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美国刑事商业性私人参与研究与借鉴
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摘要
“刑事商业性私人参与”在我国实在法层面是个空概念,但法律研究应以问题为导向,而不应被概念画地为牢。如何丰富权利实现手段、扩大人权保障是我国刑事理论需要回应的核心问题。刑事商业性私人参与制度,是美国刑事司法的一大特色,其多样化的实践和取得的丰富经验为我们提供了有益的借鉴。本文将“商业”、“私人”概念引入刑事理论研究,尝试从国家视角切换至市场视角观察刑事司法,探索借助市场手段解决我国刑事司法中某些疑难问题的可能性。
     本论文除前言和结语外,分为上、中、下三篇共八章。
     前言首先以案例入手引出问题,交待选题的缘起。通过分析案例,探寻理论界长期以来对类似问题难以破解的方法论失误,即局限于国家视角,而忽略了从市场视角、在司法机关之外寻找出路。进而引出本论题“刑事商业性私人研究”,就是从国家视角切换至市场视角的一个尝试。接着,前言部分对本文关键词包括“刑事”、“刑事私人参与”、“刑事商业性私人参与”等作了界定。
     上篇是叙事,对美国刑事商业性私人参与之现实图景作了全景扫描,包括第一、二、三章,包括第一、二、三章,分别考察了刑事证据调查中的商业性私人参与,即私人侦探;刑事强制措施中的商业性私人参与,即商业保释;刑罚执行中的商业性私人参与,即监狱私营。
     美国商业性刑事私人参与的产生与发展,可归因于公共刑事司法系统的缺陷为其创造的机遇和留下的空间。美国私人侦探产生于近代警察制度所形成的“空隙”;商业保释克服了传统保释制度的缺陷,增加了被告人在不能提供保证人或交付保释金时获得释放的机会;私营监狱避免了刑罚执行中监狱人满为患的尴尬。
     任何一种刑事商业性私人参与自其产生之日起,就毁誉并存、贬褒不一:私人侦探曾被贬低为“一个法律反常物、宪法的对立面”、“半封建的私人武装”、“在最好的情况下,是一种必要的害,在最坏的情况下,就可能是不可容忍的恶”;赏金猎人被曲解为“下流的人生”、“是对公民权利的一个不受控制的威胁”;商业保释被指责为“以金钱换自由”、“对贫穷和中等收入被告造成歧视”、“侵犯法官保释决定权”、“引起法官腐败问题”等等;私营监狱则因其配备的“警卫缺乏训练、滥用权力”、“对囚犯进行非人道对待”而丑闻缠身,美国审计总署关于“没有任何确切的证据可以证明私营监狱比公营监狱便宜很多”的结论使监狱私营业的前景更加难以预测。
     尽管障碍重重,美国的商业性私人参与却在强烈的质疑声中顽强生长并勃发生机,造就了美国刑事司法的特色。目前,美国的侦探公司超过3000家,私人侦探(含私人保安)人数达160多万,是美国正规警察人数的3倍;美国的私人侦探服务辐射全球,甚至介入调查跨国政府丑闻及官员腐败案;其发挥着犯罪调查、辩护取证、预防犯罪的作用,是美国刑事司法系统中不可忽视的力量。商业保释存在于美国大部分州,全国共有商业保释担保人约8000人,该行业每年吸纳40亿美元,净利润每年达4亿美元;美国司法统计局2006年数据显示,在美国最大的75个县中,审前释放的重罪被告中42%依赖于商业保释。截止2001年7月,美国的私人监狱达185个,关押犯人28.5万人。美国私营监狱收容人数达美国州及联邦监狱总收容人数的6.8%;据美国媒体2009年10月23日报道,美国亚利桑那州目前正打算公开招标,让私人监管公司来竞争全州9个监狱中心的运营权。因此,商业性私人参与深刻地影响了美国刑事司法是不争的事实。
     中篇是析理,对刑事商业性私人参与作了深层次的理论挖掘,包括第四、五、六章,分别检视了刑事商业性私人参与的的政治哲学根基、法理基础和经济学依据。
     商业性私人参与的政治哲学根基是自由主义思想。美国经久不衰的自由主义思想及其长期坚持的“弱国家”传统,为美国刑事商业性私人参与提供了生长土壤。18世纪兴盛的古典自由主义及其关于国家“守夜人”角色的理论,成为美国刑事商业性私人参与产生的思想基础。20世纪初古典自由主义式微,到30年代凯恩斯主义兴起,国家职能扩张,刑事商业性私人参与受到质疑与挑战。20世纪70年代以来新自由主义的复兴,美国私人侦探业和商业保释业得以摆脱行业危机,迎来转机,合法性地位获得确认。
     商业性私人参与的法理基础是私力救济理论。商业性私人参与的正当性追问,要还原为公力救济与私力救济关系问题。公力救济与私力救济在历史发展中此消彼长,私力救济经历了由市场独占到被压抑再到受尊重,而公力救济则从市场缺位到压迫性公力救济再到谦抑性公力救济。私力救济并不与公权力完全对立,而作为其有效补充,并构成国家权力的末梢和延伸。良性私力救济是在公力救济缺位或无效时,人们出于最低的自我保护本能,而实施的不妨害社会安宁并为社会可接受的行为。私人侦探和商业保释属于良性私力救济。确认和发展商业性私人参与,是国家的统治策略,是通过私人行为实现社会控制的技术。
     支撑商业性私人参与最为直接的理论是法律经济学。法律经济学将经济分析方法引入法律学科,给人们带来观念上的突破。科斯开创性地将法律权利与经济效益进行关联考察;贝克尔将经济分析法推广于全部人类行为,波斯纳以效率为导向构建了庞大的法律经济学理论体系。法律经济学者以效益最大化作为检验法律规则的标准,研究了各类法律规则的成本与收益,将经济学原理渗透到了所有的法律规则和法条之中。法律经济学理论的广泛传播,为刑事商业性私人参与的确立和持续发展扫清了道路。刑事商业性私人参与能够扩大国家刑事司法资源总量,增强国家的刑罚能力,促进刑事司法资源使用效率,提升刑事司法质量,从经济分析角度而言,是促进资源有效配置的制度安排。
     下篇是建制,以美国经验为借鉴,创设中国特色的刑事商业性私人参与制度,包括第七、八章,分别论证了中国创设“私人侦探”和商业取保制度的必要性,并作了具体构想。
     与美国一样,中国刑事司法中也存在司法资源紧缺、效率不佳、权利保护不充分等不足,公共司法的这些缺陷为中国引入和发展商业性私人参与创造了机遇。中国私人侦探在20世纪90年代曾经昙花一现,1993年公安部发布了[1993]91号文明令禁止开设“私人侦探性质的民间机构”。中国的私人侦探从此转入地下,暗中经营,在夹缝中生存,存在法律地位不明、行为不规范、执业风险巨大的问题。虽然私人侦探为社会管理带来难题,引发一些社会矛盾,但私人侦探的积极意义不容忽视。中国刑事调查存在“无为”状态,包括公安检查取证中存在警员不足、无力作为;法律漏洞、不能作为;曲解法律、失职不为;误解法律、消极不为;律师取证、少有作为;被害人取证、难有作为。由此激发对私人侦探的现实需求,应当允许私人侦探介入刑事取证。其积极意义包括:能有效弥补公安检查取证不足;构成对公安检查机关的监督;帮助被害人准备证据;增强被告人的取证能力。在中国创设私人侦探制度,必须进行相应的理念更新。一是重新整理国家刑罚权,以谦抑性公力救济观柔化国家刑罚权,摒弃刑罚权国家垄断理念;二是理清国家侦查权与私人调查权的关系,确立侦查权包容私人调查取证权的观念。
     中国现行取保候审的实践不如人意,表现为:取保候审适用条件掌握严苛,取保候审率低;保证方式适用性差;取保候审执行监管流于形式,被取保人处于失控状态。商业保释在美国刑事司法中产生的社会效应,就感观上而言,正好能够针对性的”治疗”中国取保候审的弊病:中国取保候审率低——商业保释使更多的人获得审前释放;中国现行保证方式适用性差——商业保释为普通公民获得保释提供方便之门;中国取保候审执行监管不力——商业保释能够对被保释人实施有效监管,实现社会控制。鉴于此,我们应当以引入商业保释作为中国取中候审制度突围解困的最佳选择。构建中国特色的商业取保制度,有利于建立保证人选任的市场化机制,实现保证人选任上的“从身份到契约”、“从无偿到市场”的转变;对被取保人而言,取保低成本、脱逃高代价;对司法机关而言,有助于转移成本、分散风险,减少其在扩大适用取保候审时的顾虑。
     我国“商业取保”的基本构想是:国家允许商业担保人以营利为目的在取保候审的运作中提供保证服务;商业担保人可以是经批准持有证照的个人或保险公司;商业担保人与被保证人签订保证服务合同,被保证人支付约定的保证费用并提供附属担保,承诺取保候审批准后遵守取保候审法律规定,授权商业担保人对其进行监管,授权商业担保人在被保证人脱逃时对其实施抓捕;保证人的义务是以取保候审保证人身份签署公安司法机关核定的保证书,按公安司法机关要求的金额开具银行存单,并将存单质押于执行机关,在被保证人违反取保候审法律规定时,执行机关通知保证人在6个月内缴付保证书中确定的保证金金额;执行机关在发出保证金缴付通知后应及时发布对脱逃人的通缉令,商业担保人可以组织人员对被保证人实施抓捕扭送,被保证人在法定期限内被扭送归案的,保证人免除保证责任。
     结语刑事商业性私人参与在美国是一个颇具争议却旺盛生长的事物,其产生和发展的历史反射出公共刑事司法系统的缺陷,其已成为美国刑事司法中不可忽视的力量这一客观事实,证明“商业”、“私人”嵌入刑事领域的可能性。随着市场经济的深化发展、政治体制改革的进一步深入和司法理念的革新和突破,中国刑事商业性私人参与也将展现出广阔的发展前景。
Judged from chinese existing law, the concept of Commmercial Private Participation inCriminal Justice (hereafter refered to as CPPCJ) includes nothing. However, legal researchshould be guided by question rather than refrained by conception. How to add the methods torealize right and inhance human protection is a core question to which respond should makeby the chinese crimial theory. The system of Commmercial Private Participation (hereafterrefered to as CPP) is a distinguishing feature in U.S. crimial justice. The variety practice andsuccessful experience pravide us with beneficial reference. The author introduced the notionof commerce and private into study on criminal theory, and made a try to shft the perspectivefrom government to market to examine criminal justice, with the expactation to probe theprobably to problems in criminal justice in China through market.
     Apart from introduction and conclusion, this thesis consists of3parts and8chapters alltogether.
     Introduction In order to explain the topic selection of this thesis, the author firstlydrows out questions from case study. Secondly, the author points out the the wrongmethodology in the academic circle which leads them unable to solve the similar questionsdiscussed above, i.e. being limitted by the state perspective, and disregard the marketperspective, as well as failed to find the way out from outside of state organs. The study inthis thesis is a try to shft the perspective from government to market. Lastly, the authordefines the key words in this thesis such as crimanl affairs, crimanal private participation,commmercial private participation in criminal justice and so on.
     Part1is a narration, which gives a panoramic view of the the CPPCJ in U.S., andincludes chapter1, chapter2, and chapter3. Chapter1observse and studies the CPP incriminal investigation in U.S.from4aspects including the history, the relationship betweenthe Police and Pravite Detective, its function and the legal regulation to the Pravite Detectivein U.S.. Chapter2combs out the CPP in criminal coercive measure from4respects includingits history, reality, legal regulation and its function. Chapter3goes along the history venationof Private Prison, and tracks down the Private Prison in the early colonial period, and observse and studies the Private Prison between18centry and early20centry, as well asrecounts its development of the time.
