU Enlargement Start a Race to the Bottom? Strategic Interaction among EU Member States in Social Policy".
①Kleinman, A European Welfare State? European Union Social Policy in Context, pp.162-166.
①Kleinman, A European Welfare State? European Union Social Policy in Context, pp.181-184.
① Commission of the European Communities, European Social Policy-a Way Forward for the Union:A White Paper, COM (1994) 333 final, Brussels,27 July 1994.
① Maria Jepsen and Amparo Serrano Pascual, "The European Social Model:An Exercise in Deconstruction," Journal of European Social Policy, Vol.15, No.3 (August 2005), pp.231-245.
① Bernd Schulte, "The Welfare State and European Integration," European Journal of Social Security, Vol.1, No.1 (March 1999), pp.7-61.
② Karen J. Alter, "Who Are the'Masters of the Treaty'?:European Governments and the European Court of Justice," International Organization, Vol.52, No.1 (Winter 1998), pp.121-147; Geoffrey Garrett, R. Daniel Kelemen, and Heiner Schulz, "The European Court of Justice, National Governments, and Legal Integration in the European Union," ibid., pp. 149-176; Walter Mattli and Anne-Marie Slaughter, "Revisiting the European Court of Justice," ibid., pp.177-209; and Karen J. Alter, "The European Union's Legal System and Domestic Policy:Spillover or Backlash?" International Organization, Vol.54, No.3 (Summer 2000), pp.489-518.
① Fritz W. Scharpf, "Balancing Positive and Negative Integration:The Regulatory Options for Europe," in Dieter Dettke ed., The Challenge of Globalization for Germany's Social Democracy:A Policy Agenda for the 21st Century (Oxford: Berghahn Books,1998), pp.30-31; Fritz W. Scharpf, "Negative and Positive Integration in the Political Economy," in Gary Marks, Fritz W. Scharpf, Philippe C. Schmitter, and Wolfgang Streeck eds., Governance in the European Union (London:Sage Publications,1998), p.15; and Fritz W. Scharpf, Governing in Europe:Effective and Democratic? (Oxford:Oxford University Press,1999), pp.43-83.
① Jochen Clasen, Reforming European Welfare States:Germany and the United Kingdom Compared (Oxford:Oxford University Press,2005), pp.4-5,24-28,190-192.
② Monica Threlfall, "European Social Integration:Harmonization, Convergence and Single Social Areas," Journal of European Social Policy, Vol.13, No.2 (May 2003), pp.121-139.
① Commission of the European Communities, Growth, Competitiveness, Employment:The Challenges and Ways Forward into the 21st Century-White Paper, COM (1993) 700 final, Brussels,5 December 1993.
② Gerda Falkner, EU Social Policy in the 1990s:Towards a Corporatist Policy Community (London:Routledge,1998), pp.56-57; Scharpf, "The European Social Model:Coping with the Challenges of Diversity"; Caporaso, The European Union:Dilemmas of Regional Integration, p.22; and Kleinman, A European Welfare State? European Union Social Policy in Context, p.84.
③ Jepsen and Pascual, "The European Social Model:An Exercise in Deconstruction".
④ Robert Geyer, "The State of European Union Social Policy", Policy Studies, Vol.21, No.3 (September 2000), pp. 245-261; and Kleinman, A European Welfare State? European Union Social Policy in Context, p.111.
① Doreen Collins, "Towards a European Social Policy," Journal of Common Market Studies, Vol.5, No.1 (September 1966), pp.26-48; Caporaso, The European Union:Dilemmas of Regional Integration, pp.21-23; Kleinman, A European Welfare State? European Union Social Policy in Context, pp.83-85; and Threlfall, "European Social Integration: Harmonization, Convergence and Single Social Areas".
② Giandomenico Majone, "The European Community between Social Policy and Social Regulation," Journal of Common Market Studies, Vo.31, No.2 (June 1993), pp.153-170; and Falkner, EU Social Policy in the 1990s:Towards a Corporatist Policy Community, pp.60-61.
① Falkner, EU Social Policy in the 1990s:Towards a Corporatist Policy Community, pp.57-58.
② Kleinman, A European Welfare State? European Union Social Policy in Context, p.85.
