东亚区域云和降水微物理特征及云微物理参数化方案构建
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摘要
本文旨在广泛地调研东亚地区和其他地区(含北美,欧洲和澳洲)云和降水的微物理特征,并将东亚地区云微物理特征与其他地区进行比较。在此基础上,提出了基于东亚地区云和降水微物理观测结果的云微物理参数化方案,并进行了初步试验。具体研究成果涵盖以下三个方面：
(1)搜集整理了东亚地区和其他地区公开发表的期刊和书籍中关于云和降水微物理的直接观测结果,建立了包含气溶胶,冰核,云(雾)滴,雨滴,冰晶,雪晶,冰雹等粒子浓度和粒子谱分布,云(雾)滴和雨滴含水量,以及降水强度(R)和雷达反射率(Z)的关系等详细信息的数据库。其中东亚地区时间范围为1960-2010,其他地区为1940-2010年。基于该数据库统计分析了东亚云和降水微物理特征。结果表明：(1)东亚地区粒子浓度变化较大,但其变化介于一定的范围；(2)一般可利用Gamma (Γ)函数拟合云滴谱更接近观测谱,但不同观测拟合谱参数值差异较大；(3)可用指数函数和r函数来拟合层状云降水雨滴谱,但对于积云和层积混合云降水雨滴谱,以r函数拟合精度较高;和(4)冰晶、雪晶谱和冰雹谱通常用指数谱来描述。采用同样的方法统计分析了其他地区云和降水微物理特征,并将东亚统计结果与之进行比较。从整体上看,东亚地区云和降水粒子浓度、含水量、谱分布形式与其他地区观测结果大体上相似,但在具体量值上有一定差别。指数谱中,东亚地区雨滴谱平均截距(No)不到其他地区的三分之一,斜率(λ)也比其他地区小；r拟合谱雨滴谱中,东亚地区谱形参数μ负值出现的频率高,其他地区的μ正值出现频率高。东亚地区层状云平均云滴浓度比其他地区略小,平均液态含水量比其他地区的值低。与其他地区相比,东亚地区的冰核平均浓度(22.9L-1)明显高于其他地区的冰核平均浓度(2.7L-1)。东亚地区雪晶谱截距(No)的平均值约为其他地区的四分之一,斜率(λ)不到其他地区的一半,表明东亚地区雪晶小粒子少,而大粒子较多。Z-R关系统计表明,东亚地区层状云降水过程中,相同降水强度时,对应的雷达反射率比其他地区小；相反,积云降水过程中,相同降水率时对应的雷达反射率比其他地区大。
(2)利用2006年6月至2011年4月CloudSat卫星观测结果统计分析了东亚地区云垂直结构特征。结果表明东亚地区降水云反射率通常接地,而非降水云则相反。降水云主要集中在8km以下,对应雷达反射率介于-20-15dBz之间；非降水云主要分布在4-12km高度层,对应雷达反射率主要介于-28-0dBz之间。对比发现液态降水云雷达反射率的分布及其廓线与降水云相似,说明东亚降水云中液相降水云更具优势。固态降水云中-15℃温度频数分布与雷达反射率分布在统计上有很好的对应关系,表明在-15℃附近的环境中冰相粒子凝华-碰冻是粒子增长的优势过程。深对流云和雨层云对形成降水粒子的贡献分别为58.41%和29.51%,是形成降水粒子的主要云型。云中液态含水量随高度的变化呈指数递减；在9.6km高度以上,云中几乎没有液态水存在。
(3)从1960年代后期以来,云微物理参数化方案方面的研究取得了较大的进展。总体而言,Lin方案和Rutledge-Hobbs方案奠定了中尺度模式云微物理参数化方案的基础,其它方案均是直接或间接在这两个方案的基础上,从各方面加以改进而形成新的方案。最近十余年云微物理参数化方案在东亚地区的敏感性试验研究表明,不同的方案显示出不同的预报能力,各方案表现出不同的优劣。总体而言,WRF(Weather Research and Forecasting)模式中Lin方案的模拟效果较好,MM5(The PSU/NCAR Mesoscale Model)模式中Goddard和Reisner方案的模拟效果较好。本文基于东亚地区云和降水微物理的统计特征,结合当前中尺度模式中不同微物理参数化方案中的参数化改进点,构建了套新的云微物理参数化方案。新方案考虑了云水、雨水、冰晶、雪晶、霰和雹六种水凝物粒子。粒子谱分布采用r函数来描述,冰晶谱的谱形参数取为常数1,霰谱和冰雹谱的谱形参数取为0。云滴谱、雨滴谱和雪晶谱的谱形参数采用诊断给出,同时保留了云滴谱、雨滴谱和雪晶谱的谱形参数都取为0的选项。并且粒子下落末速度采用质量加权下落末速度。在以上的设定条件下,根据东亚地区云和降水微物理特征,新方案从粒子谱、粒子间相互转换、粒子活化、多物理选项等方面做了相应的改进。尤其是云滴、雨滴和雪晶粒子谱形参数的诊断,云水向雨水自动转换、云滴同质核化和冰晶活化等微物理过程参数化作了较大的改进。
(4)新方案在成功耦合到WRFv3.4中尺度数值模式后,对华南一次强对流过程进行了模拟试验,结果表明新方案对华南局地强降水的模拟表现出较好的再现能力。通过对不同微物理方案降水的TS评分对比分析,新方案对大雨及以上量级降水的模拟结果较优。
A survey of the existing literature on in-situ measurements of cloud-precipitation microphysical properties has been undertaken over both East Asia and other regions. A database was established to contain microphysical properties for raindrop, cloud droplet, ice nuclei (IN), snow crystal, as well as the relationship between radar reflectivity (Z) and rainfall rate (R). From the datasets, dividing the data coverage into East Asia during the period of1960-2010and the other regions (which is defined as those include the Americas, Europe, Australia, and Africa) during the period of1940-2010. a statistical analysis has been performed. The results show that (1) various particles'total number concentrations vary greatly, but those occur only in certain scale distances;(2) the gamma-sized distribution has been widely used to describe the size distributions of cloud droplets in stratiform clouds, but fitted parameters have a wide range of variations;(3) both the exponential-and the gamma-sized distributions are suitable for representing the raindrops size distributions of the rains originated from stratiform clouds, and the gamma-sized distribution has been applied widely to describe RSDs of the rains originated from both convective and mixed (stratiform and cumuliform) clouds; and (4) the exponential-sized distribution is well adopted to represent the size distributions of ice crystals, snow crystals, and hailstones sampled at several locations.