     The creation and development of the CPPCJ in U.S., can be attributable to to the failureof public criminal justice system. The birth of Private Detective in U.S. was attributed tothe gap created by the police in modern times. The Commercial Bail overcomes the defectsof traditional bail, and increases the chances to get free for the arrestee when he can notprovides guarantor or afford the bail amount. The Private Prison makes the criminal justicesystem avoids the trouble of overpopulation in prison.
     Every CPPCJ in U.S. was praises and blames simultaneously from its creation. thePrivate Detective was once degradeed as "a legal anomaly, a constitutional contradiction","ahalf feudal armed forces "," at best a necessary evil, and at worst an inexcusable one".Bounty hunter was distorted as "a scurrilous life","uncontrolled threaten to civil right ".Commercial Bail was scolded as "exchange money for freedom "," discrimination againstthe poor and middle-income defendant","infringe upon the decision power of judge","causejudge corruption" and so forth. Meanwhile, the future of Private Prison was evenunpredictable because of "its guard lack of training", the scandal of "uhuman treatment withthe prisoner ", especially the conlusion made by General Accounting Office in U.S. that thereis no definite evidence that can prove the Private Prison is much more cheap than publicprison.
     Though huge barriers in its way, CPPCJ in U.S. grows valiantly and thrives regardlessof strong queried, and which constitutes a distinguishing feature of criminal justice in U.S..there are more than3000Private Detective agencies in America, and the member of PrivateDetetive(including private security) is more than1,600,000, which is3times the formalpolice member in America.The Service of Private Detective in America covers all aroundthe world, even envolved in official scandal and corruption cases. Its fuction ranges fromcriminal investigation, obtain defence evidence, as well as prevent crime. Therefore, the roleof Private Detective can't be ignored in America criminal justice. Commercial Bail exists inmost states of America, and there are about8000bailsmen all together in America. Bailindustry is quite lucrative, reportedly taking in more than$4billion annually and "netting$400million a year in profits. The Bureau of Justice Statistics (BJS) found that in2006, commercial surety bonds were used in42%of releases for felony defendants in the75largestcounties. There were185Private Prison until July2001, and its population is285,000.6.8percent of the fedral and state prison population were imprisoned in Private Prison. It isreported by the media of America, the state of Arizona plans to held a public tender, for thePrivate Prison to bid for run9prison center. Therefore, it is a fact which cannot be disputedthat CPP has deep influence to criminal justice in U.S..
     Part2explores the foundation theory of CPPCJ, including chapter4,chapter5, andchapter6. These three chapters analyze the foundation of Political Philosophy, basis of legaltheory and economic basis respectively.
     Liberalism is the Political and Philosophical basis of CPPCJ. The long lasting liberalismand the tradition theory of weak state provide the soil for CPPCJ to grow. The Classicalliberalism flourishing in18century together with its theory of the state function as anight-watchman, constitutes ideological basis of the CPPCJ. With the decline of the Classicalliberalism from the beginning of20th century and the rise of Keynesianism in the1930s, thestate power augmented, which leads to a questioning and challenge to the CPPCJ. Then, withthe revival of New Liberalism in1970s, the industry of CPPCJ in U.S. recovered from thecrisis and revitalized. Therefor, its legality was confirmed.
     The theory of private remedy constitutes the legal basis to the CPPCJ. to examineminutely legitimacy of CPPCJ, we should return to the starting point to analyze therelationship between public relief and private relief. It shows in the long history of thedevelopnent of public relief and private relief that any gain for one must mean a loss for theother. The status of private relief in the relief system is from monopoly to being repressedand then to being respected, while the public relief from absence to repressing and then tomodestly restriction. there is not completely contradiction between private relief and publicrelief. As an effective supplementation to the public relief, the private relief functions as thetwig and extension of state power. The benign private relief is the act which being executedby persons out of the lowest self-protection when the public relief is absence or ineffective,and without hindrance to the society and can be acceptable. The nature of Private Detectiveand Commercial Bail is benign private relief. To confirm and develop the CPPCJ is a stategoverning tactic, and also a technique to realize social control through private activity.
     The most immediate theory that supporting the CPPCJ is economics of law. Theeconomics of law draws economic analysis methods into law science, which leads to manyconcept breakthrough. Ronald Coase initiated the thought to study legal right with relevanceto economic benefits. Gary Beeker applied the methods of economic analysis to all humanbehaviour. Posner set up a astronomical theoretical system of economics of law guided byefficiency. With the standard that rules should be examined by the theory of maximizingbeneficial result, the scholars of economics of law studied the Cost and Profit of all kinds ofrules, and infiltrated the economic princilpes to all rules and statutes. The widespread of thetheory of economics of law cleaned the way for the establish and sustainable development ofCPPCJ.
     Part3is about creating a system with Chinese characteristic of CPPCJ with thereference to America experiences. This part includes chapter7and chapter8, whichseparately argues the necessity of establishing the system of chinese Private Detective andCommercial Bail, and specificly conceive the new system.
     Similar to U.S., there are also failures such as lack of judicial resourses, inefficiency,being inadequate with respect to right protection. Such failures create opportunity to establishand develop CPPCJ in China. Chinese Private Detective existed in a flash in1990s. After theissuance of document No.91by Ministry of Public Security in1993, which forbids setting uporganizations similar to Private Detective agency in China, the Private Detective shits itsbusiness underground, survives on the margins of society. Its legal status is cloudy, withirregulation of conduct, and great risk. Though the Private Detective may make trouble forsocial management and cause society contradiction, its positive significance should not beneglected. The failures in obtaining of evidence by police, public procurators, defensecounsels and the persons involved, arouse the demand for Private Detective. The positivesignificance of Private Detective can be summarized as follows: to make up for a deficiencyof evidence obtaining by police, to oversee the judicial organs, to help the defendant inevidence preparation, to buildup the defendant ability to gather evidence. For the purpose ofthe creation of Private Detective, there should be a conception renewing, including (1) a newunderstaning of the state power of penalty, inter alia, to soft the notion of state power ofpenalty by modestly restriction of private relief, and to discard the notion that the state should monopolize the power of penalty.
     The operation of bail system in China is undesirable, which manifests as follows,(1) therate of bail is low because of being stictly understand the applying condition t;(2) Theapplicability of bail methods is poor;(3) the defendant who gain release through bail isuncontrolled. The effect get through Commercial Bail system in U.S. shows that CommercialBail may cure the bail sysem of China from its present disease, i.e.(1) poor bail rates ban becured by large release population in Commercial Bail,(2) poor of applicability of bailmethods can be cured by market ways in Commercial Bail,(3) poor in execution of bail cqnbe cured by effective supervision to the defendant by bail bondsman in Commercial Bail.Therefore, there should establish the Commercial Bail system in China. The constuction of abail system with Chinese characteristics helps us obtain guarantor through market, whichshift the mechanism of choosing guarantor from identity to contract, as well as from gratis tomarket. There is low cost to get bail and high risk to bail jump with respect to defendant inthe new system, and it can transfer cost, spread risk with respect to judicial organ, which helpto diminish the worriness about expansion release through bail.
     The following is the basic conformation of Chinese Commercial Bail recommended inthis thesis:(1) The commercial guarantor should be permitted to provide guarantee servicefor profit in the operation of bail;(2) commercial guarantor can be an insurance company oran individual person who is approved to take the guarantee business;(3) the guarantor shouldsign contract with the warrantee, in which the warrantee with the obligation to pay the bailpremium or collateral, and promise to abide by the conditions made in the bail document, aswell as authorize the guarantor with supervising power over him, and in case of his bail jumpthe guarantor can arret him and deliver him to judicial organ;(4) the duty of the guarantor isto sign the bail document approved by judicial organ, and poses bank deposit according to thedemand of judicial organ, and to pay out the bail amount described in the bail document6months later since he receives the notice from judicial organ, when the warrantee bail jumpsand the guarantor failed to arres the guarantee within time limit;(4) after the notice to forfeitbail amount being sent to the guarantor, the executive body should issue circular orders forthe arrest of the given warrantee, and the guarantor should be entitled to arrest the givenwarrantee by himselt or his agent, and the guarantor should be exempted his guarantee duty if the warrantee was arrested by him in time limit.
     Coclusion The CPPCJ in U.S. is a controversial matter as well as a thriving one. Itscreation and development reflects the failures of public criminal justice system. The fact thatit exerts a strong influence on the criminal justice system in U.S. should not be overlooked,and which also proves the possibility that the commercial and private idea may penetratesinto criminal field. The author believes that with the deepening development of marketeconomy, deepgoing of the reform of politics, as well as innovation and breakthrough ofjudicial concept, there will be a broader prospect and bright future for the CPPCJ in China.
引文
3刘中发、戚进松、曾静英:“取保候审制度运行现状调查”,《国家检察官学院学报》,2008年第2期,第106页。
    4宋英辉主编:《取保候审适用中的问题与对策研究》,北京:中国人民公安大学出版社,2007年版,第178页。
    6汉桓宽:《盐铁论痰贫》
    7《韩非子二柄》
    8《清史稿刑法志三》
    9卢建平主编:《刑事政策学》,北京:中国人民大学出版社,2007年版,第244页。
    10陈光中主编:《刑事诉讼法》,北京:北京大学出版社,2009年版,第73页。
    12Taft v. Northern Transportation Co.,56N.H.414,416(1876).原文为“The original description of an amicus curiae wasan impartial individual, usually a lawyer, who advised the court regarding an interpretation of the law solely for the benefitof the court, and not for the benefit of any litigant.”
    13Gregg Ivers&Karen O'Connor,“Friends as Foes: The Amicus Curiae Participation and Effectiveness of the AmericanCivil Liberties Union and Americans for Effective Law Enforcement in Criminal Cases,1969-1982,”9Cornell Journal ofLaw and Public Policy,1987, P.161.
    14Christian Parenti,“'I hunt men': meet the self-ordained officers of the bail-bond industry-Cover Story,” Progressive, The,Jan.1997, p.23.
    15Ford v.Hendrick,257A.2d667(Pa. Super. Ct.1969)
    16“Double Slaying Unmasks Lax Laws for Bounty Hunters,“Seattle Times, Sept.3,1997, at A3.
    17Cohen, Thomas H. and Tracey Kyckelhahn,“Felony Defendants in Large Urban Counties,2006.” May26,2010NCJ228944http://bjs.ojp.usdoj.gov/index.cfm?ty=pbdetail&iid=21932011-6-29
    18John A.Chamberlin,“Boungy Hunters: Can the Criminal Justice System Live Without Them?” U. Ill. L. Rev,1998,p.1175.
    19Conley, J. A. Prisons,“Production, and Profit: Reconsidering the Important of Prison Industries,” Journal of social history,14,1980, pp.257-275.
    20Powers, Edwin, Crime and Punishment in Early Massachusetts:1620-1692, Boston: Beacon Press,1966, p.214.
    21Haddad, Charles H.,“Private Prisons Don't Work': For-Profit Facilities Face a Barrage of Criticism--and OverbuildingHas Cut Into Profits and Hurt Stock Prices,”Business Week, Issue:3698, Sep.11,2000, pp.95-98.
    22Frank Morn,"The Eye That Never Sleeps": A History of the Pinkerton National Detective Agency, Indiana UniversityPress,1982.pp.19-23.
    23See James D. Horan, The Pinkertons: The Detective Dynasty That Made History, Crown,1968, pp.23-29.