③ Council Directive 68/360/EEC of 15 October 1968 on the abolition of restrictions on movement and residence within the Community for workers of Member States and their families.
④ Council Regulation (EEC) No 1612/68 of the Council of 15 October 1968 on freedom of movement for workers within the Community.
⑤ Council Regulation (EEC) No 1408/71 of the Council of 14 June 1971 on the application of social security schemes to employed persons and their families moving within the Community, Official Journal of the European Communities, L 149,5 July 1971, pp.2-50; and Council Regulation (EEC) No 574/72 of the Council of 21 March 1972 fixing the procedure for implementing Regulation (EEC) No 1408/71 on the application of social security schemes to employed persons and their families moving within the Community, Official Journal of the European Communities, L 74,27 March 1972, pp.1-83.
⑥ Bean, Bentolila, Bertola and Dolado, Social Europe:One for All? pp.3,5-6.
① Commission of the European Communities, Social Action Programme, COM (1973) 1600 final, Brussels,24 October 1973.
② Council Directive 75/117/EEC of 10 February 1975 on the approximation of the laws of the Member States relating to the application of the principle of equal pay for men and women, Official Journal of the European Communities, L 45,19 February 1975, pp.19-20; Council Directive 76/207/EEC of 9 February 1976 on the implementation of the principle of equal treatment for men and women as regards access to employment, vocational training and promotion, and working conditions, Official Journal of the European Communities, L 39,14 February 1976, pp.40-42; Council Directive 79/7/EEC of 19 December 1978 on the progressive implementation of the principle of equal treatment for men and women in matters of social security, Official Journal of the European Communities, L 6,10 January 1979, pp.24-25; Council Directive 86/378/EEC of 24 July 1986 on the implementation of the principle of equal treatment for men and women in occupational social security schemes, Official Journal of the European Communities, L 225,12 august 1986, pp.40-42; and Council Directive 86/613/EEC of 11 December 1986 on the application of the principle of equal treatment between men and women engaged in an activity, including agriculture, in a self-employed capacity, and on the protection of self-employed women during pregnancy and motherhood, Official Journal of the European Communities, L 359,19 December 1986, pp.56-58.
③ Council Directive 75/129/EEC of 17 February 1975 on the approximation of the laws of the Member States relating to collective redundancies, Official Journal of the European Communities, L 48,22 February 1975, pp.29-30.
④ Council Directive 77/187/EEC of 14 February 1977 on the approximation of the laws of the Member States relating to the safeguarding of employees' rights in the event of transfers of undertakings, businesses or parts of businesses, Official Journal of the European Communities, L 61,5 March 1977, pp.26-28; and Council Directive 80/987/EEC of 20 October 1980 on the approximation of the laws of the Member States relating to the protection of employees in the event of the insolvency of their employer, Official Journal of the European Communities, L283,28 October 1980, pp.23-27.
⑤ Bean, Bentolila, Bertola and Dolado, Social Europe:One for All? pp.3,6-7; and Falkner, EU Social Policy in the 1990s:Towards a Corporatist Policy Community, pp.61-62.
⑥ Kleinman, A European Welfare State? European Union Social Policy in Context, p.85.
① Alasdair R. Young, "The Single Market," in Helen Wallace, William Wallace and Mark A. Pollack eds., Policy-Making in the European Union, Fifth Edition (Oxford:Oxford University Press,2005), pp.95-96; and Brian Ardy and Ali El-Agraa, "The Economics of the Single Market," in Ali M. El-Agraa ed., The European Union:Economics and Policies, Eighth Edition (Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,2007), pp.130-131.
② Kleinman, A European Welfare State? European Union Social Policy in Context, p.85.
③ Jorn Henrik Petersen, "Harmonization of Social Security in the EC Revisited," Journal of Common Market Studies, Vol. 29, No.5 (September 1991), pp.505-526.
④ Caporaso, The European Union:Dilemmas of Regional Integration, p.25; and Kleinman, A European Welfare State? European Union Social Policy in Context, pp.85-86.
⑤ Kleinman, A European Welfare State? European Union Social Policy in Context, pp.86-87.
