基于生态安全的建设用地供给法律制度研究
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摘要
建设用地供给是影响生态安全的至关重要的因素之一。不适当的建设用地供给可能造成生态系统结构失衡和功能衰退。要控制建设用地对生态安全的威胁,必须从建设用地供给这一源头抓起。要从建设用地供给的规模、结构、布局和节奏等要素方面,寻求建立科学合理的供给模式,以公平、有序、有效的方式实施。这种建设用地供给模式的形成与实施,都需要有法律制度这样一种具有公信力、强制力、确定力、执行力的手段予以保证与促进。
基于生态安全的建设用地供给法律制度研究的主要目的,是根据国内外对生态安全和土地供给研究的主要成果,结合建设用地供给的实践经验,分析生态安全与建设用地供给之间的相互影响机制,构建生态安全与建设用地供给之间的协调耦合的法律制度,建立有效的制度实施机制。
国内对生态安全的研究,主要集中在生态安全评价方面,基于压力—状态—响应,运用了RS、GIS、BP神经网络等技术,针对评价对象特征,提出评价指标体系,建立评价模型,分析评价结果,提出促进生态安全的建议。同时针对特定区域或特定类型的生态问题进行研究,探讨特定区域或特定类型的生态问题的解决措施与生态安全的维护措施。国外对生态安全的研究,主要提出了生态安全的概念,探讨了生态安全与经济安全、社会安全以及国家安全的关系,提出为了控制与减少生态危险,需要对影响生态安全的社会经济政策,国家政治结构,法律制度等各个方面进行变革。国内对建设用地供给的研究,主要有四个方面：建设用地供给政策制度、建设用地市场供给机制、建设用地供给产权保护、建设用地供给实证研究等,提出的主要制度有用途管制制度、节约集约制度等。国外对建设用地供给研究主要集中在经济学领域,指出土地是三大生产要素之一,土地供给、需求以及土地价格有自身的特殊性,土地供给与经济增长有着密切关系,有效的使用土地资源可极大地促进经济增长。国内对基于生态安全的建设用地供给方面的研究,有基于生态安全的建设用地空间预警、建设用地总量控制以及建设用地的空间管制分区等。国外对基于生态安全的建设用地供给的研究,主要有生态城市、生态社区的规划与建设等方面的研究。探讨建立的制度主要有环境影响评价制度等。
基于生态安全的建设用地供给法律制度研究,应当以现有的理论成果为基础。这些理论成果应当包括安全与生态安全、土地供给与需求、建设用地与农用地、权力与权利、法律制度的构建与实施等方面。本文所指的生态安全,是指人类在生存与发展过程中,不分区域,包括现在与未来,生态系统处于结构平衡、功能稳定,并且能够为人类生存与发展持续地提供物质与精神享受所需要的优质资源的状态。本文所指的建设用地供给,是指是指在特定的价值目标下,供给主体将特定的土地以一定的价格和方式提供给有取得资格的单位或者个人。本文所指的法律制度,是指由政府、国家或统治者等按照一定的目的和程序创造的政治、经济规则,以及为实施这些规则而制订的实施机制。
建设用地供给与生态安全之间,存在着互斥与互利两种关系。互斥是建设用地供给与生态安全的主要关系。互斥表现为建设用地供给导致环境污染和资源破坏加剧、生物安全受到威胁等方面。这种互斥产生的主要原因有：对经济增长的无限追求,对资源的过度索取,对污染物排放的控制不足,对资源的消耗缺乏节制等。要减缓互斥关系,应当调整建设用地供给的规模、结构、布局与节奏。建设用地供给与生态安全之间也存在互利关系,如为粮食安全和经济可持续发展、环境治理、生态改良提供建设用地等。互利关系的产生原因主要有政府管制、公众觉醒、科技进步等。互利关系的促进需要进一步通过特殊建设用地的供给,对生态脆弱区进行改良、对生态危机进行消减、对生态灾难进行救助。
建设用地供给的法律制度模式,按其主导目标的不同大致有分为以下几种：以权利保护为主导的供给制度模式,强调建设用地的权益保护,包括建设用地所有权、使用权和他项权利的保护,其出发点是“法定权益不容侵犯”;以经济增长为主导的供地制度模式,强调经济发展的绝对核心地位,建设用地供给应当全力为经济发展服务。出发点是“发展是硬道理”,“落后就要挨打”；以粮食安全为主导的供地制度模式,强调建设用地供给不得侵占基本农田,出发点是“粮食安全”；以资源节约和集约利用为主导的供地制度模式,强调对稀缺资源的合理、高效利用与保护,建设用地供给应当坚持总量控制、提升利用强度与效益等,出发点是“资源的可持续利用”；以环境友好为主导的供地制度模式,强调人类不得以牺牲环境为代价求发展,建设用地供给应当向低污染、低破坏、低消耗、高效益的行业倾斜,以求在发展的同时减少对环境的损害,出发点是“经济社会的可持续发展”。随着生态安全的提出与研究的深入,人们开始探索建立基于生态安全的建设用地供给制度模式。这一模式强调生态安全的基础性价值,旨在寻找建设用地供给促进生态安全、经济增长、社会和谐的机制与途径。