    24第一批英国移民是为了逃避迫害、寻找自由而漂洋过海搭乘“五月花”号帆船来到北美的。
    25约翰.密尔著:《论自由》(中译本),上海:商务印书馆1982年版,第1—2页。
    26Eric Monkkonen, Police in Urban America,1860-1920, Cambridge University Press,2004,pp.64,87.
    27William E. Burrows, Vigilante!13(1976).
    28Frank Morn,"The Eye That Never Sleeps": A History of the Pinkerton National Detective Agency, Indiana UniversityPress,1982, pp.93-94..
    29James D. Horan, The Pinkertons: The Detective Dynasty That Made History, Crown Publishers,1968, pp.98-101.
    30J. Bernard Hogg,“Public Reaction to Pinkertonism and the Labor Question,” Pa. Hist, vol.11,1944, pp.171,178-79.
    31Frank Morn,"The Eye That Never Sleeps": A History of the Pinkerton National Detective Agency, Indiana UniversityPress,1982, pp.74-77.
    3223Cong. Rec.4225(1892)(statement of Rep. Bryant)
    3323Cong. Rec.4225(1892)(statement of Rep. Simpson)
    34Robert P. Weiss,“Private Detective Agencies and Labour Discipline in the United States,1855-1946,” Hist. J,vol.29,1986, pp.93.
    3523Cong. Rec.7005-13(1892).
    36J. Bernard Hogg,“Public Reaction to Pinkertonism and the Labor Question,” Pa. Hist.,vol.11,1944, pp.180-181.
    37James D. Horan, The Pinkertons: The Detective Dynasty That Made History, Crown Publishers,1968, p.169.
    38Jerold S. Auerbach,“Labor and Liberty: The La Follette Committee and the New Deal”, The Journal of American History,Vol.51,1964, pp.97-130.
    39S. Rep. No.76-6, pt.2, at217.
    40Clifford D. Shearing, The Relation Between Public and Private Policing, in Modern Policing, p.405-409.
    41S. Rep. No.76-6, pt.2, at216
    42Nathan Douthit,“Police Professionalism and the War Against Crime in the United States,1920s-30s, in Police Forces inHistory,” George L. Mosse ed.,1975, pp.327-333.
    43Clifford D. Shearing, The Relation Between Public and Private Policing, in Modern Policing,p.408.
    44James D. Horan, The Pinkertons: The Detective Dynasty That Made History, Crown Publishers,1968,p.165.
    45何家弘等编译:《私人侦探与私人保安》,北京:中国人民大学出版社,1990年版,第21页。
    46See James S. Kakalik&Sorrel Wildhorn,“The Private Police Industry: Its Nature and Extent,” Rand Report, Prpared forthe Department of Justice,1971, p.34.
    47See William C. Cunningham et al., Hallcrest Systems, Inc., Private Security Trends1970-2000,1990, pp.185,196.
    48“Bureau of Justice Statistics,”U.S. Dep't of Justice, Sourcebook of Criminal Justice Statistics,1995.
    49汪岩焯、汪永全、周冰冰编著:《现代私人侦探完全手册》,中华工商联合出版社,2002年版,引论第1页。
    50Metropolitan Police是指英国的大都市警察,即指大伦敦(Greater London警察部队,而不包括伦敦城(The City〕的警察。参见薛波主编:《元照英美法词典》,法律出版社2004年版,第912页。
    51Murray Kempton,“Son of Pinkerton,” N.Y. Rev. Books, May20,1971, p.24.作者认为,马克思论证了资本主义私人财产向社会主义财产的过渡,而FBI取代平克顿私人侦探所是人类历史上印证这一论述的唯一事例。
    52汪岩焯、汪永全、周冰冰编著:《现代私人侦探完全手册》,北京:中华工商联合出版社,2002年版,第188页。
    53Privacy Policy, at http://pages.ebay.com/help/community/png-priv.html2011-11-19。
    54汪岩焯、汪永全、周冰冰编著:《现代私人侦探完全手册》,北京:中华工商联合出版社,2002年版,引言第1页。
    55United States v. Antonelli,434F.2d335,336,337(2d Cir.1970).
    56R. L. c.25, Ё88,90; chapter23, Ё1,8.
    57United States v. Boylan,898F.2d230,236(1st Cir.1990).
    58Spitzer&Andrew T. Scull,“Privatization and Capitalist Development: The Case of the Private Police,” Soc. Probs.,vol.25,no.18,1977, p.26.
    59State v. Long,700P.2d153,156(Mont.1985)
    60United States v. Leon,468U.S.897,906(1984).
    61256U.S.465(1921).
    62Burdeau,256U.S. at475.
    63Burdeau,256U.S. at475,476.
    64Coolidge v. New Hampshire,403U.S.443,487(1971)
    65United States v. Janis,428U.S.433,455n.31(1976)
    66United States v. Jacobsen,466U.S.109,113(1984)
    67Lima,424A.2d at118,119,121(D.C.App.1980).
    68Smith v. Brookshire Bros.,519F.2d93,97(5th Cir.1975)
    69Lima,424A.2d at121(D.C.App.1980).
    70United States v. Antonelli,434F.2d337(2d Cir.1970).
    71United States v. Antonelli,434F.2d335,336,337(2d Cir.1970).
    72People v. Taylor,271Cal. Rptr.785,786-87(Ct. App.1990).
    73United States v. Lima,424A.2d113,118(D.C.1980)
    74Spencer v. Lee,864F.2d1376,1380(7th Cir.1989)).
    75People v. Taylor,271Cal. Rptr.790-92(Ct. App.1990).
    76Cal. Dep't of Consumer Affairs, Bureau of Collection and Investigative Services, Powers to To Arrest TrainingManual,2011.
    77何家弘:“美国的犯罪侦查制度”,《公安大学学报》,1994年第5期,第18页。
    78参见汪岩焯、汪永全、周冰冰编著:《现代私人侦探完全手册》,北京:中华工商联合出版社,2002年版,第187、188页。
    79汪岩焯、汪永全、周冰冰编著:《现代私人侦探完全手册》,北京:中华工商联合出版社,2002年版,第62页。
    80April Higuera,“Homicide Ivestigation: Choosing The Right Private Ivestigator Can Help win Your Case,”31Champion,August,2007, p.40.
    81April Higuera,“Homicide Ivestigation: Choosing The Right Private Ivestigator Can Help win Your Case,”31Champion,August,2007, p.40.。
    83FBI和某些联邦执法机构是重大的例外,他们从承担日常巡逻任务。See Daniel Richman,“Federal Criminal Law,Congressional Delegation, and Enforcement Discretion,”46UCLA L. Rev.1999, p.757.
    84乔治J斯蒂格勒:“法律实施的最佳条件”,《环球法律评论》,1992年第2期,第41页。
    87256U.S.465(1921).
    88Burdeau,256U.S. at475.
    89See Daniel J. Solove,“Access and Aggregation: Public Records, Privacy and the Constitution,” Minn. L. Rev.vol.86,2002, pp.1137,1191.
    90Remsburg v. Docusearch,149N.H.148,152-53(2003).
    91Miller v. Blackden,2007N.H. LEXIS16(N.H., Jan.12,2007)
    93See L.1939, c.369, p.887, s.1.
    94MPs Condemn,“‘Wyatt Earp’ Tours Hunting Fugitives from U.S. Justice,”Birmingham Post, Feb.3,1998.
    95Ronald Goldfarb, Ransom: A Critique of the American Bail System, Harper&Row,1965, pp.21-22.
    96Note,“Bail: An Ancient Practice Reexamined,”Yale L.J., vol.70,1961, p.966.
    97Elsa de Haas, Antiquities of Bail: Origin and Historical Development in Criminal Cases to the Year1275, AMS Press,1966, p.16.
    98Wayne H. Thomas, Jr., Bail Reform in America, Berkeley: University of California Press,1976,p.11.
    99F.E. Devine, Commercial Bail Bonding: A Comparison of Common Law Alternatives, New York: Praeger Publishers,1991,p.3.
    100Daniel J. Freed&Patricia M. Wald,“Bail in the United States,1964,” Prepared as a working paper for the NationalConference on Bail and Criminal Justice,1964,pp.1-2.
    102John E. Cribbet&Corwin W. Johnson, Principles of the Law of Property, The Foundation Press,1989,pp.28-38.
    103F.E. Devine, Commercial Bail Bonding: A Comparison of Common Law Alternatives, New York: Praeger Publishers,1991, p.3.
    104Daniel J. Freed&Patricia M. Wald,“Bail in the United States,1964,” Prepared as a working paper for the NationalConference on Bail and Criminal Justice,1964,pp.1-2.
    105Ryan M. Porcello,“International Bounty Hunter Ride-Along: Should U.K. Thrill Seekers Be Permitted to Pay toExperience a Week in the Life of a U.S. Bounty Hunter?”Vand. J. Transnat'l L.,vol.35,2002, p.953.
    106Ronald Goldfarb, Ransom: A Critique of the American Bail System, Harper&Row,1965, p.93.
    108Note,“Bail: An Ancient Practice Reexamined,”70Yale L.J.,1961,p.967.
    109United States v. Salerno,481U.S.739,752(1987).
    110Yale Kamisar et al., Advanced Criminal Procedure, West publishing,1994,pp.27-28.
    111Jonathan Drimmer,“When Man Hunts Man: The Rights and Duties of Bounty Hunters in the American Criminal JusticeSystem,” Hous. L. Rev.,vol.33,1996, p.742.
    112Ronald Goldfarb, Ransom: A Critique of the American Bail System,1965, p.101.
    114Mary A. Toborg, Bail Bondsmen and Criminal Courts, Just. Sys. J.,vol.8,1983, p.141.
    115Christian Parenti,"I Hunt Men," Progressive, Jan.1997, at23.
    116Kevin Helliker,“Bail Bondsmen Become Bondspeople as More Women Find Crime Does Pay,” Wall St. J., Apr.17,1996, at B1.
    117Daniel J. Freed&Patricia M. Wald, Bail in the United States:1964,1964, p.25.
    118Arthur M. Louis,“Bail Bond Business in Crisis/Bondsmen Feeling Pinch of Fewer Arrests,” S.F. Chron., Oct.11,1993,at D1.
    119Brian A. Reaves&Jacob Perez, U.S. Dep't of Justice, Pretrial Release of Felony Defendants,1992, at11(1994).
    120Katherine T. Beddingfield et al.,20Hot Job Tracks, U.S. News&World Rep., Oct.28,1996, at96.
    121Jo Jonathan Drimmer,“When Man Hunts Man: The Rights and Duties of Bounty Hunters in the American CriminalJustice System,” Hous. L. Rev.vol.33,1996, p.732.
    122J Jonathan Drimmer,“When Man Hunts Man: The Rights and Duties of Bounty Hunters in the American CriminalJustice System,” Hous. L. Rev.vol.33,1996, p.732.
    123Timothy M. Ito,“Taking the Law into Their Own Hands,”U.S. News&World Rep., Aug.21,1995, p.54.
    124Kent Black, Bounty Hunter, Rolling Stone, Aug.22,1996, at64.
    125Scott Winokur, Bounty Hunters in the New West, S.F. Examiner, Nov.28,1995, at A17.
    126Jonathan Drimmer,“When Man Hunts Man: The Rights and Duties of Bounty Hunters in the American Criminal JusticeSystem,” Hous. L. Rev. vol.33,1996, p.734.
    127Jonathan Drimmer,“When Man Hunts Man: The Rights and Duties of Bounty Hunters in the American Criminal JusticeSystem,” HOUS. L. REV. vol.33,1996, pp.731-773.