① Commission of the European Communities, Completing the Internal Market:White Paper from the Commission to the European Council, COM (1985) 310 final, Brussels,14 June 1985.
② Majone, "The European Community between Social Policy and Social Regulation"; Falkner, EU Social Policy in the 1990s:Towards a Corporatist Policy Community, pp.58-60;Caporaso, The European Union:Dilemmas of Regional Integration, pp.25-26; and Kleinman, A European Welfare State? European Union Social Policy in Context, p.87.
③ Kleinman, A European Welfare State? European Union Social Policy in Context, p.87.
① Commission of the European Communities, Communication from the Commission Concerning Its Action Programme Relating to the Implementation of the Community Charter of Basic Social Rights for Workers, COM (1989) 568 final, Brussels,29 November 1989.
② Majone, "The European Community between Social Policy and Social Regulation"; Falkner, EU Social Policy in the 1990s:Towards a Corporatist Policy Community, pp.66-68; Caporaso, The European Union:Dilemmas of Regional Integration, pp.25; and Kleinman, A European Welfare State? European Union Social Policy in Context, pp.87-88.
③ Council Directive 89/391/EEC of 12 June 1989 on the introduction of measures to encourage improvements in the safety and health of workers at work, Official Journal of the European Communities, L 183,29 June 1989, pp.1-8.
④ Council Directive 91/533/EEC of 14 October 1991 on an employer's obligation to inform employees of the conditions applicable to the contract or employment relationship, Official Journal of the European Communities, L 288,18 October 1991, pp.32-35.
⑤ Council Directive 92/56/EEC of 24 June 1992 amending Directive 75/129/EEC on the approximation of the laws of the Member States relating to collective redundancies, Official Journal of the European Communities, L 245,26 August 1992, pp.3-5.
⑥ Council Directive 93/104/EC of 23 November 1993 concerning certain aspects of the organization of working time, Official Journal of the European Communities, L 307,13 December 1993, pp.18-24.
⑦ Council Directive 94/33/EC of 22 June 1994 on the protection of young people at work, Official Journal of the European Communities, L 216,20 August 1994, pp.12-20.
⑧ Bean, Bentolila, Bertola and Dolado, Social Europe:One for All? pp.3-4.
⑨ Falkner, EU Social Policy in the 1990s:Towards a Corporatist Policy Community, pp.78-79; Caporaso, The European Union:Dilemmas of Regional Integration, p.26; and Kleinman, A European Welfare State? European Union Social Policy in Context, pp.88-89.
⑩ Falkner, EU Social Policy in the 1990s:Towards a Corporatist Policy Community, p.81; and Kleinman, A European Welfare State? European Union Social Policy in Context, p.89.
11 Falkner, EU Social Policy in the 1990s:Towards a Corporatist Policy Community, pp.79-96; and Kleinman, A European Welfare State? European Union Social Policy in Context, p.89.
① Commission of the European Communities, Communication from the Commission to the Council, the European Parliament, the Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions:Medium Term Social Action Programme 1995-1997, COM (1995) 134 final, Brussels,12 April 1995.
② Council Directive 94/45/EC of 22 September 1994 on the establishment of a European Works Council or a procedure in Community-scale undertakings and Community-scale groups of undertakings for the purposes of informing and consulting employees, Official Journal of the European Communities, L 254,30 September 1994, pp.64-72.
③ Council Directive 96/34/EC of 3 June 1996 on the framework agreement on parental leave concluded by UNICE, CEEP and the ETUC, Official Journal of the European Communities, L 145,19 June 1996, pp.4-9.
④ Council Directive 97/80/EC of 15 December 1997 on the burden of proof in cases of discrimination based on sex, Official Journal of the European Communities, L 14,20 January 1998, pp.6-8.
⑤ Council Directive 96/97/EC of 20 December 1996 amending Directive 86/378/EEC on the implementation of the principle of equal treatment for men and women in occupational social security schemes, Official Journal of the European Communities, L 46,17 February 1997, pp.20-24; and Council Directive 97/81/EC of 15 December 1997 concerning the Framework Agreement on part-time work concluded by UNICE, CEEP and the ETUC, Official Journal of the European Communities, L 14,20 January 1998, pp.9-14.