随着建设用地供给法律制度的演进,生态安全价值地位也随之演进。在以权利为主导和以经济增长为主导的供地制度中基本无生态安全价值的体现;在以粮食安全为主导的供地制度中,已有耕地生态安全维护的内容；在以节约和集约用地为主导的供地制度中,扩大了土地资源生态安全维护的范围；在以环境友好为主导的供地制度中,生态安全维护己通过环境影响评价等制度予以体现。随着生态安全研究的深入与经济社会发展态势的变化,建设用地供给制度将以生态安全为基础性价值目标。
基于生态安全,建立建设用地供给法律制度,应当确立生态安全的基础性价值地位,同时协调生态安全与经济增长、社会和谐之间的关系。经济增长应以生态安全为基础,不得以牺牲生态安全为代价求发展,应当在保障生态安全的前提下求发展。生态安全同时要为经济增长服务。不能因维护生态安全而阻碍或者禁止经济增长,但经济增长应转变增长方式、发展循环经济、低碳经济,以期减少和控制对生态安全的威胁。生态安全也是社会和谐的基础,社会和谐包括了人与自然的和谐。应当以生态安全为基础,围绕经济增长主题,建设和谐社会。以此确定建设用地供给立法中的生态安全、经济增长、社会和谐等方面的目标体系,并坚持以下原则：建设用地供给与生态承载力相协调；与污染控制相协调；与生态安全格局相协调；与生态—经济—社会复合系统状态相协调。
基于生态安全,应当建立建设用地供给生态管制制度。制订生态安全标准,为生态管制提供参照依据；制订建设项目污染与破坏分类分级标准,优先安排低污染、低破坏、低消耗、低投入、高效益的建设项目,并根据生态安全标准和污染破坏分类分级标准,控制建设用地供给规模与结构。编制生态安全规划,根据生态安全的需要,划分允许建设区、有条件建设区和禁止建设区,建设用地供给必须符合生态安全规划,在生态安全规划确定的允许建设用地区内供给建设用地,或者在满足规定条件方允许建设的区域内供给建设用地,不得在禁止建设用地区内供给建设用地。对符合生态安全要求的建设项目,颁发建设用地生态安全许可证,允许其在取得其他资格后供给建设用地的。对不符合生态安全要求的建设项目,则实行“一票否决制”,不予提供建设用地资格。建立生态安全补偿制度。对因维护生态安全而损失了权益的区域或个人,应当按其损失权益的多少,则生态安全受益方支付相应的补偿,以期通过经济补偿方式实现一定程度的生态公平。建立生态安全监控与奖惩制度,建立生态安全监控体系,对不按生态安全要求供给建设用地的,按后果的严重程度确定相应的法律责任,建立责任追究制度；对促进生态安全的,予以奖励。
生态管制制度是一个系统工程,除上述核心制度外,还需要必要的辅助制度：这些制度不能超越生态管制制度的主导地位,但对生态管制制度的实施十分有益。如生态安全信息制度、生态安全预警制度、生态安全事故应急处理制度、生态安全档案制度等。生态安全信息工作包括与生态安全有关的信息的收集、整理、分析、评价、建立数据库等,建设用地供给生态安全信息制度的内容有：生态安全信息收集、整理、分析、评价、储存、应用和公开及管理的主体、方式、程序及其监督与责任等。建设用地供给的生态危机预警制度的主要内容有：建立建设用地供给的生态安全监控系统、生态危机指标体系、危机预警体系、监督检查制度等。建设用地生态事故应急处理制度的内容有：生态安全突发事件的应急处置、恢复与重建、信息发布,以及应急组织体系、运行机制、应急保障、监督管理等。建设用地生态安全档案制度的内容有：建设用地供给生态安全的资料收集、整理、鉴定、归档、提供利用等。
生态管制制度可能与经济发展政策、市场经济体制、私有权益等发生冲突。生态管制与经济发展政策存在一定的冲突,为维护生态安全,就必须对经济增长的模式、产业政策、项目选择、资源消耗等进行必要的管制,这些管制必然影响经济增长。生态管制与市场体制之间也存在一定的冲突,生态管制是政府对资源配置的直接干预,将影响市场机制发挥其高效配置资源功能。生态管制也可能导致公益与私益间的冲突,生态管制通过限制公共权力和私有权益维护生态安全,而私人总是在寻求权益最大化。应当建立权力的公平分配、利益补偿等冲突协调机制,抑制生态危机或者暴力冲突。