    128赏金猎人将99.2%商业保释人监护下的被告追回,而官方保释下的个人有92%被官方执法者追回。J JonathanDrimmer,“When Man Hunts Man: The Rights and Duties of Bounty Hunters in the American Criminal Justice System,”HOUS. L. REV.vol.33,1996, p.738.
    129Taylor v. Taintor,83U.S.366,371-72(1872)
    130Nicolls v. Ingersoll,7Johns.145-156,(N.Y. Sup. Ct.1810).
    131Taylor v. Taintor,83U.S.366,371-72(1872).
    132Taylor v. Taintor,83U.S.366(1872).
    133Curtis v. Peerless Ins. Co,299F. Supp.429,435(D. Minn.1969)
    134Curtis,299F. Supp. at435; Livingston,285So.2d at927.
    135Rebecca B. Fisher,“THE HISTORY OF AMERICAN BOUNTY HUNTING AS A STUDY IN STUNTED LEGALGROWTH,” N.Y.U. Rev. L.&Soc. Change,vol.33,2009, p.199.
    136Larry Kramer, The People Themselves, Oxford University Press,2004, p.190.
    137Generally David A. Sklansky,“The Private Police,” U.C.L.A. L. Rev. vol.46,1999, pp.1165,1207.
    13842U.S.C.?1983(2000)
    139Lugar v. Edmondson Oil Co.,457U.S.922,934(1982)
    140Mitchum v. Foster,407U.S.225,242(1972)
    14142U.S.C.?1983(2000).
    142457U.S. at937.
    143Green v. Abony Bail Bond,316F. Supp.2d1254,1259-60(M.D. Fla.2004)
    144Jackson,810F.2d at427.
    145Jackson,810F.2d at427.
    146People v. Houle,13Cal. App.3d892,895,91Cal. Rptr.874(1970)
    147Ouzts,505F.2d at557-560.
    148Green v. Abony Bail Bond,316F. Supp.2d1254,1260(M.D. Fla.2004).
    149Green v. Abony Bail Bond,316F. Supp.2d1254,1261(M.D. Fla.2004).
    150679A.2d1017(D.C. App.1996).
    151Jim Hansen,“The Professional Bondsman: A State Action Analysis,” CLEV. ST. L. REV.vol.30,1981, pp.595,611.
    152320F. Supp.185(E.D. Pa.1970).
    153Citizens for Pre-Trial Justice v. Goldfarb,278N.W.2d653,669(Mich. Ct. App.1979)
    154ST. PETERSBURG TIMES, Feb.13,1992, at1B.
    155PLAIN DEALER, Mar.8,1995, at1B
    156See John Harmon,“Patrol Chief Says 'Jealousy' Causes Charges of Kickbacks,” ATLANTA J. AND CONST., Dec.29,1992, at3.
    157See Pamela Manson and Kris Mayes,“AzScam: Could Scandal Happen Again?; Lessons, Temptations Debated inAftermath,” ARIZONA REPUBLIC, Feb.11,1996, at A1.“AzScam”在亚利桑那州人的语言中,表达的意思是该州政治史上最肮脏的一幕。
    158“Arizona Republic,” July29,1996, at B1.
    159“Murders at Dawn: Bounty Hunters Storm the Wrong House in Phoenix, Killing Two and Spurring the Cry forSafeguards,”Time, Sept.15,1997, at91.
    160Linda Valdez,“Bounty Hunters: Threat Society or Essential Part of System?”Ariz. Republic, Sept.12,1997, at B4.
    161“Bounty Hunter Bragged He Was a Mafia Hit Man,” San Diego Union-Trib., Sept.11,1997, at A6.
    162How and Why Bounty Hunters Make a Living .
    163Ford,257A.2d at669.
    164“Establish Limits for Bounty Hunters,” ATLANTA J. AND CONST., Sept.4,1997, at A14
    165Gregory Takacs,“Tyranny on the Streets: Connecticut's Need for the Regulation of Bounty Hunters,” Quinnipiac L. Rev.vol.14,1994, p.489.
    166Jonathan Drimmer,“America's Least Wanted: We Need New Rules to Stop Abuses,” Wash. Post, Sept.21,1997, at C6.
    167U.S. Dept. of Justice, Nation's Jail and Prison Incarceration Rate Almost Doubled During Last Decade.
    168Brian A. Reaves&Jacob Perez, U.S. Dep't of Justice, Pretrial Release of Felony Defendants,1992,1994, at10.
    169Jonathan Drimmer,“When Man Hunts Man: The Rights and Duties of Bounty Hunters in the American Criminal JusticeSystem,” Hous. L. Rev.vol.33,1996,p.788.
    170Jonathan Drimmer,“When Man Hunts Man: The Rights and Duties of Bounty Hunters in the American Criminal JusticeSystem,” Hous. L. Rev. vol.33,1996, p.790.
    171Note,“Bailbondsmen and the Fugitive Accused-The Need for Formal Removal Procedures,” Yale L.J. vol.73,1964,p.1098.
    172Michigan v. Doran,439U.S.282,282(1978).
    173Matthew L. Kaufman,“An Analusis of the Power of Bail Bondsmen and Possibile Roures to Reform,” NYLSJHR,vol.15,1999, p.287.
    174N.Y. Ins. Law6804(c)
    175Gerald D. Robin,“Wanted Dead or Alive: Reining in Bounty Hunters,” Crim. Just.Vol.21,2006,p.7.
    177Ind. Code Ann.?27-10-3-5(3)(a)(2008)规定定罪或释放后10年可申请成为赏金猎人。
    178Colo. Rev. Stat.?12-7-102.5(6)(2007)该法规定,取得职业担保人资格条件,申请者必须提供证据证明完成了要求的教育和培训课程。这些课程应包括:关于保释制度的培训不少于8小时,其中关于刑事司法系统的课程为2小时,关于商业保释伦理的课程为2小时,关于与保释相关的法律制度的课程为4小时。
    17931Ariz. St. L.J.229,232(1999)
    180Lori J. Zeglarski,“New Jersey's Assembly Bill2566Finally Attempted to Regulate Bounty Hunters,” Seton Hall Legis.J. vol.28,2004, p.381..
    181Kathleen Bird,“Goodbye Rogue Bounty Hunters,” New Jersey Lawyer, Feb.13,2006,p.1.
    182FED. R. CRIM. P.46(e)(1).
    183See Daniel J.Freed&Patricialm,“Wald, Bail in The United States,” Institute of Governmental Studies, University ofCalifornia,1964, p.28.
    184FED. R. CRIM. P.46(e)(2).
    185United States v. Nolan,564F.2d376(10th Cir.1977).
    186See Mary A. Toberg,“Bail Bondsmen and Criminal Courts,” JUST. SYS. J.,vol.8,1983, p.143.
    188See Dum v. Elrod,542F.2d998(7th Cir.1976)
    189Conley, J. A.,“Prisons, Production, and Profit: Reconsidering the Important of Prison Industries. Journal of socialhistory,”14,1980, pp.257-275.
    190Powers, Edwin, Crime and Punishment in Early Massachusetts:1620-1692, Boston: Beacon Press,1966, p.214.
    191Semmes, Raphael, Crime and Punishment in Early Maryland, Baltimor: The Johns Hopkins University Press,1938, p.33.
    192Reichel, P. L., Corrections, Minneapolis/St. Paul: West Publishing Company,1997, p.68.
    193Shichor, D., Punishment for Profit: Private Prisons/Public Concerns, London: Sage.,1995, p.29.
    194Robert P. Weiss,“‘Repatriating’ low-wage work: The political economy of prison labor reprivatization in thepostindustrial United States,” Criminology, vol.39,2001.
    195Ryan, M. And Ward, T. Privatization and the Penal System:The American Experience and the Debate in Britain. MiltonKeynes, Philadelphia: Open Univeristy Press,1989, p.17.
    196Feeley, M. M., The Privatization of Punishment in Historical Perspective. In William T. Gormley, Jr (ed.), Privatizationand Its Alternatives, Madison, Wis.: University of Wisconsin Press,1991,pp.213-214.
    197Shichor, D., Punishment for Profit: Private Prisons/Public Concerns, London: Sage,1995,pp.34-35.
    198Shichor, D., Punishment for Profit: Private Prisons/Public Concerns, London: Sage,1995,p.35.
    199Shichor, D., Punishment for Profit: Private Prisons/Public Concerns. London: Sage,1995, p.36.
    200Lichtenstein, Alex,“Twice the Work of Free Labor: The Political Economy of Convict Labor in the New South, Londonand New York,”Verso,1996.
    201Shichor, D., Punishment for Profit: Private Prisons/Public Concerns, London: Sage,1995,p.37.
    202Austin, James and Coventry, Garry,“Emerging Issues on Privatized Prisons. Monograph of National Council on Crimeand Deliquency,” Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Justice Assistance, Office of Justice Programs, U.S. Department of Justice,2001p.10.
    203Shichor, D., Punishment for Profit: Private Prisons/Public Concerns, London: Sage,1995,p.38.
    204Shichor, D., Punishment for Profit: Private Prisons/Public Concerns, London: Sage,1995,pp.38-39.
    205Reichel, P. L., Corrections. Minneapolis/St. Paul: West Publishing Company,1997, p.90.
    206Mancini, Matthew J., One Dies, Get Another: Convict Leasing in the American South,1866-1928, Columbia: Universityof South California Press,1996, p.7.
    207Oshinsky, David M.,"Worse than Slavery": Parchman Farm and the Ordeal of Jim Crow Justice, New York: FreePress,1996,p.68.
    208Reed, Adolph Jr.,“Worse than Slavery,”The Nation,262,1996, p.44.
    209Shichor, D., Punishment for Profit: Private Prisons/Public Concerns, London: Sage,1995,p.35.
    210Oshinsky, David M.,"Worse than Slavery": Parchman Farm and the Ordeal of Jim Crow Justice. New York: Free Press,1996,p.68.
    211Mancini, Matthew J., One Dies, Get Another: Convict Leasing in the American South,1866-1928, Columbia: Universityof South California Press,1996, p.7.
    212Oshinsky, David M.,"Worse than Slavery": Parchman Farm and the Ordeal of Jim Crow Justice, New York: FreePress.1996,p.69.
    213资料来源:Bureau of Justice Statistics,2000,2001,2002.
    214Langan, Patrick A.,“America’s Soaring Prison Population,” Science,251,1991,pp.1568-1573.
    215Skovron, S. E., Scott, J. E. and Cullen, F.,“Prison Crowding: Public Attitudes toward Strategies of Population Control,”Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, vol.25,1988, p.151.
    216McDonald, D. C.,“The Costs of Corrections: In Search of the Bottom Line,” Research in Corrections,2,1989,pp.1-25.
    217Maguire, Kathleen and Pastore, Ann L.(eds.), Sourcebook of Criminal Justice Statistics2000.28th edition,2001.Retrieved June2,2002, from the World Wide Web: http://www.albany.edu/sourcebook/.
    218King, R.D. and Maquire, M.,“Introduction: Contexts of Imprisonment: An International Perspective,” British Journal ofCriminology,34,1994,p.2.
    219Shichor, D., Punishment for Profit: Private Prisons/Public Concern, London: Sage,1995,pp.250,229.
    220McDonald, D. C.“Public Imprisonment by Private Means: The Re-emergence of Private Prisons and Jails in the UnitedStates, the Unite Kingdom, and Australia,” British Journal of Criminology,33:4,1994,p.37.
    221Shichor, D.(1995) Punishment for Profit: Private Prisons/Public Concerns. London: Sage, p.5.