⑥ Bean, Bentolila, Bertola and Dolado, Social Europe:One for All? pp.4,8-9.
⑦ Falkner, EU Social Policy in the 1990s:Towards a Corporatist Policy Community, pp.79-80; and Kleinman, A European Welfare State? European Union Social Policy in Context, p.89.
⑧ Bean, Bentolila, Bertola and Dolado, Social Europe:One for All? p.4; and Kleinman, A European Welfare State? European Union Social Policy in Context, pp.89-90.
⑨ Ardy and El-Agraa, "The Economics of the Single Market," p.135.
① Ardy and El-Agraa, "The Economics of the Single Market," p.135.
② Kleinman, A European Welfare State? European Union Social Policy in Context, p.93.
③ Commission of the European Communities, Communication from the Commission:Social Action Programme 1998-2000, COM (1998) 259 final, Brussels,29 April 1998.
④ Kleinman, A European Welfare State? European Union Social Policy in Context, p.101.
① Falkner, EU Social Policy in the 1990s:Towards a Corporatist Policy Community, pp.71-72; and Janine Goetschy, "The European Employment Strategy:Genesis and Development," European Journal of Industrial Relations, Vol.5, No. 2 (July 1999), pp.117-137.
② Michael Glod, "Social Partnership at the EU Level:Initiatives, Problems and Implications for Member States," in David Hime and Hussein Kassim eds., Beyond the Market (London:Routledge,1998), pp.107-133.
① Commission of the European Communities, Communication from the Commission:Adapting and Promoting the Social Dialogue at Community Level, COM (1998) 322 final, Brussels,20 May 1998.
② Goetschy, "The European Employment Strategy:Genesis and Development".
① James S. Mosher and David M. Trubek, "Alternative Approaches to Governance in the EU:EU Social Policy and the European Employment Strategy," Journal of Common Market Studies, Vol.41, No.1 (March 2003). pp.63-88; and David M. Trubek and Louise G.Trubek, "Hard and Soft Law in the Construction of Social Europe:The Role of the Open Method of Co-ordination," European Law Journal, Vol.11, No.3 (May 2005), pp.343-364.
② Ibid.
③ Youri Devuyst, "The Community-Method after Amsterdam," Journal of Common Market Studies, Vol.37, No:1 (March 1999), pp.109-120; Dermot Hodson and Imelda Maher, "The Open Method as a New Mode of Governance:The Case of Soft Economic Policy Co-ordination," Journal of Common Market Studies, Vol.39, No.4 (November 2001), pp. 719-746; Burkard Eberlein and Dieter Kerwer, "New Governance in the European Union:A Theoretical Perspective," Journal of Common Market Studies, Vol.42, No.1 (March 2004), pp.121-142; Susana Borras and Kerstin Jacobsson, "The Open Method of Co-ordination and New Governance Patterns in the EU," Journal of European Public Policy, Vol. 11, No.2 (April 2004), pp.185-208; and Erika Szyszczak, "Experimental Governance:The Open Method of Coordination," European Law Journal, Vol.12, No.4 (July 2006), pp.486-502.
① Commission of the European Communities, Community-Wide Framework for Employment, COM (1993) 238 final, Brussels,26 May 1993.
② Goetschy, "The European Employment Strategy:Genesis and Development".
③ Ibid.
① Goetschy, "The European Employment Strategy:Genesis and Development"; Janine Goetschy, "The European Employment Strategy from Amsterdam to Stockholm:Has It Reached Its Cruising Speed?" Industrial Relations Journal, Vol.32, No.5 (December 2001), pp.401-418; Mosher and Trubek, "Alternative Approaches to Governance in the EU: EU Social Policy and the European Employment Strategy"; Caroline de la Porte and Patrizia Nanz, "The OMC-a Deliberative-Democratic Mode of Governance? The Cases of Employment and Pensions," Journal of European Public Policy, Vol.11, No.2 (April 2004), pp.267-288; and Andrew Watt, "Reform of the European Employment Strategy after Five Years:A Change of Course or Merely of Presentation?" European Journal of Industrial Relations, Vol.10, No.2 (July 2004), pp.117-137.