基于生态安全,建设用地供给法律制度的实施主体可分为两大类,公共主体和私人主体。建设用地供给按其供给主体和实现目的不同,可以分为公共供给和市场供给。首先应当明确建设用地供给法律制度的实施主体。在建设用地公共供给法律制度的实施主体是政府,应当明确政府在建设用地安全供给中的职责与权限；建设用地市场供给法律制度的实施主体是建设用地产权人,应当明确建设用地产权人的权利与义务。主体只能在符合生态安全要求的前提下供给建设用地,未按生态安全要求提供建设用地的,应当承担相应安全责任。
基于生态安全,建设用地供给法律制度的实施流程,要以公平、公开、正义、秩序、效率、人权、安全等为目标进行设计。建设用地公共供给应当坚持以人为本、保障人的生存权与健康权,增加社会公共福利、促进社会公平、公正等原则,其基本流程是：编制公共供给规划,拟订公共供给计划,研究公共供给的可行性,取得公共供给许可,准备公共供给,实施公共供给,监管和维护公共品。建设用地市场供给流程,要坚持依法、自由、平等、诚实、信用和安全管制等原则,其基本流程是：获得市场供给资格、通过市场供给建设用地,供给主体缴纳有关税费,办理权属和用途变更登记,收集发布建设用地市场信息。
基于生态安全,建设用地供给法律制度在实施时,可能还存在规划冲突与部门冲突等问题。规划冲突表现为单个规划与其他单个规划的冲突,单个规划与整个规划体系的冲突、同一规划体系内部冲突、不同规划体系之间的冲突等。这些冲突因价值目标、针对性、区域性、时间性等的不同而存在,且难以通过完善单个规划本身而消解。应当针对整个规划体系,设计各类规划的根本性价值目标体系、效力层级体系,纳天马行空、各自为政的单个规划于统一根本价值目标、统一效力层级的规划体系。建设用地供给法律制度实施的部门冲突,则应加强行政立法,强化依法行政,尽可能协调法律法规中的价值目标冲突,根据冲突的原则与程度,制订相应的应对措施,同时改革行政管理体制,健全权力运行与监督体系。
基于生态安全,建设用地供给法律制度的实施效益评价是对建设用地安全供给法律制度有效性的定量分析与定性评价。应当建立一种涵括生态效益、经济效益和社会效益的综合评价指标体系,采用主观与客观相结合,以客观评价为主的评价方法体系,并将实施效益评价结果纳入领导班子和领导干部绩效考核体系,将实施效益做为“绩”的考核内容,使实施效益成为领导班子调整、领导干部选拔任用、奖励惩诫的依据之一
任何法律制度都不是适应所有社会状态并恒久有效,任何法律制度都应适应生态-经济-社会复合系统的阶段性变化而做阶段性调整。基于生态安全的建设用地供给法律制度,也要适时调整更新。
本文研究的重点是生态安全引导下的建设用地供给法律制度的构建与实施,强调了生态安全的引领性地位,探索建立生态管制型建设用地供给制度模式,以期为生态安全的维护在土地资源配置领域做出努力。
Construction land supply is one of the crucial factors that affect ecological security. Inadequate supply of construction land may cause structural imbalance and function decline of ecosystem. To control the ecological security threat from construction land, we must go deeper and strike the root of the problem. So we should seek scientific mode of supply from scale, structure, distribution of time or space and other elements of construction land supply. And this formation and implementation of construction land supply mode need the legal system, which has credibility, force, rechtskraft and executive force, to be ensured and promoted.