    222Linowes, David F., Private Prisons: Pros and Cons, New York: Oxford University Press,1990,p.vii.
    223Shichor, D., Punishment for Profit: Private Prisons/Public Concerns, London: Sage,1995p.247.
    224Press,A., The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly: Private Prisons in the1980s. In D. C. McDonald (ed.), Private Prisons andthe Public Interest., New Brunswick and London: Rutgers University Press,1990,pp.25-26.
    225Press,A.,“The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly: Private Prisons in the1980s,”D. C. McDonald (ed.), Private Prisons andthe Public Interes, New Brunswick and London: Rutgers University Press,1990, pp.86-106.
    227Press,A.,“The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly: Private Prisons in the1980s,”D. C. McDonald (ed.), Private Prisons andthe Public Interes, New Brunswick and London: Rutgers University Press,1990, pp.37-40.
    228Mattera, Philip and Khan, Mafruza, Jail Breaks:“Economic Development Subsidies Given to Private Prison,”Good JobsFirst, a Project of the Institute on Taxation and Economic Policy, October2001,p.2.; Retrieved April10,2002, from theWorld Wide Web: http://www.goodjobsfirst.org/jbstudy.htm
    229Mattera, Philip and Khan, Mafruza, Jail Breaks:“Economic Development Subsidies Given to Private Prison,”Good JobsFirst, a Project of the Institute on Taxation and Economic Policy, October2001,p.4.; Retrieved April10,2002, from theWorld Wide Web: http://www.goodjobsfirst.org/jbstudy.htm.
    230Austin, James and Coventry, Garry,“Emerging Issues on Privatized Prisons,” Monograph of National Council on Crimeand Deliquency. Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Justice Assistance, Office of Justice Programs, U.S. Department of Justice,2001,p.59.
    231Haddad, Charles H.,“Private Prisons Don't Work': For-Profit Facilities Face a Barrage of Criticism--and OverbuildingHas Cut Into Profits and Hurt Stock Prices,” Business Week,3698(Sep.11,2000),2000,pp.95-98.
    233参见王振东著:《自由主义法学》,北京:法律出版社2005年版,第30—45页。
    234《潘恩选集》,马清槐等译,上海:商务印书馆1981年版,第140页。
    236林肯:《论政府的片断》(1854年7月1日),[美]莫蒂默艾德勒查尔斯范多伦:《西方思想宝库》,长春:吉林人民出版社1988年版,第875页。
    237Nicolls v. Ingersoll,7Johns.145-156,(N.Y. Sup. Ct.1810).
    238Taylor v. Taintor,83U.S.366(1872).
    239generally David A. Sklansky,“The Private Police,”46U.C.L.A. L. Rev.1999,pp.1165,1207.
    241Eric Monkkonen, Police in Urban America,1860-1920, Cambridge University Press,2004,pp.64,87.
    242J. Bernard Hogg,“Public Reaction to Pinkertonism and the Labor Question,” Pa. Hist., vol.11,1944,pp.178-79.
    243Harold Underwooe Faulkner, Amefican Economic History, New York:Harper, Brother Publication,1960,p.89.
    245[美]亚当科恩著:《无所畏惧》,卢晓兰译,天津:天津教育出版社2009年版,序言。
    246Frank Morn,"The Eye That Never Sleeps": A History of the Pinkerton National Detective Agency, Indiana UniversityPress,1982,pp.74,77,100.
    24723Cong. Rec.4225(1892)(statement of Rep. Bryant)
    24823Cong. Rec.4225(1892)(statement of Rep. Simpson)
    249Clifford D. Shearing,“The Relation Between Public and Private Policing,” Modern Policing, pp.405-409.
    250Clifford D. Shearing,“The Relation Between Public and Private Policing,” Modern Policing, p.408.
    251Matthew L. Kaufman,“An Anylysis of the Powers of Bail Bondsmen and Possible Routres to Reform,”15N.Y.L. Sch. J.Hum. Rts,1999,p.287.
    252参见王振东著:《自由主义法学》,北京:法律出版社2005年版,第76—79页。
    254[美]戴维奥斯本、特德盖布勒著:《改革政府:企业精神如何改革着公营部门》,东方编译所编译,上海:上海译文出版社1996年版,前言部分。
    255James S.Kaklik&Sorrel Wildhorn,The Private Police Idustry: Its Nature and Extent, Rand report R-870/DOJ,1971,p.17.
    257David H. Bayley&Clifford D. Shearing,“The Future of Policing,”30LAW&SOC'Y REV.1996,pp.585-587.
    258Sklansky,“Policing for Profit: Welcome to the New World of Private Security,” ECONOMIST, Apr.19,1997,p.21.
    259N.J. STAT. ANN.?45:19-10(West1995)
    260Ouzts,505F.2d at557-560.
    261Green v. Abony Bail Bond,316F. Supp.2d1254,1261(M.D. Fla.2004).
    262Gerald D. Robin,“Wanted Dead or Alive: Reining in Bounty Hunters,”21Crim. Just.2006,p.7.
    263Ind. Code Ann.?27-10-3-5(3)(a)(2008)规定定罪或释放后10年可申请成为赏金猎人。
    264Colo. Rev. Stat.?12-7-102.5(6)(2007)该法规定,取得职业担保人资格条件,申请者必须提供证据证明完成了要求的教育和培训课程。这些课程应包括:关于保释制度的培训不少于8小时,其中关于刑事司法系统的课程为2小时,关于商业保释伦理的课程为2小时,关于与保释相关的法律制度的课程为4小时。
    265Cohen, Thomas H. and Tracey Kyckelhahn,“Felony Defendants in Large Urban Counties,2006,” Bureau of JusticeStatistics, U.S.Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs. http://bjs.ojp.usdoj.gov/index.cfm?ty=pbdetail&iid=21932011-6-29
    266“Double Slaying Unmasks Lax Laws for Bounty Hunters,”Seattle Times, Sept.3,1997, at A3.
    267Mattera, Philip and Khan, Mafruza,“Jail Breaks: Economic Development Subsidies Given to Private Prison Good JobsFirst,” a Project of the Institute on Taxation and Economic Policy,2001,p.2. Retrieved April10,2002, from the World WideWeb: http://www.goodjobsfirst.org/jbstudy.htm
    268[德]恩格斯:《家庭、私有制和国家的起源》,马克思、恩格斯:《马克思恩格斯选集》(第4卷),北京:人民出版社,1972年版,第92—93页。
    269[美]布莱克:《法律的运作行为》,唐越、苏力译,北京:中国政法大学出版社,1994年版,第150—152页。
    270《汉谟拉比法典》,北京:法律出版社2000年版。
    271王振东著:《自由主义法学》,北京:法律出版社2005年版,第225页。
    272冯玉军:“法经济学范式研究及其理论阐释”,《法制与社会发展》,2004年第l期,第31页。
    273刘作翔主编:《多向度的法理学研究》,北京:北京大学出版社,2006年版,第230页。
    274徐昕著:《论私力救济》,北京:中国政法大学出版社,2005年版,第388页。
    275林钰雄著:《刑事诉讼法》,北京:中国人民大学出版社,2005年版,序。
    276参见张明楷:“刑法的谦抑性”,《法商研究》,1995年第4期,第55页;陈兴良:《刑法哲学》,北京:中国政法大学出版社,1997年版,第6页。
    277Cardeanas,“The Crime Victim in th eProsecutional Process,”Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy, Juan.1986,p366.
    278William E. Burrows, Vigilante!13(1976).
    279兰耀军译:《辩诉交易程序中的被害人参与》,华鹰,黄文主编《民商法前沿问题研究》,北京:光明日报出版社2008年版,第361页。
    280如日本法学界通说认为,私力救济指权利遭侵害时,受侵害人不借助司法程序,而通过自己力量来实现、确保、恢复自我之权利。参见[日]稿桥修:《自力救济》,《基本法学》第8卷《纷争》,东京,岩波书店,1982年版;[日]明石二郎:《自力救济的研究》,东京,有斐阁,1978年增补版。我国民法学界有关私力救济的通说认为,私力救济是权利人未借助国家公力,而以自己力量保护自己或他人权利的合法行为。参见伶柔主编:《中华法学大辞典(民法学卷)》,北京:中国检察出版社,1996年版,第618、894页。
    281参见江伟主编:《民事诉讼法》,中国人民大学出版社,2000年版,第4—5页;陈瑞华:《刑事审判原理论》,北京:北京大学出版社,1997年版,第8—9页。
    282[英]戴维·沃克主编:《牛津法律大辞典》,北京,光明日报出版社,1988年版,第817页。
    283The Real Life Dictionary of the Law,General Publishing Group,http://dictionary.law.com/
    284参见徐昕:《论私力救济》,北京:中国政法大学出版社,2005年版,第46—55页。
    285参见[日]稿桥修:《自力救济》,《基本法学》第8卷《纷争》,东京,岩波书店,1982年版;[日]明石二郎:《自力救济的研究》,东京,有斐阁,1978年增补版。
    286徐昕:《论私力救济》,北京:中国政法大学出版社,2005年版,第58页。
    287Merriam-Webster'sDictionaryofLaw,Merriam-Webster, Inc.,1996,http://dictionary.lp.findlaw.com/
    288《德国民法典》,郑冲、贾红梅译,北京,法律出版社,1999年版,第46页。《德国民法典》第229条规定:为了自助而扣押、损毁或者损坏他人之物的人,或者为了自助而扣留有逃亡嫌疑的债务人,或者制止债务人对有义务容忍的行为进行抵抗的人,如果未能及时获得官方援助,而且如未即时处理则请求权无法行使或者其行使显有困难时,其行为不为违法。台湾“民法”第151条规定:为保护自己权利,对于他人之自由或财产施以拘束、押收或毁损者,不负损害赔偿之责。但以不及受法院或其他有关机关援助,并非于其时为之,则请求权不得实行或其实行显有困难者为限。
    289参见高铭喧主编:《刑法学》,北京大学出版社、高等教育出版社,2005年版,第134页。
    290The Real Life Dictionary of the Law,General Publishing Group,http://dictionary.law.com/
    291[韩]李在祥:《韩国刑法总论》,[韩]韩相敦译,北京:中国人民大学出版社2005年版,第27页
    292[德]克劳斯·罗克辛:《德国刑法学总论》(第1卷),王世洲译,北京:法律出版社2005年版,第519页。
    293[法]卡斯东·斯特法尼:《法国刑法总论精义》,罗结珍译,北京:中国政法大学出版社1998年版,第367页。
    294陕西佛坪法院执行案件执结率连续三年100%。http://news.163.com/10/0318/12/622CH9I0000146BC.html2011-6-12
    295《中国青年报》2011年03月23日第3版
    297参见方流芳:《民事诉讼收费考》,《中国社会科学》,1999第3期,第136页。
    298具体包括:(1)与自身有关的人不应该是法官;(2)结果中不应包含纠纷解决者个人的利益;(3)纠纷解决者不应有支持或者反对某一方的偏见;(4)对各方当事人的意见均应给予公平的关注;(5)纠纷解决者应听取双方的论据和证据;(6)纠纷解决者应在一方在场的情况下听取另一方意见;(7)各方当事人都应得到公平的机会来对另一方提出的论据和证据作出反应;(8)解决的诸项条件应以理性推演为依据;(9)推理应论及提出的所有论据和证据。参见[美]马丁.P.戈尔丁著:《法律哲学》,齐海滨译,三联书店,1987年版,第240—241页。
    299夏锦文、徐英荣:“现实与理想的偏差:论司法的限度”,《审判研究第二辑》,北京:法律出版社,2004年版,第25页。
    300陈焱光著:《公民权利救济论》,北京:中国社会科学出版社,2008年版,第195页
    301徐昕:《论私力救济》,北京:中国政法大学出版社,2005年版,第150页。
    302黄立君:“法经济学发展历史概述”,《制度经济学研究》,2004年第10期,第1页。
    303《新帕尔格雷夫法经济学大辞典》(第二卷),北京:法律出版社,2003年版,第272页。
    304[美]奥利弗E威廉姆森:“再探法律现实主义:法律-经济学-组织视角”,[美]斯蒂文G米德玛编:《科斯经济学法与经济学和新制度经济学》,罗君丽等译,上海:上海三联书店,2007年版,第147页。
    305[美]奥利弗E威廉姆森:《资本主义经济制度》,段毅才等译,上海:商务印书馆,2002年版,第28一29页。
    306王宏昌:《诺贝尔经济学奖金获得者讲演集1987一1992》,北京:中国社会科学院,1994年版,第156页。
    307[美]罗纳德科斯:《社会成本问题》,《现代制度经济学》(上),北京:北京大学出版社,2003年版,第13页。
    308[美]理查德A波斯纳:《法律的经济分析》,蒋兆康译,北京:中国大百科全书出版社,1997年版,第20页。
    309[美]加里贝克尔:《人类行为的经济分析》,王业宇、陈琪译,上海:上海三联书店、上海人民出版社,1995年版,第11页。
    310参见[美]加里贝克尔:《人类行为的经济分析》,王业宇、陈琪译,上海:上海三联书店、上海人民出版社,1995年版,第63页。
    311[美]皮特纽曼主编:《新帕尔格雷夫法经济学大辞典》(第一卷),许明月等译,北京:法律出版社,2003年版,175页。
    312上海财经大学高等教育研究所编:《诺贝尔经济学奖之路》,上海:上海财经大学出版社,2010年版,第256页。
    313[美]理查德A波斯纳:《法律的经济分析》(上),蒋兆康译,北京:中国大百科全书出版社,1997年版,第26页。
    314[美]理查德.A.波斯纳著:《法律的经济分析》,蒋兆康译,北京:中国大百科全书出版社,1997年版,第20页。波斯纳还在后文中给出了该定理的对偶形式:“能以最低成本避免事故而没有这样做的当事人,要负法律责任”。
    315曲振涛:《法经济学》,北京:中国发展出版社,2005年版,第82页。
    316徐昕:“法律的私人执行”,《法学研究》,2004年第1期,第18页。
    317谢晓尧著:《竞争秩序的道德解读:反不正当竞争法研究》,北京:法律出版社,2005年版,第153页。
    318Gary S. Becker&George J. Stigler,“Law Enforcement, Malfeasance, and Compensation of Enforcers,”3J. Leg. Studies,1974,p.1.