① Goetschy, "The European Employment Strategy:Genesis and Development"; Mosher and Trubek, "Alternative Approaches to Governance in the EU:EU Social Policy and the European Employment Strategy"; Porte and Nanz, "The OMC-a Deliberative-Democratic Mode of Governance? The Cases of Employment and Pensions"; and Watt, "Reform of the European Employment Strategy after Five Years:A Change of Course or Merely of Presentation?"
② Council Regulation (EEC) No 1408/71 of the Council of 14 June 1971 on the application of social security schemes to employed persons and their families moving within the Community.
③ Council Recommendation of 27 July 1992 on the convergence of social protection objectives and policies, Official Journal of the European Communities, L 245,26 August 1992, pp.49-52.
④ Commission of the European Communities, Communication from the Commission:Modernizing and Improving Social Protection in the European Union.
⑤ Council Decision of 29 June 2000 setting up a Social Protection Committee, Official Journal of the European Communities, L 172,12 July 2000, pp.26-27.
① Council Regulation (EEC) No 1390/81 of 12 May 1981 extending to self-employed persons and members of their families Regulation (EEC) No 1408/71 on the application of social security schemes to employed persons and their families moving within the Community, Official Journal of the European Communities,;L 143,29 May 1981, pp.1-32.
② Council Directive 98/49/EC of 29 June 1998 on safeguarding the supplementary pension rights of employed and self-employed persons moving within the Community, Official Journal of the European Communities, L 209,25 July 1998, pp.46-49.
③ Council Regulation (EC) No 883/2004 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 29 April 2004 on the coordination of social security systems, Official Journal of the European Union, L 166,30 April 2004, pp.1-123.
④ Commission of the European Communities, Communication from the Commission to the Council, the European Parliament and the Economic and Social Committee:Supporting National Strategies for Safe and Sustainable Pensions through an Integrated Approach, COM (2001) 362 final, Brussels,3 July 2001.
⑤ Porte and Nanz, "The OMC-a Deliberative-Democratic Mode of Governance? The Cases of Employment and Pensions".
① Liesbet Hooghe, "Introduction:Reconciling EU-Wide Policy and National Diversity," in Liesbet Hooghe ed., Cohesion Policy and European Integration:Building Multi-Level Governance (Oxford:Oxford University Press,1996), p.6.
② European Commission, Cohesion Policy 2007-13-Commentaries and Official Texts (Luxembourg:Office for Official
Publications of the European Communities,2007).
③ Council Regulation (EC) No 2012/2002 of 11 November 2002 establishing the European Union Solidarity Fund, Official Journal of the European Communities, L 311,14 November 2002, pp.3-8.
④ Council Regulation (EC) No 1164/94 of 16 May 1994 establishing a Cohesion Fund, Official Journal of the European Communities, L 130,25 May 1994, pp.1-13.
⑤ Council Regulation (EC) No 1264/1999 of 21 June 1999 amending Regulation (EC) No 1164/94 establishing a Cohesion Fund, Official Journal of the European Communities, L 161,26 June 1999, pp.57-61.
⑥ Council Regulation (EC) No 1083/2006 of 11 July 2006 laying down general provisions on the European Regional Development Fund, the European Social Fund and the Cohesion Fund and repealing Regulation (EC) No 1260/1999, Official Journal of the European Union, L 210,31 July 2006, pp.25-78.
⑦ Kleinman, A European Welfare State? European Union Social Policy in Context, pp.116-117.
⑧ Jeffrey J. Anderson, "Structural Funds and the Social Dimension of EU Policy:Springboard or Stumbling Block?" in Stephan Leibfried and Paul Pierson eds., European Social Policy:Between Fragmentation and Integration (Washington, D.C.:The Brookings Institution,1995), pp.123-158.
① Jacqueline Brine, The European Social Fund and the EU:Flexibility, Growth, Stability (London:Sheffield Academic Press,2002), pp.11-12.
② Kleinman, A European Welfare State? European Union Social Policy in Context, p.85.
③ Fiona Wishlade, "EU Cohesion Policy:Facts, Figures, and Issues," in Liesbet Hooghe ed., Cohesion Policy and European Integration:Building Multi-Level Governance (Oxford:Oxford University Press,1996), pp.29-30.