The main purpose of the research of construction land supply legal system which is based on ecological security is analyzing influencing mechanism, building legal system and implementation mechanism of ecological safety and the land supply through the research achievements and practical experience.
Domestic study of ecological security, mainly concentrated in the aspect of ecological security evaluation based on the pressure-state-response. Using RS, GIS and BP neural network to puts forward the evaluation index system, establish the evaluation model, analysis the results and put forward suggest of promoting ecological security in view of the evaluation objects. At the same time, specific area or type of ecological problems are studied and solve and maintenance measures are discussed. People who study ecological security abroad, mainly put forward the concept of ecological security, discuss the relationship among the ecological security, economic security, social security and national security. They believe every aspect such as social and economic policies, the country's political structure and the legal system that can influence the ecological security should be changed to control and reduce the ecological risk. The domestic study of construction land supply mainly has four aspects:Construction land supply policy system, construction land market supply mechanism, the property rights protection and the empirical research. And main system includes use control system and the economical and intensive system. Foreign research on construction land supply is mainly concentrated in the field of economics. The study points out that the land is one of the three factors of production. Land supply, demand and land price has its own particularity, and land supply has close relationship with economic growth, so efficient use of land resources can greatly promote economic growth. Domestic research of construction land supply which is based on ecological security includes construction land space early warning, control of the aggregate land for construction purposes and space control partition. Abroad study includes ecological city construction and ecological community construction. Study on system mainly includes environment impact assessment system and so on.
Based on ecological security construction land supply, legal system research should be based on the existing theoretical results. These theoretical results should be included security and ecological security, land supply and demand, construction land and farmland, powers and rights, the construction and implementation of legal system, etc. Referred to in this article, the ecological security, it is to point to human survival and development process, regardless of their area, including now and future, the ecological system balance in structure, stable function, and can continue to provide for human survival and development of high quality resources which meet the needs of material and spiritual enjoyment. The way of construction land supply referred in this article is the main body will supply land to qualified units or individuals at a certain price. The legal system referred in this paper is the political, economic rules and procedures created by the government according to certain purpose and procedure, as well as the implementation mechanism of them.
Between the construction land supply and ecological security, there exist two relationships:The mutual exclusion and mutual benefit. Mutual exclusion is the major relationship. It performs as severe environmental pollution, resource destruction and biological security threats due to the supply. The main reason of mutual exclusion includes:The infinite pursuit of economic growth, over-consumption of resources, insufficient control of the pollutant discharge, lack of restraint in the consumption of resources and so on. To slow the exclusion, people should adjust the scale, structure, layout and rhythm of the supply. Meanwhile, there also exists mutually beneficial relationship such as food security, environmental management and ecological improvement. The main reason that cause mutually beneficial includes government regulation, public awareness and advancement of science. The relationship could be promoted through special supply of construction land, modification on the ecological fragile area, reduce of the ecological crisis and ecological disaster relief.
According to its main goal, construction land supply approximately has the following modes:Rights protection oriented supply mode, which emphasizes the protection of rights including construction land ownership, use and other rights, and its starting point is the'legal rights should not be infringed'; economic growth oriented supply mode, which emphasizes the core status of economic development, and its starting point is'development is the absolute principle'and'delays are dangerous'; food security oriented supply mode, which emphasizes that construction land supply should not occupy basic farmland, and its starting point is'food security'; conservation and intensive utilization of resources oriented supply mode, which emphasizes the efficient use and protection of scarce resources, total quantity control of the supply, and its starting point is'Sustainable use of resources'; environment friendly oriented supply mode, which emphasizes that construction land supply shall be submitted to the low pollution, low damage, low consumption, but high benefit industry in order to reduce the damage to the environment at the same time as development, and its starting point is'Economic and social sustainable development'. But with the development of ecological security research, people begin to explore and establish ecological security oriented supply mode in order to find a way which the supply of construction land can promote the ecological security, economic growth and social harmony.