    319Mark A. Cohen and Paul H. Rubin,“Private Enforcement of Public Policy,”3Yale J. on Reg.1985,pp.168-169.
    320See Civil Rights Act of1964,42U.S.C.2000a-3(1994); Clayton Antitrust Act,15U.S.C.15(1994); Securities Act of1933,15U.S.C.77k(e)(1994).
    321See, e.g., Clean Water Act505(b)(2),33U.S.C.1365(b)(2); Clean Air Act304(b)(2),42U.S.C.7604(b)(2).
    322姜明安著:《外国行政法教程》,北京:法律出版社,1993年版,第303页。
    323徐伟敏:“环境公民诉讼问题研究——以美国法为中心”,梁慧星:《民商法论丛》(第29卷),北京:法律出版社,2004年版,第339页。
    324See Comment, Qui Tam Actions,”The Role of the Private Citizen in Law Enforcement,”20UCLA L. Rev.,1973,pp.778,780.
    325See Cass R. Sunstein,“What's Standing After Lujan? Of Citizen Suits,‘Injuries,’ and Article III,”91Mich. L.Rev.,1992,pp.175-76.
    326See Donald H. Zeigler,“Rights Require Remedies: A New Approach to the Enforcement of Rights in the FederalCourts,”38Hastings L.J.1987,pp.671-77.
    327422U.S.66(1975).
    328Barton H. Thompson, Jr.,“Innovations in Environmental Policy: The Continuing Innovation of Citizen Enforcement,” U.Ill. L. Rev.2000,p.185.
    329See Frank B. Cross,“Rethinking Environmental Citizen Suits,”8Temp. Envtl. L.&Tech. J.,1989,p.67.
    330Harold J. Krent&Ethan G. Shenkman,“Of Citizen Suits and Citizen Sunstein,”91Mich. L. Rev.1993,p.1803.
    331See Jonathan H. Adler, Stand or Deliver,” Citizen Suits, Standing, and Environmental Protection,,”12Duke Envtl. L&Pol'y F.,2001,p.49.
    332Barton H. Thompson, Jr.,“The Continuing Innovation of Citizen Enforcement,” U. Ill. L. Rev.185,2000,pp.191-92.
    333See Barry Boyer&Errol Meidinger, Privatizing Regulatory Enforcement,“A Preliminary Assessment of Citizen SuitsUnder Federal Environmental Laws,”34Buff. L. Rev.,1985,pp.833,838.
    334Richard B. Stewart&Cass R. Sunstein,“Public Programs and Private Rights,”95Harv. L. Rev.1982,p.1298.
    335Steven D. Shermer,“The Efficiency of Private Participation in Regulating and Enforcing the Federal Pollution ControlLaws: A Model for Citizen Involvement,” J. Envtl. L.&Litig.,14,1999,pp.461,469.
    336Barton H. Thompson, Jr.,“The Continuing Innovation of Citizen Enforcement,” U. Ill. L. Rev.,2000,pp.191-92.
    337See J.R. DeShazo&Jody Freeman,“The Congressional Competition to Control Delegated Power,”81Tex. L.Rev.,2003,pp.1443,1445.
    338See Michael S. Greve,“The Private Enforcement of Environmental Law,”65Tul. L. Rev.,1990,pp.339,350.
    339Matthew D. Zinn,“Policing Environmental Regulatory Enforcement: Cooperation, Capture, and Citizen Suits,”21Stan.Envtl. L.J.,2002,p.89-91.
    340Murray Kempton, Son of Pinkerton, N.Y. Rev. Books, May20,1971,p.24.作者认为,马克思论证了资本主义私人财产向社会主义财产的过渡,而FBI取代平克顿私人侦探所是人类历史上印证这一论述的唯一事例。
    341See Pamela H. Bucy,“Private Justice,”76S. Cal. L. Rev.,2002,pp.39-40.
    342[美]罗纳德科斯:《社会成本问题》,《现代制度经济学》(上),北京:北京大学出版社,2003年版,第13页。
    343[美]加里贝克尔:《人类行为的经济分析》,王业宇、陈琪译,上海:上海三联书店、上海人民出版社,1995年版,第11页。
    344[美]理查德.A.波斯纳著:《法律的经济分析》,蒋兆康译,北京:中国大百科全书出版社,1997年版,第20页。
    345乔治J斯蒂格勒:“法律实施的最佳条件”,《环球法律评论》,1992年第2期,第41页。
    348Double Slaying Unmasks Lax Laws for Bounty Hunters, Seattle Times, Sept.3,1997, at A3.
    349也有学者认为,我国古代类似于私人侦探的还有巫师、师爷、更夫等职业。参见王大伟:“私人侦探的概念与历史”,《公安大学学报》,2001年第6期,第69页。
    350冯玉军著:《衙门里这些事儿》,北京:法律出版社,2007年版,第178—180页。
    351明冯梦龙《智囊》卷十。
    352闻天钧:《中国保甲制度》,上海:商务印书馆,1935年版,第190页。
    355刘文,豆伟元:“浅谈私人侦探在国内外的发展”,《经济与社会发展》,2003年第1期,第103页。
    357王锦南:“聚焦‘私人侦探’专题讨论之四:私人侦探叫停“,《人民公安》,2003年第5期,第31页。
    358董琳:“私人侦探介入刑事诉讼之必要性分析”,《知识经济》,2009第11期,第31页。
    360相关讨论可参见中国侦探网的相关内容和中央电视台《今日说法》2004年3月20日的节目。
    361王锦南:“聚焦‘私人侦探’专题讨论之四:私人侦探叫停“,《人民公安》,2003年第5期,第31页。
    363董琳:“私人侦探介入刑事诉讼之必要性分析”,《知识经济》,2009第11期,第31页。
    364朱殿君:“让私人侦探大大方方地亮相”,《人民公安》,2003年第8期,第63页。
    365钱大军,单晓萌:“私人侦探:法律制度的催生品”,《大庆师范学院学报》,2009年第1期,第89页。
    366王海鹏:“私人侦探:神秘的行踪和尴尬的处境”,《公安月刊》,2002年第7期,第12页。
    367钱大军,单晓萌:“私人侦探:法律制度的催生品”,《大庆师范学院学报》,2009年第1期,第89页。
    368王海鹏:“私人侦探:神秘的行踪和尴尬的处境”,《公安月刊》,2002年第7期,第12页。
    369王锦南:“聚焦‘私人侦探’专题讨论之四:私人侦探叫停”,《人民公安》,2003年第5期,第31页。
    370张国:“欢呼“私人侦探”向我们走来”,《人民公安》,2003年第4期,第45页。
    371高嫔:“私人侦探的定位与发展研究”,《百科论坛》,第392页。
    372景汉朝,卢子娟:“经济审判方式改革若干问题研究”,《法学研究》,1997年第5期,第3页。
    373马克昌主编:《刑罚通论》,武汉:武汉大学出版社,1999年版,第16页。
    374陈兴良:“论刑罚权及其限制”,《中外法学》,1994年第4期,第12页。
    375陈兴良著:《刑法适用总论》下卷,北京:法律出版社,1999年版,第19页。
    376肖怡著:《无被害人犯罪的刑事政策与刑事立法研究》,中国方正出版社2008年版,第107页。
    377威廉M兰德斯,理查德A波斯纳著:《私人执法》,顾红华,徐昕译,黄少安主编:《制度经济学研究》,北京:经济科学出版社,2004年版,第269页。
    378[英]霍布斯著:《利维坦》,吉林出版集团有限责任公司,2010年版,第147-148页。
    379桑本谦著:《私人之间的监控与惩罚:一个经济学的进路》,济南:山东人民出版社,2005年版,第143页。
    380《南京临时政府公报第四号》。
    381马克思:《德意志意识形态》,《马克思思格斯全集》第3卷,第379页。
    382《马克思恩格斯全集》(第8卷),第579页。
    383[前苏联]斯皮里多诺夫:(刑法社会学),北京:群众出版社,1989年版,第178页。
    384徐昕:《法律的私人执行》,《法学研究》2004年第1期,第18页。
    385[意]贝卡利亚:《论犯罪与刑罚》,黄风译,北京,中国大百科全书出版社,1993年版,第9页。
    386[法]莱昂·狄骥:《公法的变迁·法律与国家》,关戈、冷静译,沈阳:辽海出版社、春风文艺出版社,1999年版,第231页。
    387孙昌军:“试论英国公司法人犯罪法律价值观念的新变化”,《现代法学》,1999年第2期,第119页。
    388魏民等著:《辩诉交易制度实证研究》,张智辉,谢鹏程主编:《中国检察第二卷:刑法的程序理性》,北京:中国检察出版社,2003年版,第305页。
    389[日]守山正、西村春夫:《犯罪学的招待》,日本评论社,1999年版,第180页。
    390曾龙跃主编:《中国检察百科辞典》,哈尔滨:黑龙江人民出版社,1993年版,第60页。
    391杨春洗等主编:《刑事法学大辞书》,南京大学出版社,1999年版,第645页。
    392公安部政治部编:《刑事侦察学导论》,北京:警官教育出版社,1997年版,第207页。
    393“Investigatory Power:The authority conferred on a governmental agency to inspect and compel disclosure of factsgermane to an investigation.” See, Bryan A. Garner, Editorinchief, Black’ s Law Dictionary,7thedition,WESTGROUP,1999,P.1189.