The properties over East Asia have been compared with those over the other regions. Both exponential-and gamma-size distributions have been applied to fit raindrop-size distributions over the world. The average intercept (N0) of exponential-size distributions is much smaller over East Asia than that over the other regions, and slope (λ) is slightly smaller. As for gamma-size distributions,the overall average value of intercept is much smaller over East Asia than that in the other regions, and the variation scope of parameters is narrower in East Asia than that in the other regions. Additionally, Most of the shape parameter (μ) are negative over East Asia, while positive μ appears frequently in the other regions. There is a higher total mean IN concentration (22.9L-1) in East Asia, compared with that (of2.7L-1) in the other regions. The average value of the intercept (N0) for snow-crystal size distributions over East Asia is much smaller than that in the other regions, and slope (λ) is not half as large as that in the other regions. The relation between Z and R suggests that the average Z is slightly larger in East Asia than that in the other regions for the rains originating from stratiform clouds with a same R, while Z is smaller in East Asia than that in the other regions for the rains originating from cumuliform clouds.
The CloudSat satellite data during the period from June2006to April2011,are used to investigate cloud vertical profiles over the region of East Asia (20-50°N.80-120°E). with particular emphasis on comparing the profile of precipitative clouds with that of non-precipitative clouds, as well as the seasonal variations of these profiles. There are some obvious differences between the precipitative and non-precipitative cloud profiles. Generally, precipitative clouds mainly locate below8km with radar reflectivity in the range of-20-15dBz, and usually the clouds reach the ground; while non-precipitative clouds locate in the layers of4-12km with radar reflectivity between-28and0dBz. There are some different features among the liquid precipitative, solid precipitative, and possible drizzle precipitative cloud profiles. In precipitative clouds, radar reflectivity increases rapidly from11to7km in vertical, implying that condensation and collision-coalescence processes play a crucial role in the formation of large-size drops. The frequency distribution of temperature at-15℃is consistent with the highest frequency of radar reflectivity in solid precipitative clouds, which suggests that the temperatures near-15℃are conductive to deposition and accretion processes. The vertical distributions of liquid precipitative clouds differ from season to season with almost the same distributions in spring, summer and autumn as each other but the difference in winter mainly in the lower levels. However, the vertical distributions of solid precipitative clouds change from spring to winter with an alternate double and single high-frequency core, which is consistent with variations of the frequency distribution of temperature at-15℃. The vertical distributions of non-precipitative clouds show a little change with season. The observations also show that the precipitation events over East Asia are mostly related to deep convective clouds and nimbostratus clouds. These results are expected to be useful for future weather and climate model evaluation and improving microphysical parameterizations in a numerical model.