Along with the evolution of the legal system of construction land supply, ecological security value position is in evolution, too. In the supply system dominated by interests and economic growth, the ecological security value couldn't be reflected. In the supply system dominated by food security, the content of the cultivated land ecological security maintenance has already existed. In the supply system dominated by conservation and intensive land use, the scope of land resource ecological security maintenance has been expanded. In the supply system dominated by environmentally friendly, the ecological security maintenance has been reflected by environmental impact assessment. With the deepening of the ecological security research and changes of economic and social development situation, ecological security will be the basic value goal of construction land supply system.
Based on ecological security, we must set up legal system of construction land supply. Establish the basic value position of ecological security, thematic value position of economic growth and nature value position of social harmony. Economic growth should be based on the ecological security, not be at the cost of ecological security. The growth should be on the premise of ecological security. At the same time, Ecological security shall serve the economic growth. People can't impede or prohibit economic growth by maintaining ecological security. But people shall also shift the pattern of economic growth, develop circular economy and low carbon economy to reduce and control for ecological security threats. Ecological security also is the basis of social harmony which includes the harmony of man and nature. So we should build harmonious society around the theme of economic growth and on the base of ecological security. We also should establish objective system of construction land supply in such aspects like promoting ecological security, economic growth, social harmony and the application of science and technology. And adhere to the following principles:coordination between scale of construction land supply and ecological carrying capacity; coordination between the supply structure and pollution control; coordination between the layout of the supply and ecological security pattern; coordination between the rhythm of the supply and the security of ecology-economic-social system.
Based on ecological security, the supply of construction land ecological control system should be established. This system includes ecological safety standards that provide reference basis for ecological control; includes standards of classification of construction projects pollution and destruction that can give priority to the construction project with low consumption, low pollution, low damage, low investment but high benefit, and control the scale of construction land supply and the structure according to the ecological security classification and standard classification of destruction and pollution. Also, the ecological security planning should be prepared, make people to divide construction permitted zone, conditionally-permitted zone and banned zone according to needs of ecological security. So that construction land supply must conform to the ecological security planning. And supply should only be allowed in permitted zone or conditionally-permitted zone, not the banned zone. Moreover, people can issue construction land ecological safety license, they can supply construction land to construction projects which meet the requirements for ecological security after granted other qualifications. If any of the project doesn't meet the requirements for ecological security, people won't provide the qualification of supply. Meanwhile, compensation system of ecological security is necessary. According to this system, ecological security beneficiaries shall pay the corresponding compensation to region or person that may lose rights and interests due to maintain ecological security. This can achieve a certain degree of ecological justice. People can establish ecological safety monitoring and reward-penalty system, to reward someone promotes ecological and penalize someone doesn't.
Ecological control system is a system engineering, so in addition to the core system, it also need the following necessary auxiliary system which can't surpass dominant position of the core system but is good for implementation:construction land ecological compensation system, construction land crisis early warning system, construction land ecological security information system, construction land ecological safety accidents emergency response system, construction land ecological security file system, public interest and private interest conflict coordination system, public participation system and etc.. The work of ecological security information includes collecting, sorting, analysis, evaluation information and establishing the database of ecological security. The content of ecological security information system of the supply includes main body, methods, procedures, supervision and responsibility of the collecting, sorting, analysis, evaluation, storage, applications, open and management of ecological security information. The content of ecological crisis early warning system of the supply includes the monitoring system of ecological security, the index system of ecological crisis, crisis early warning system, the supervision and inspection system and etc.. The content of construction land ecological accident emergency disposal system includes emergency handling, recovery and information release, and emergency organization system, operation mechanism, emergency protection, supervision and management. The content of construction land ecological security file system includes collection, collation, archiving, identification and use of data of construction land supply ecological security.