    394陈永生:《侦查程序原理论》,北京:中国人民公安大学出版社,2003年版,第27页。
    395王国枢主编:《刑事诉讼法学》,北京:北京大学出版社,2003年版,第183页。
    396谢佑平、万毅:《刑事侦查制度原理》,北京:中国人民公安大学出版社,2003年版,第160页。
    397谢佑平、万毅:《刑事侦查制度原理》,北京:中国人民公安大学出版社,2003年版,第160,161页。
    398周欣著:《侦查权配置问题研究》,北京:中国人民公安大学出版社,2010年版,第18-19页。
    399王振东著:《自由主义法学》,北京:法律出版社,2005年版,第225页。
    400[美]Black’s Law Dictionary,West publishing co.1979年版,第178页。
    401约翰W斯特龙主编肯尼斯S布荣乔治E狄克斯爱德华J伊威克瑞德等编著,汤维建等译:《麦考密克论证据》(第五版),北京:中国政法大学出版社,2004年版,第648页。
    402陈光中主编:《刑事诉讼法》,北京:北京大学出版社、高等教育出版社,2009年版,第169—171页。
    403秦宗文:“论刑事诉讼中私人获取的证据”,《人民检察》,2003年第7期,第16页。
    404樊崇义等:《刑事诉讼法修改专题研究报告》,北京:中国人民公安大学出版社,2004年版,第202页。
    405尚伦生著:《刑事辩护新视角》,兰州:兰州大学出版社,2006年版,第36页。
    406田文昌,李贵方主编:《走近刑事辩护》,长春:吉林人民出版社,2005年版,第26页。
    407陈卫东主编:《中国律师学》(第2版),北京:中国人民大学出版社,2006年版,第221页。
    410韩旭:“改革我国刑事鉴定启动权的思考——以被追诉人取证权的实现为切入点”,崔敏主编:《刑事诉讼与证据运用》(第5卷),北京:中国人民公安大学出版社,2009年版,第242页。
    411[美]戴维.波普诺著:《社会学》,李强等译,北京:中国人民大学出版社,1999年版,第488页。
    412韩流著:《被害人当事人地位的根据与限度公诉程序中被害人诉权问题研究》,北京:北京大学出版社,2010年版,第127页。
    414[法]卡斯东.斯特法尼:《法国刑事诉讼法精义》,北京:中国政法大学出版社,1998年版,第753页。“最高法院刑事庭认为,在轻罪案件中,法院可以考虑各当事人提交的证据材料,而不得以这些材料是经非法方式所得为理由将其排除于辩论之外,唯一的保留条件是,应当对这些材料的证明效力(证明价值)进行评判”
    415秦宗文:“论刑事诉讼中私人获取的证据”,《人民检察》,2003年第7期,第16页。
    417陈继勇、荣仁星主编:《21世纪中国现实问题研究报告》,北京:中央民族大学出版社,2003年版,第348页。
    419《马克思恩格斯全集》,俄文版第12卷,第485页。
    420陈卫东著:《自诉案件审判程序论》,北京:中国政法大学出版,1989年版,第25页。
    422陈光中主编:《刑事诉讼法》,北京:北京大学出版社、高等教育出版社,2009年版,第339页。
    423[德]约阿希姆·赫尔曼:《德国刑事诉讼法典》,北京:中国政法大学出版社1995年版,第15页。
    424王雄飞著:《检察官证明责任研究》,北京:中国人民公安大学出版社2009年版,第127页。
    425汪岩焯、汪永全、周冰冰编著:《现代私人侦探完全手册》,北京:中华工商联合出版社,2002年版,引言第1页。
    428R. L. c.25, Ё88,90; chapter23, Ё1,8.
    429彭惠新:“何家弘:应该允许私人侦探的存在”,《北京纪事》,2003年第28期,第32页。
    430张泽涛:“私人侦探在刑事诉讼中的运用及其规范”,《法学家》,2007年第6期,第98页。
    431N.H. Rev. Stat. Ann.?633:3-a,?633:3-a(II)(a)
    432United States v. Leon,468U.S.897,906(1984).
    433李忠民:“良心证明探析”,《江西财经大学学报》,2006年第1期,第80页。
    434公安部的规定和最高人民检察院的解释对不能适用取保候审的情形作了明确规定。其中《公安机关办理刑事案件程序规定》第64条规定:“对累犯、犯罪集团的主犯,以自伤、自残办法逃避侦查的犯罪嫌疑人,危害国家安全的犯罪、暴力犯罪,以及其他严重犯罪的犯罪嫌疑人,不得取保候审。《人民检察院刑事诉讼规则》第38条规定:“人民检察院对于严重危害社会治安的犯罪嫌疑人,以及其他犯罪性质恶劣、情节严重的犯罪嫌疑人不得取保候审。”
    435刘焱焱:“刑事诉讼取保候审制度实证调查报告”,杨松才,肖世杰主编:《刑事诉讼法再修改专题研究》,北京:中国检察出版社2009版,第371页。
    436程晓璐、刘勇、郑艳:“未成年犯罪特点及司法保护法的实证分析——以海淀区检察院2008年受理的未成年犯罪案件为视角”,卢建平主编:《京师刑事政策评论》(第3卷),北京师范大学出版社,2010年版,第194页。
    437孙长永:“比较法视野中的刑事强制措施”,《法学研究》2005年第l期,第111页。。
    438“广东二成看守所条件差,部分在押人员站着睡觉”,《南方都市报》,2003年11月4日,第4版。
    439最高人民检察院法律政策研究室编:《刑事法理与案例评析》(第一辑),长春:吉林人民出版社,2007年版,第108页。
    440郎胜主编:《欧盟国家审前羁押与保释制度》,北京:法律出版社,2006年,第73页。
    441See Douglas L. Colbert,“Thirty-Five Years After Gideon: The Illusory Right to Counsel at Bail Proceedings,” U. Ill. L.Rev.1,1998,p.2.
    442Mary T. Phillips,“Research Brief No.18: Bail, Detention,&Felony Case Outcomes,” N.Y.C. Criminal Justice Agency,Inc.,5-7(Sept.2008), http://www.cjareports.org/reports/brief18.pdf
    444See, Stephanos Bibas,“Plea Bargaining Outside the Shadow of Trial,”117Harv. L. Rev.,2004,pp.2463,2468.
    445刘焱焱:“刑事诉讼取保候审制度实证调查报告”,杨松才,肖世杰主编:《刑事诉讼法再修改专题研究》,北京:中国检察出版社,2009年版,第372页。
    446我国《刑事诉讼法》没有明确禁止保证人与保证金保证并用,但六机关《规定》第21条、《公安规定》第67条、《法院解释》第72条和《取保候审规定》第4条等法律解释均禁止二者并用。理论界和实务界有人把保证人、保证金保证并用的“双保”视为不规范的行为。见崔敏:《取保候审制度的缺陷与改革与完善的构想》,陈卫东主编:《保释制度与取保候审》,中国检察出版社2003年版,第291—300页。也有人主张二者可以并用。见柯葛壮:“完善我国取保候审制度的几点思考”,《法学》,2003年,第6期。
    448See Brian A. Reaves&Jacob Perez,“U.S. Dep't of Justice, Pretrial Release of Felony Defendants,1992,”1994, p.12.
    449孙长永主编:《侦查程序与人权保障:中国侦查程序的改革和完善》,北京:中国法制出版社,2009年版,第114页。
    450陈卫东主编:《刑事审前程序研究》,北京:中国人民大学出版社,2004年版,第150页。
    451国务院法制办公室编:《中华人民共和国刑事诉讼法注解与配套》,北京:中国法制出版社,2008年版,第62页。
    452宋英辉主编:《取保候审适用中的问题与对策研究》,北京:中国人民公安大学出版社,2007年版,第67页。
    453董启海:“张家港市检察院取保候审实证研究评析”,《国家检察官学院学报》,2008年第3期,第26页。
    455刘焱焱:“刑事诉讼取保候审制度实证调查报告”,杨松才,肖世杰主编:《刑事诉讼法再修改专题研究》,北京:中国检察出版社2009版,第373页。
    457有论者将保证金保证概括为财产保,笔者认为这种理解不够准确,如毛佩红:“取保候审制度司法实践若干问题研究”,沈云章主编:《法律监督思与行:上海市南汇区人民检察院纪念检察机关恢复重建三十周年论文集》,北京:中国检察出版社,2008年版,第245页。
    458宋英辉主编:《取保候审适用中的问题与对策研究》,北京:中国人民公安大学出版社,2007年版,第289页。
    459刘中发、戚进松、曾静音:《取保候审制度运行现状调查》,《国家检察官学院学报》,2008年第2期,第106页。
    460曾友祥:“对我国取保候审保证金制度的反思及重构”,《广东社会科学》,2006年第2期,第190页。
    461李袁婕:“论取保候审的法律属性”,卞建林、王肃元主编:《刑事诉讼法修改:问题与前瞻》,北京:北京大学出版社,2008年版,第383页。
    462刘中发、戚进松、曾静音:《取保候审制度运行现状调查》,《国家检察官学院学报》,2008年第2期,第106页。其中指出:“刑事被告人脱保在逃的行为一再发生,已经到了必须引起我们高度重视的时候。为了维护国家法律的尊严,做到执法必严、违法必究,保障刑事诉讼的顺利进行,我院建议你院加大对取保候审强制措施的监督力度。”
    463宋英辉主编:《取保候审适用中的问题与对策研究》,北京:中国人民公安大学出版社,2007年版,第178页。
    464陈光中主编:《中华人民共和国刑事诉讼法再修改专家意见稿与论证》,北京:中国法制出版社,2006年版,第357页。
    465徐静村:《中国刑事诉讼法(第二修正案)学者拟制稿及立法理由》,北京:法律出版社,2005年版,第54页。
    466陈卫东主编:《模范刑事诉讼法典》,北京:中国人民大学出版社,2005年版,第13、204页。
    467宋英辉主编:《取保候审适用中的问题与对策研究》,北京:中国人民公安大学出版社,2007年版,第186-191页。
    468薛伟宏主编:《羁押制度创新、热点问题研究与法律适用》,人民法院出版社,2007年版,第343页。有学者将其称之为“财物保候审”,即要求提交一定数额的财物作担保,财物包括“财”和“物”,可以是现金或有现金价值的票券;高档生活用品;贵重物品,如金、银、首饰等。参见周国均:“增补‘财物保候审’初探”,陈光中主编:《刑事诉讼法学五十年》,北京:警官教育出版社,1999年版,第217页。
    469李袁婕:《取保候审制度研究》,中国政法大学2007年博士学位论文,第80页。孙长永教授认为,考虑到实践中可能会担心具结保证的约束力不足,引进这种保证方式的时机可能尚不成熟。参见孙长永主编:《侦查程序与人权保障:中国侦查程序的改革和完善》,北京:中国法制出版社,2009年版,第114页。
    470杨雄著:《刑事强制措施的正当性基础》,北京:中国人民公安大学出版社,2009年版,第292页。
    471樊崇义:《刑事诉讼法学研究综述与评价》,中国政法大学出版社1991年版,第131页。
    472具体为:首先区分主观方面要件,对于过失而为者不应当追究保证人的刑事责任;对于故意而为的,应依法追究刑事责任。其中,明知被保证人的藏匿地点而拒绝向司法机关提供的,或协助其逃匿的,应以窝藏、包庇罪定罪处刑;事前通谋,事后又从事上述行为的,应以被告人所犯罪行的共犯论处。参见钊作俊:“取保候审若干问题研究”,《中国刑事法杂志》,2000年第1期,第95页。
    473姜远斌:“当前取保候审措施存在的问题及对策”,《检察实践》,1999年第3期,第39页。
    474孙长永主编:《侦查程序与人权保障:中国侦查程序的改革和完善》,北京:中国法制出版社2009年版,第115、116页。
    475“Double Slaying Unmasks Lax Laws for Bounty Hunters,” Seattle Times, Sept.3,1997, at A3.