④ Brine, The European Social Fund and the EU:Flexibility, Growth, Stability, p.12.
⑤ Wishlade, "EU Cohesion Policy:Facts, Figures, and Issues," p.33.
⑥ Council Regulation (EEC) No 2052/88 of 24 June 1988 on the tasks of the Structural Funds and their effectiveness and on coordination of their activities between themselves and with the operations of the European Investment Bank and the other existing financial instruments, Official Journal of the European Communities, L 185,15 July 1988, pp.9-20.
⑦ Council Regulation (EEC) No 2081/93 of 20 July 1993 amending Regulation (EEC) No 2052/88 on the tasks of the Structural Funds and their effectiveness and on coordination of their activities between themselves and with the operations of the European Investment Bank and the other existing financial instruments, Official Journal of the European Union, L 193,31 July 1993, pp.5-19.
① Council Regulation (EC) No 1260/1999 of 21 June 1999 laying down general provisions on the Structural Funds, Official Journal of the European Communities, L 161,26 June 1999, pp.1-42.
② Council Regulation (EC) No 1083/2006 of 11 July 2006 laying down general provisions on the European Regional Development Fund, the European Social Fund and the Cohesion Fund and repealing Regulation (EC) No 1260/1999, Official Journal of the European Union, L 210,31 July 2006, pp.25-78.
③ Kleinman, A European Welfare State? European Union Social Policy in Context, p.114.
④ Commission of the European Communities, Communication from the Commission:Community Structural Assistance and Employment, COM (1996) 109 final, Brussels,20 March 1996.
⑤ Goetschy, "The European Employment Strategy:Genesis and Development".
①Kleinman, A European Welfare State? European Union Social Policy in Context, pp.114-119.
①Kleinman, A European Welfare State? European Union Social Policy in Context, pp.28-29.
① Kleinman, A European Welfare State? European Union Social Policy in Context, pp.30-31.
② Paul Pierson, "Post-Industrial Pressures on the Mature Welfare States," in Paul Pierson ed., The New Politics of the Welfare State (Oxford:Oxford University Press,2001), pp.80-104; and Peter Taylor-Gooby, "New Risks and Social Change," in Peter Taylor-Gooby ed., New Risks, New Welfare:The Transformation of the European Welfare State (Oxford: Oxford University Press,2004), pp.1-28.
① Bent Greve, "Indications of Social Policy Convergence in Europe," Social Policy & Administration, Vol.30, No.4 (December 1996), pp.348-367.
① Decision No 189 of 18 June 2003 aimed at introducing a European health insurance card to replace the forms necessary for the application of Council Regulations (EEC) No 1408/71 and (EEC) No 574/72 as regards access to health care during a temporary stay in a Member State other than the competent State or the State of residence, Official Journal of the European Union, L 276,27 October 2003, pp.1-3; Decision No 190 of 18 June 2003 concerning the technical specifications of the European health insurance card, Official Journal of the European Union, L 276,27 October 2003, pp. 4-18; and Decision No 191 of 18 June 2003 concerning the replacement of forms E 111 and E 111 B by the European health insurance card, Official Journal of the European Union, L 276,27 October 2003, pp.19-21.
② Stephan Leibfried and Paul Pierson, "Semisovereign Welfare States:Social Policy in a Multitiered Europe," in Stephan Leibfried and Paul Pierson eds., European Social Policy:Between Fragmentation and Integration (Washington, D.C.: The Brookings Institution,1995), pp.43-65.
①Leibfried and Pierson, "Semisovereign Welfare States:Social Policy in a Multitiered Europe", pp.65-70.
②Ibid., pp.70-74.
① Greve, "Indications of Social Policy Convergence in Europe".
② Kleinman, A European Welfare State? European Union Social Policy in Context, pp.37-40.
①Kleinman, A European Welfare State? European Union Social Policy in Context, pp.40-43.
① Kleinman, A European Welfare State? European Union Social Policy in Context, pp.52-57.
② Peslieau, The Welfare State in the European Union:Economic and Social Perspective, pp.31-33.
① Greve, "Indications of Social Policy Convergence in Europe".