Ecological control system may conflict with the economic development policy, the market economy system, private rights and others. There are conflicts between ecological regulation and policy of economic development. The mode, industrial policy, project selection and resource consumption of economic growth shall be controlled to maintain ecological security, that will Inevitable slow the economic growth. There is also a conflict between ecological control and market system. Ecological control is government direct intervention in the allocation of resources. This will influence the market mechanism to play its efficient allocation of resources function. Ecological control could lead to a conflict between the public and private interest, ecological control maintains ecological security by limiting the public power and private rights, and private always sought to maximize interests. Conflict coordination mechanism including equitable distribution of power and benefit compensation should be built to control the ecological crisis or violence.
The implementing subject of construction land supply legal system based on ecological security can be divided into two categories, public subject and private subject. According to the differences of supply subject and implementation purposes, construction land supply can be divided into public supply and market supply. We should clear the implementing subject of construction land supply legal system. And if the government is the subject, responsibility and authority of the government should be cleared. And if construction land property owner is the subject, rights and obligations of the owner should be cleared. Subject can only supply the land under the premise of in accordance with the requirements of the ecological security. Subject shall bear the corresponding responsibility if not in accordance with the requirements.
The implementation process of construction land supply legal system based on ecological security shall be designed by the target of fair, open, justice, order, efficiency and human rights. Construction land public supply should adhere to the principle of people-oriented, increasing social public welfare, promoting social fairness and justice. The basic process is preparing the public supply planning, formulating public supply plan, studying the feasibility of public supply, getting the license for the public supply, preparing public supply, implementing the public provision, and regulating and maintaining the public goods. Construction land market supply process should adhere to the principle of legal, freedom, equality, honesty and credit. The basic process of it is getting the qualification for market supply, supplying construction land through market, paying the relevant taxes, registering the change of the ownership and usage, and collecting and releasing construction land market information.
Implementation of construction land supply legal system based on ecological security may have issues such as planning conflicts and department conflicts. Conflict performance into conflict between single and others, single and the whole system, internal conflict, and conflict between the different system. These conflicts exist because of the difference of value goal, target, region and time. And the conflict can't be solved by perfect the individual planning. So according to the whole planning system, the fundamental value target system and effectiveness hierarchy system of all kinds of planning should be designed to unite each single planning. Administrative legislation should be strengthened to solve the department conflict of construction land supply legal system. Value goal conflict of laws and regulations shall be coordinated as far as possible. Corresponding countermeasures shall be formulated according to the principle and level of conflict. At the same time, administrative system should be improved to strengthen the power operation and supervision system.
Implementing benefit evaluation of construction land supply legal system based on ecological security is the quantitative analysis and qualitative evaluation of the effectiveness of the construction land supply legal system. A comprehensive evaluation index system including ecological benefit, economic benefit and social benefit should be established. The system use evaluation method mainly on objective evaluation and bring the results of implementing benefit evaluation into performance appraisal system of leadership, in order to make the implementing benefit become one of the basis of leadership adjustment, rewards and punishment.
Any legal system is not adapt to all social status and permanent works. And any legal system should do periodic adjustment to adapt to the phase change of the ecological-economic-social composite system. Construction land supply legal system based on ecological security also shall timely adjust.
This paper focuses on the construction of ecological security based on the legal system of land supply. The paper hope to make efforts for maintenance of ecological security by putting emphasis on steering position of ecological safety and exploring the way of establishing ecological control type of construction land supply system.