    476See Brian A. Reaves&Jacob Perez,“U.S. Dep't of Justice, Pretrial Release of Felony Defendants,1992,”1994,p.12..
    478679A.2d1017(D.C. App.1996).
    479Murders at Dawn,“Bounty Hunters Storm the Wrong House in Phoenix, Killing Two and Spurring the Cry forSafeguards,” Time, Sept.15,1997, at91.
    480ST. PETERSBURG TIMES, Feb.13,1992, at1B.
    481See Pamela Manson and Kris Mayes,“AzScam: Could Scandal Happen Again?; Lessons, Temptations Debated inAftermath,” ARIZONA REPUBLIC, Feb.11,1996, at A1.“AzScam”在亚利桑那州人的语言中,表达的意思是该州政治史上最肮脏的一幕。
    482Ford v.Hendrick,257A.2d667(Pa. Super. Ct.1969)
    483Mary T. Phillips, Ph.D.,“Commercial Bail Bonds in New York City”,CHARACTERISTICS AND IMPLICATIONS,FINAL REPORT,2011, p.61.
    484American Bar Association (ABA), ABA Standards for Criminal Justice. Pretrial Release. Third Edition. Washington, DC:American Bar Association,2007.
    485Houy J. Joiner,“Private Police, Defending the Power of Professinal Bail Bondsmen,”32Ind. L. Rev.,1999,p.1419.
    487[美]爱伦豪切斯泰勒斯黛丽、南希弗兰克:《美国刑事法院诉讼程序》,陈卫东、徐美君译,北京:中国人民大学出版社,2002年版,第347—348页。
    488Pugh v. Rainwater,557F.2d1199(5th Cir.1977)
    489John A. Chamberlin,“Boungy Hunters: Can the Criminal Justice System Live Without Them?” U. Ill. L. Rev,1998,p.1175
    490See Lynn S. Branham,“A Federal Comprehensive Community-Corrections Act: Its Time Has Come,”12COOLEY L.REV.,1995,p.403.
    491Houy J. Joiner,“Private Police: Defending the Power of Professinal Bail Bondsmen,”32Ind. L. Rev.,1ppp,p.1428.
    492Forrest Dill,“Discretion, Exchange and Social Control: Bail Bondsmen in Criminal Courts,”9LAW&SOC'YREV.,1975,pp.639,653.
    493See Dum v. Elrod,542F.2d998(7th Cir.1976)
    494See Liz Dupont-Diehl,“Bail Bondsmen Fill the Gap in the Criminal Justice System,” J. INQUIRER (Manchester, Conn.),Mar.,1993,p.29.
    495FED. R. CRIM. P.46(e)(1).
    496See Daniel J.Freed&Patricialm,“Wald, Bail in The United States,” Institute of Governmental Studies, University ofCalifornia,1964, p.28.
    498See Marc Gunther, Experts on Call,“They're in the Book and They Thrive On Public Attention,” CHI. TRIB., Nov.7,1993, p.4.
    499See David D. Minier,“Bounty Hunters Currently the Target of Much Misplaced Outrage,” FRESNO BEE, Sept.28,1997,at B7.
    500See Mary A. Toberg,“Bail Bondsmen and Criminal Courts,”8JUST. SYS. J.,1983,p.143.
    501David W. Neubauer:《美国的保释制度》,岳悍惟译,陈卫东主编:《保释制度与取保候审》,北京:中国检察出版社,2003年版,第225页。
    502Forrest Dill,“Discretion, Exchange and Social Control: Bail Bondsme in Criminal Courts,”9Law&SOCYREV.,1975,pp.654-55.
    503See David D. Minier,“Bounty Hunters Currently the Target of Much Misplaced Outrage,”FRESNO BEE, Sept.28,1997,at B7.
    504American Druggist v. Bogart,707F.2d1229,1233(11th Cir.1983).
    505Marie VanNostrand,‘Crime&Justice Inst.&Nat'l Inst. of Corrs., Legal and Evidence-based Practices: Applications ofLegal Principles, Laws, and Research to the Field of Pretrial Services”, National Institute of Corrections,2007,p.1.
    506Adam Liptak,“World Spurns Bail for Profit, But It's a Pillar of U.S. Justice,”N.Y. Times, Jan.29,2008, at A1
    507John A. Chamberlin,“Bounty Hunters: Can the Criminal Justice System Live Without They?”1998U. Ill. L.Rev.,1998,p.1175.
    509See Daniel J.Freed&Patricialm,“Wald, Bail in The United States,” Institute of Governmental Studies, University ofCalifornia,1964, p.28.
    510纽约的布朗克斯区辩护组织设立的一个循环使用的保释基金,对符合条件的顾客免费提供保释金。当被保释被告完全出庭,保释金得到返回,重新充实基金,因此基金循环使用。参见Robin Steinberg&Zoe Towns,“The BronxFreedom Fund: A Model Bail Fund, Cornerstone” Nat'l Legal Aid&Defender Ass'n, Washington, D.C.) Jan.-Apr.2009,p.21.
    511宋英辉主编:《取保候审适用中的问题与对策研究》,北京:中国人民公安大学出版社2007年版,第291页。
    512桑本谦著:《私人之间的监控与惩罚:一个经济学的进路》,济南:山东人民出版社2005年版,第182页。
    513See Daniel J.Freed&Patricialm,“Wald, Bail in The United States,” Institute of Governmental Studies, University ofCalifornia,1964, p.31.
    514陈光中主编:《中华人民共和国刑事诉讼法再修改专家建议稿与论证》,北京:中国法制出版社,2006年版,第358页。
    515丁浙峰、倪铁:“未成年人取保候审程序主体之重构”,《贵州警官职业学院学报》,2004年第4期,第57页。
    516杨雄著:《刑事强制措施的正当性基础》,北京:中国人民公安大学出版社,2009年版,第292、293页。
    517孙长永主编:《侦查程序与人权保障:中国侦查程序的改革和完善》,中国法制出版社2009年版,第115、116页。
    518邹海林著:《保险法》,北京:人民法院出版社,1998年版,第354页。
    5191999年8月30日,中国保监会“保监法[1999]第16号”《关于保证保险合同纠纷案的复函》。
    5202000年8月28日,最高人民法院“(1999)经监字第266号”《中国工商银行郴州市苏仙区支行与中保财产保险有限公司湖南省郴州市苏仙区支公司保证保险合同纠纷一案的请示报告的复函》。
    521包括:(1)连续信号技术,是指通过连续不停地发射电子信号了解犯罪人方位的电子监控技术。监控人员根据接收到的信号,可以判断犯罪人在特定时间所处的方位,了解他们是否离开了一定范围。(2)程序接触技术。是指使用一台编好程序的计算机在监控期间随机地或有规律地犯罪人家打电话的技术。通过这种计算机自动拨打电话和犯罪人是否接听电话的情况,就可以了解犯罪人是否在家。(3)连续信号发射器,是指让犯罪人携带一种能够连续发射电子信号的发射器,监控人员可以用便携式接收机接收这种信号的电子监控技术。在使用这种电子监控技术时,监控人员只要随时驾车经过犯罪人的住所,就可以知道犯罪人是否在住所中,而不必与犯罪人进行面对面的接触。参见郭建安、郑霞泽主编:《社区矫正通论》,北京:法律出版社,2004年版,第273-274页。
    522杨雄著:《刑事强制措施的正当性基础》,北京:中国人民公安大学出版社2009年版,第293页。
    523N.Y. Ins. Law?6801(a)(1)
    524Miranda,2009WL2170254, at8
    525Ric Simmons,“Private Criminal Justice,” Wake Forest L. Rev., Vol.42,2007,p.911.
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    297Ind. Code Ann.?27-10-3-5(3)(a)(2008)
    298Colo. Rev. Stat.?12-7-102.5(6)(2007)
    29931Ariz. St. L.J.229,232(1999)
    300H.R.2964?(2,3,4).
    301FED. R. CRIM. P.46(e)(1).
    302FED. R. CRIM. P.46(e)(2).
    303N.Y.L. Sch. J. Hum. Rts.(1999)
    304N.J. STAT. ANN.?45:19-10(West1995)
    305Ouzts,505F.2d at557-560.
    306Ind. Code Ann.?27-10-3-5(3)(a)(2008)
    307Colo. Rev. Stat.?12-7-102.5(6)(2007)
    308William E. Burrows, Vigilante!13(1976).
    309Merriam-Webster'sDictionaryofLaw,Merriam-Webster, Inc.,1996, http://dictionary. lp. findlaw. com/
    310Civil Rights Act of1964,42U.S.C.2000a-3(1994);
    311Clayton Antitrust Act,15U.S.C.15(1994);
    312Securities Act of1933,15U.S.C.77k(e)(1994).
    313Clean Water Act505(b)(2),33U.S.C.1365(b)(2);
    314Clean Air Act304(b)(2),42U.S.C.7604(b)(2).
    315679A.2d1017(D.C. App.1996).
    316ST. PETERSBURG TIMES, Feb.13,1992.
    317FED. R. CRIM. P.46(e)(1).
    318N.Y. Ins. Law?6801(a)(1)
    319Miranda,2009WL2170254,
    320R. L. c.25, Ё88,90; chapter23, Ё1,8.
    321Double Slaying Unmasks Lax Laws for Bounty Hunters, Seattle Times, Sept.3,1997.
    322www.crimestoppersusa.com
    323http://pages.ebay.com/help/community/png-priv.html
    324http://www.sinovision.net/index.php?module=news&act=details&news_id=172399&nocache=1&articlepage=1
    325http://news.sina.com.cn/w/2006-03-28/14278549934s.shtml
    326http://baike.baidu.com/view/2079750.html?fromTaglist
    327http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/16593331/ns/business-corporate_scandals/t/investigator-hp-spy-probe-pleads-guilty/
    328http://jxfy.chinacourt.org/public/detail.php?id=66298
    329http://www.sinovision.net/index.php?module=news&act=details&news_id=172399&nocache=1&articlepage=1
    330http://news.sina.com.cn/w/2006-03-28/14278549934s.shtml
    331http://www.cpd.com.cn/gb/newspaper/2010-04/23/content_1325866.htm
    332http://news.sina.com.cn/o/2009-10-26/022716497702s.shtml
    333http://news.xinhuanet.com/society/2009-05/20/content_11404124.htm
    334http://news.china.com/zh_cn/social/1007/20080104/14593593_1.html
    335www.crimestoppersusa.com
    336http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/pub/press/pjimy96.pr
    337http://news.xinhuanet.com/society/2009-05/20/content_11404124.htm
    338http://news.china.com/zh_cn/social/1007/20080104/14593593_1.html
    339http://www.lib.msu.edu/harris23/crimjust/forsci.htm
    340http://www.loc.gov/index.html
    341http://www.abanet.org/crimjust/standards/home.html#list

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