Much progress of cloud microphysical parameterizaiton has been made since1970s. Generally, most microphysical parameterizaitons have been developed on the basis of Lin scheme and Rutledge-Hobbs scheme. A statistical analysis of the sensitivity tests results on microphysical parameterization over East Asia have been performed, and the results show that Lin scheme in the Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) model performed well in simulations, and Goddard and Reisner schemes in the PSU/NCAR Mesoscale Model (MM5) simulated reasonably well on the whole.
East Asia experiences the influence of the Asian monsoon, which has a significant impact on the regional weather and climate. Since the1960s, many numerical models have been used for operational weather forecasting and understanding the climate in East Asia (including developed locally and abroad). However, the microphysical processes used in these models were almost all copied from the numerical models developed abroad. As a result, the simulations show a general "degradation", that is, the results are poorer than those when they are used for the regions other than East Asia. One of the major reasons for the poor results is that the data collected over other regions do not represent conditions for the East Asia. To overcome the shortcoming, it is necessary to develop new parameterization schemes based on the microphysical properties over East Asia.
A new double-moment bulk microphysics scheme predicting the number concentrations and mixing ratios of six hydrometeor species (cloud droplets, rain, cloud ice, snow, graupel, and hail) has developed and coupled with the Weather Research and Forecasting model (WRFv3.4). The gamma distribution function of the form N(D)=No11exp(-λD) is applied to represnet the size spectra of each hydrometeor category. In the new scheme, the shape parameter μ for cloud drop, rain and snow is a diagnostic variable, which is held constant in most schemes. To better understand cloud-precipitation microphysical properties over East Asia, we have carried out a statistical analysis for cloud-precipitation based on the in-situ measurement data during the period from1958to2010over East Asia, and the cloud-precipitation properties over East Asia have been compared with those over the other regions. As a result, new statistically based parameterizations are developed for parameters of particle-size distributions. Additionally, a new way to predict cloud droplet concentration (Nc) is developed based on the relationship between cloud liquid water content (LWC) and Nc, which is obtained from in situ measurements of135flights with2803records. Besides, the homogenous freezing of cloud droplets has been improved based on the statistical results of cloud vertical profile properties, which are obtained from the CloudSat satellite data during the period from June2006to April2011.
The local heavy rain event occurring on24-25June2010in southern China was simulated using the new scheme and five sophisticated microphysics schemes in the WRF model. Results showed that the simulated24-h accumulated precipitations were generally agreed with observations.