② Peslieau, The Welfare State in the European Union:Economic and Social Perspective, pp.102-115.
③ Ibid., pp.116-124.
① Peslieau, The Welfare State in the European Union:Economic and Social Perspective, pp.125-136.
② Ibid., pp.137-145.
③ Greve, "Indications of Social Policy Convergence in Europe".
① Vaughan-Whitehead, EU Enlargement versus Social Europe? The Uncertain Future of the European Social Model, pp. 109-163.
① Fritz W. Scharpf, "Economic Changes, Vulnerabilities, and Institutional Capabilities," in Fritz W. Scharpf and Vivien A. Schmidt eds., Welfare and Work in the Open Economy, VOL. I (Oxford:Oxford University Press,2000), pp.21-124.
② European Communities, The Social Situation in the European Union 2005-2006:The Balance between Generations in an Ageing Europe (Luxembourg:Office for Official Publications of the European Communities,2007), p.52.
③ European Communities, Joint Report on Social Protection and Social Inclusion 2008:Social Inclusion, Pensions, Healthcare and Long-Term Care (Luxembourg:Office for Official Publications of the European Communities,2008), pp. 38-39.
① Neill Nugent, The Government and Politics of the European Union (Durham:Duke University Press,2006), pp. 438-439.
①Nugent, The Government and Politics of the European Union, pp.430,439-441.
① John Lambert, "The Constitutional Crisis:1965-66," Journal of Common Market Studies, Vol.4, No.3 (May 1966), pp. 195-228; Anthony L. Teasdale, "The Life and Death of the Luxembourg Compromise," Journal of Common Market Studies, Vol.31, No.4 (December 1993), pp.567-579; and Mark Gilbert, Surpassing Realism:The Politics of European Integration since 1945 (Lanham:Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc.,2003), pp.88-89,107-108.
② Lambert, "The Constitutional Crisis:1965-66"; Teasdale, "The Life and Death of the Luxembourg Compromise"; and Gilbert, Surpassing Realism:The Politics of European Integration since 1945, pp.104-107.
① Lambert, "The Constitutional Crisis:1965-66"; Teasdale, "The Life and Death of the Luxembourg Compromise"; and Gilbert, Surpassing Realism:The Politics of European Integration since 1945, pp.108-111.
② Nugent, The Government and Politics of the European Union, p.431.
① Nugent, The Government and Politics of the European Union, pp.430,-455-482; David Colman, "The Common Agricultural Policy," in Mike Artis and Frederick Nixson eds., The Economics of the European Union:Policy and Analysis, Fourth Edition (Oxford:Oxford University Press,2007), pp.77-104.
② Gilbert, Surpassing Realism:The Politics of European Integration since 1945, pp.160-161; and G.J. Croxford, M. Wise, and B. S. Chalkley, "The Reform of the European Regional Development Fund:A Preliminary Assessment," Journal of Common Market Studies, Vol.26, No.1 (September 1987), pp.25-38.
①Gilbert, Surpassing Realism:The Politics of European Integration since 1945, pp.161-162.
②Ibid., pp.163-164.
①Nugent, The Government and Politics of the European Union, pp.431-433.
①Nugent, The Government and Politics of the European Union, pp.433-438.
① Nugent, The Government and Politics of the European Union, pp.43-44.
② Ibid., pp.80-81,180-184; Chris Allen, Michael Gasiorek and Alasdair Smith, "The Competition Effects of the Single Market in Europe," Economic Policy, Vol.13, No.27 (October 1998), pp.439-486; and Ginsberg, Demystifying the European Union:The Enduring Logic of Regional Integration, pp.230-235.
③ Nugent, The Government and Politics of the European Union, pp.82-93; Ginsberg, Demystifying the European Union: The Enduring Logic of Regional Integration, pp.247-254; Peter B. Kenen, Economic and Monetary Union in Europe: Moving Beyond Maastricht (Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1995), pp.19-20; and Grauwe, Economics of Monetary Union, pp.144-150.
① Anthony L. Teasdale, "Subsidiarity in Post-Maastricht Europe," Political Quarterly, Vol.64, No.2 (April 1993), pp. 187-197.