(1)搜集整理了东亚地区和其他地区公开发表的期刊和书籍中关于云和降水微物理的直接观测结果,建立了包含气溶胶,冰核,云(雾)滴,雨滴,冰晶,雪晶,冰雹等粒子浓度和粒子谱分布,云(雾)滴和雨滴含水量,以及降水强度(R)和雷达反射率(Z)的关系等详细信息的数据库。其中东亚地区时间范围为1960-2010,其他地区为1940-2010年。基于该数据库统计分析了东亚云和降水微物理特征。结果表明：(1)东亚地区粒子浓度变化较大,但其变化介于一定的范围；(2)一般可利用Gamma (Γ)函数拟合云滴谱更接近观测谱,但不同观测拟合谱参数值差异较大；(3)可用指数函数和r函数来拟合层状云降水雨滴谱,但对于积云和层积混合云降水雨滴谱,以r函数拟合精度较高;和(4)冰晶、雪晶谱和冰雹谱通常用指数谱来描述。采用同样的方法统计分析了其他地区云和降水微物理特征,并将东亚统计结果与之进行比较。从整体上看,东亚地区云和降水粒子浓度、含水量、谱分布形式与其他地区观测结果大体上相似,但在具体量值上有一定差别。指数谱中,东亚地区雨滴谱平均截距(No)不到其他地区的三分之一,斜率(λ)也比其他地区小；r拟合谱雨滴谱中,东亚地区谱形参数μ负值出现的频率高,其他地区的μ正值出现频率高。东亚地区层状云平均云滴浓度比其他地区略小,平均液态含水量比其他地区的值低。与其他地区相比,东亚地区的冰核平均浓度(22.9L-1)明显高于其他地区的冰核平均浓度(2.7L-1)。东亚地区雪晶谱截距(No)的平均值约为其他地区的四分之一,斜率(λ)不到其他地区的一半,表明东亚地区雪晶小粒子少,而大粒子较多。Z-R关系统计表明,东亚地区层状云降水过程中,相同降水强度时,对应的雷达反射率比其他地区小；相反,积云降水过程中,相同降水率时对应的雷达反射率比其他地区大。
(2)利用2006年6月至2011年4月CloudSat卫星观测结果统计分析了东亚地区云垂直结构特征。结果表明东亚地区降水云反射率通常接地,而非降水云则相反。降水云主要集中在8km以下,对应雷达反射率介于-20-15dBz之间；非降水云主要分布在4-12km高度层,对应雷达反射率主要介于-28-0dBz之间。对比发现液态降水云雷达反射率的分布及其廓线与降水云相似,说明东亚降水云中液相降水云更具优势。固态降水云中-15℃温度频数分布与雷达反射率分布在统计上有很好的对应关系,表明在-15℃附近的环境中冰相粒子凝华-碰冻是粒子增长的优势过程。深对流云和雨层云对形成降水粒子的贡献分别为58.41%和29.51%,是形成降水粒子的主要云型。云中液态含水量随高度的变化呈指数递减；在9.6km高度以上,云中几乎没有液态水存在。
(3)从1960年代后期以来,云微物理参数化方案方面的研究取得了较大的进展。总体而言,Lin方案和Rutledge-Hobbs方案奠定了中尺度模式云微物理参数化方案的基础,其它方案均是直接或间接在这两个方案的基础上,从各方面加以改进而形成新的方案。最近十余年云微物理参数化方案在东亚地区的敏感性试验研究表明,不同的方案显示出不同的预报能力,各方案表现出不同的优劣。总体而言,WRF(Weather Research and Forecasting)模式中Lin方案的模拟效果较好,MM5(The PSU/NCAR Mesoscale Model)模式中Goddard和Reisner方案的模拟效果较好。本文基于东亚地区云和降水微物理的统计特征,结合当前中尺度模式中不同微物理参数化方案中的参数化改进点,构建了套新的云微物理参数化方案。新方案考虑了云水、雨水、冰晶、雪晶、霰和雹六种水凝物粒子。粒子谱分布采用r函数来描述,冰晶谱的谱形参数取为常数1,霰谱和冰雹谱的谱形参数取为0。云滴谱、雨滴谱和雪晶谱的谱形参数采用诊断给出,同时保留了云滴谱、雨滴谱和雪晶谱的谱形参数都取为0的选项。并且粒子下落末速度采用质量加权下落末速度。在以上的设定条件下,根据东亚地区云和降水微物理特征,新方案从粒子谱、粒子间相互转换、粒子活化、多物理选项等方面做了相应的改进。尤其是云滴、雨滴和雪晶粒子谱形参数的诊断,云水向雨水自动转换、云滴同质核化和冰晶活化等微物理过程参数化作了较大的改进。
(4)新方案在成功耦合到WRFv3.4中尺度数值模式后,对华南一次强对流过程进行了模拟试验,结果表明新方案对华南局地强降水的模拟表现出较好的再现能力。通过对不同微物理方案降水的TS评分对比分析,新方案对大雨及以上量级降水的模拟结果较优。
A survey of the existing literature on in-situ measurements of cloud-precipitation microphysical properties has been undertaken over both East Asia and other regions. A database was established to contain microphysical properties for raindrop, cloud droplet, ice nuclei (IN), snow crystal, as well as the relationship between radar reflectivity (Z) and rainfall rate (R). From the datasets, dividing the data coverage into East Asia during the period of1960-2010and the other regions (which is defined as those include the Americas, Europe, Australia, and Africa) during the period of1940-2010. a statistical analysis has been performed. The results show that (1) various particles'total number concentrations vary greatly, but those occur only in certain scale distances;(2) the gamma-sized distribution has been widely used to describe the size distributions of cloud droplets in stratiform clouds, but fitted parameters have a wide range of variations;(3) both the exponential-and the gamma-sized distributions are suitable for representing the raindrops size distributions of the rains originated from stratiform clouds, and the gamma-sized distribution has been applied widely to describe RSDs of the rains originated from both convective and mixed (stratiform and cumuliform) clouds; and (4) the exponential-sized distribution is well adopted to represent the size distributions of ice crystals, snow crystals, and hailstones sampled at several locations.
The properties over East Asia have been compared with those over the other regions. Both exponential-and gamma-size distributions have been applied to fit raindrop-size distributions over the world. The average intercept (N0) of exponential-size distributions is much smaller over East Asia than that over the other regions, and slope (λ) is slightly smaller. As for gamma-size distributions,the overall average value of intercept is much smaller over East Asia than that in the other regions, and the variation scope of parameters is narrower in East Asia than that in the other regions. Additionally, Most of the shape parameter (μ) are negative over East Asia, while positive μ appears frequently in the other regions. There is a higher total mean IN concentration (22.9L-1) in East Asia, compared with that (of2.7L-1) in the other regions. The average value of the intercept (N0) for snow-crystal size distributions over East Asia is much smaller than that in the other regions, and slope (λ) is not half as large as that in the other regions. The relation between Z and R suggests that the average Z is slightly larger in East Asia than that in the other regions for the rains originating from stratiform clouds with a same R, while Z is smaller in East Asia than that in the other regions for the rains originating from cumuliform clouds.
The CloudSat satellite data during the period from June2006to April2011,are used to investigate cloud vertical profiles over the region of East Asia (20-50°N.80-120°E). with particular emphasis on comparing the profile of precipitative clouds with that of non-precipitative clouds, as well as the seasonal variations of these profiles. There are some obvious differences between the precipitative and non-precipitative cloud profiles. Generally, precipitative clouds mainly locate below8km with radar reflectivity in the range of-20-15dBz, and usually the clouds reach the ground; while non-precipitative clouds locate in the layers of4-12km with radar reflectivity between-28and0dBz. There are some different features among the liquid precipitative, solid precipitative, and possible drizzle precipitative cloud profiles. In precipitative clouds, radar reflectivity increases rapidly from11to7km in vertical, implying that condensation and collision-coalescence processes play a crucial role in the formation of large-size drops. The frequency distribution of temperature at-15℃is consistent with the highest frequency of radar reflectivity in solid precipitative clouds, which suggests that the temperatures near-15℃are conductive to deposition and accretion processes. The vertical distributions of liquid precipitative clouds differ from season to season with almost the same distributions in spring, summer and autumn as each other but the difference in winter mainly in the lower levels. However, the vertical distributions of solid precipitative clouds change from spring to winter with an alternate double and single high-frequency core, which is consistent with variations of the frequency distribution of temperature at-15℃. The vertical distributions of non-precipitative clouds show a little change with season. The observations also show that the precipitation events over East Asia are mostly related to deep convective clouds and nimbostratus clouds. These results are expected to be useful for future weather and climate model evaluation and improving microphysical parameterizations in a numerical model.
Much progress of cloud microphysical parameterizaiton has been made since1970s. Generally, most microphysical parameterizaitons have been developed on the basis of Lin scheme and Rutledge-Hobbs scheme. A statistical analysis of the sensitivity tests results on microphysical parameterization over East Asia have been performed, and the results show that Lin scheme in the Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) model performed well in simulations, and Goddard and Reisner schemes in the PSU/NCAR Mesoscale Model (MM5) simulated reasonably well on the whole.
East Asia experiences the influence of the Asian monsoon, which has a significant impact on the regional weather and climate. Since the1960s, many numerical models have been used for operational weather forecasting and understanding the climate in East Asia (including developed locally and abroad). However, the microphysical processes used in these models were almost all copied from the numerical models developed abroad. As a result, the simulations show a general "degradation", that is, the results are poorer than those when they are used for the regions other than East Asia. One of the major reasons for the poor results is that the data collected over other regions do not represent conditions for the East Asia. To overcome the shortcoming, it is necessary to develop new parameterization schemes based on the microphysical properties over East Asia.
A new double-moment bulk microphysics scheme predicting the number concentrations and mixing ratios of six hydrometeor species (cloud droplets, rain, cloud ice, snow, graupel, and hail) has developed and coupled with the Weather Research and Forecasting model (WRFv3.4). The gamma distribution function of the form N(D)=No11exp(-λD) is applied to represnet the size spectra of each hydrometeor category. In the new scheme, the shape parameter μ for cloud drop, rain and snow is a diagnostic variable, which is held constant in most schemes. To better understand cloud-precipitation microphysical properties over East Asia, we have carried out a statistical analysis for cloud-precipitation based on the in-situ measurement data during the period from1958to2010over East Asia, and the cloud-precipitation properties over East Asia have been compared with those over the other regions. As a result, new statistically based parameterizations are developed for parameters of particle-size distributions. Additionally, a new way to predict cloud droplet concentration (Nc) is developed based on the relationship between cloud liquid water content (LWC) and Nc, which is obtained from in situ measurements of135flights with2803records. Besides, the homogenous freezing of cloud droplets has been improved based on the statistical results of cloud vertical profile properties, which are obtained from the CloudSat satellite data during the period from June2006to April2011.
The local heavy rain event occurring on24-25June2010in southern China was simulated using the new scheme and five sophisticated microphysics schemes in the WRF model. Results showed that the simulated24-h accumulated precipitations were generally agreed with observations.
引文
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