① Teasdale, "Subsidiarity in Post-Maastricht Europe"; Kees van Kersbergen and Bertjan Verbeek, "The Politics of Subsidiarity in the European Union," Journal of Common Market Studies, Vol.32, No.2 (June 1994), pp.215-236; and Kees van Kersbergen and Bertjan Verbeek, "Subsidiarity as a Principle of Governance in the European Union," Comparative European Politics, Vol.2, No.2 (August 2004), pp.142-162.
② Kersbergen and Verbeek, "Subsidiarity as a Principle of Governance in the European Union".
③ John Peterson and Michael Shackleton, The Institutions of the European Union (Oxford:Oxford University Press, 2006), p.3.
① Nugent, The Government and Politics of the European Union, pp.84-85,93-95.
② Ibid., p.106.
③ Geoffrey Garrett, "From the Luxembourg Compromise to Codecision:Decision Making in the European Union," Electoral Studies, Vol.14, No.3 (September 1995), pp.289-308; Geoffrey Garrett and George Tsebelis, "An Institutional Critique of Intergovernmentalism," International Organization, Vol.50, No.2 (Spring 1996), pp.269-299; and George Tsebelis and Geoffrey Garrett, "Agenda Setting Power, Power Indices, and Decision Making in the European Union," International Review of Law and Economics, Vol.16, No.3 (September 1996), pp.345-361.
① Ibid.
② Ibid.; John Fitzmaurice, "An Analysis of the European Community's Co-operation Procedure," Journal of Common Market Studies, Vol.26, No.4 (June 1988), pp.389-400; Christophe Crombez, "Legislative Procedures in the European Community," British Journal of Political Science, Vol.26, No.2 (April 1996), pp.199-228.; and Nugent, The Government and Politics of the European Union, pp.81,87,242-243,400-405.
③ Garrett, "From the Luxembourg Compromise to Codecision:Decision Making in the European Union"; Garrett and Tsebelis, "An Institutional Critique of Intergovernmentalism"; and Tsebelis and Garrett, "Agenda Setting Power, Power Indices, and Decision Making in the European Union".
①.Garrett, "From the Luxembourg Compromise to Codecision:Decision Making in the European Union"; Garrett and Tsebelis, "An Institutional Critique of Intergovernmentalism"; Tsebelis and Garrett, "Agenda Setting Power, Power Indices, and Decision Making in the European Union"; Crombez, "Legislative Procedures in the European Community"; Wolfgang Wessels, "Nice Results:The Millennium IGC in the EU's Evolution," Journal of Common Market Studies, Vol. 39, No.2 (June 2001), pp.197-219; and Nugent, The Government and Politics of the European Union, pp.81,87,112, 243-244,413-414.
② Fitzmaurice, "An Analysis of the European Community's Co-operation Procedure"; Garrett, "From the Luxembourg Compromise to Codecision:Decision Making in the European Union"; Garrett and Tsebelis, "An Institutional Critique of Intergovernmentalism"; Tsebelis and Garrett, "Agenda Setting Power, Power Indices, and Decision Making in the European Union"; Crombez, "Legislative Procedures in the European Community"; and Nugent, The Government and Politics of the European Union, pp.81,87,100,243.
① Garrett, "From the Luxembourg Compromise to Codecision:Decision Making in the European Union"; Garrett and Tsebelis, "An Institutional Critique of Intergovernmentalism"; Tsebelis and Garrett, "Agenda Setting Power, Power Indices, and Decision Making in the European Union"; Crombez, "Legislative Procedures in the European Community"; and Nugent, The Government and Politics of the European Union, pp.87,100,111-112,243,407-413.
①Nugent, The Government and Politics of the European Union, pp.87,100,101-102,111.
①Stephen D. Krasner, Sovereignty:Organized Hypocrisy (Princeton, N.J.:Princeton University Press,1999).
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Anthony L. Teasdale, "Subsidiarity in Post-Maastricht Europe," Political Quarterly, Vol. 64, No.2 (April 1993), pp.187-197.
Anthony L. Teasdale, "The Life and Death of the Luxembourg Compromise," Journal of Common Market Studies, Vol.31, No.4 (December 1993), pp.567-579.
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