基于生态安全的建设用地供给法律制度研究的主要目的,是根据国内外对生态安全和土地供给研究的主要成果,结合建设用地供给的实践经验,分析生态安全与建设用地供给之间的相互影响机制,构建生态安全与建设用地供给之间的协调耦合的法律制度,建立有效的制度实施机制。
国内对生态安全的研究,主要集中在生态安全评价方面,基于压力—状态—响应,运用了RS、GIS、BP神经网络等技术,针对评价对象特征,提出评价指标体系,建立评价模型,分析评价结果,提出促进生态安全的建议。同时针对特定区域或特定类型的生态问题进行研究,探讨特定区域或特定类型的生态问题的解决措施与生态安全的维护措施。国外对生态安全的研究,主要提出了生态安全的概念,探讨了生态安全与经济安全、社会安全以及国家安全的关系,提出为了控制与减少生态危险,需要对影响生态安全的社会经济政策,国家政治结构,法律制度等各个方面进行变革。国内对建设用地供给的研究,主要有四个方面：建设用地供给政策制度、建设用地市场供给机制、建设用地供给产权保护、建设用地供给实证研究等,提出的主要制度有用途管制制度、节约集约制度等。国外对建设用地供给研究主要集中在经济学领域,指出土地是三大生产要素之一,土地供给、需求以及土地价格有自身的特殊性,土地供给与经济增长有着密切关系,有效的使用土地资源可极大地促进经济增长。国内对基于生态安全的建设用地供给方面的研究,有基于生态安全的建设用地空间预警、建设用地总量控制以及建设用地的空间管制分区等。国外对基于生态安全的建设用地供给的研究,主要有生态城市、生态社区的规划与建设等方面的研究。探讨建立的制度主要有环境影响评价制度等。
基于生态安全的建设用地供给法律制度研究,应当以现有的理论成果为基础。这些理论成果应当包括安全与生态安全、土地供给与需求、建设用地与农用地、权力与权利、法律制度的构建与实施等方面。本文所指的生态安全,是指人类在生存与发展过程中,不分区域,包括现在与未来,生态系统处于结构平衡、功能稳定,并且能够为人类生存与发展持续地提供物质与精神享受所需要的优质资源的状态。本文所指的建设用地供给,是指是指在特定的价值目标下,供给主体将特定的土地以一定的价格和方式提供给有取得资格的单位或者个人。本文所指的法律制度,是指由政府、国家或统治者等按照一定的目的和程序创造的政治、经济规则,以及为实施这些规则而制订的实施机制。
建设用地供给与生态安全之间,存在着互斥与互利两种关系。互斥是建设用地供给与生态安全的主要关系。互斥表现为建设用地供给导致环境污染和资源破坏加剧、生物安全受到威胁等方面。这种互斥产生的主要原因有：对经济增长的无限追求,对资源的过度索取,对污染物排放的控制不足,对资源的消耗缺乏节制等。要减缓互斥关系,应当调整建设用地供给的规模、结构、布局与节奏。建设用地供给与生态安全之间也存在互利关系,如为粮食安全和经济可持续发展、环境治理、生态改良提供建设用地等。互利关系的产生原因主要有政府管制、公众觉醒、科技进步等。互利关系的促进需要进一步通过特殊建设用地的供给,对生态脆弱区进行改良、对生态危机进行消减、对生态灾难进行救助。
建设用地供给的法律制度模式,按其主导目标的不同大致有分为以下几种：以权利保护为主导的供给制度模式,强调建设用地的权益保护,包括建设用地所有权、使用权和他项权利的保护,其出发点是“法定权益不容侵犯”;以经济增长为主导的供地制度模式,强调经济发展的绝对核心地位,建设用地供给应当全力为经济发展服务。出发点是“发展是硬道理”,“落后就要挨打”；以粮食安全为主导的供地制度模式,强调建设用地供给不得侵占基本农田,出发点是“粮食安全”；以资源节约和集约利用为主导的供地制度模式,强调对稀缺资源的合理、高效利用与保护,建设用地供给应当坚持总量控制、提升利用强度与效益等,出发点是“资源的可持续利用”；以环境友好为主导的供地制度模式,强调人类不得以牺牲环境为代价求发展,建设用地供给应当向低污染、低破坏、低消耗、高效益的行业倾斜,以求在发展的同时减少对环境的损害,出发点是“经济社会的可持续发展”。随着生态安全的提出与研究的深入,人们开始探索建立基于生态安全的建设用地供给制度模式。这一模式强调生态安全的基础性价值,旨在寻找建设用地供给促进生态安全、经济增长、社会和谐的机制与途径。
随着建设用地供给法律制度的演进,生态安全价值地位也随之演进。在以权利为主导和以经济增长为主导的供地制度中基本无生态安全价值的体现;在以粮食安全为主导的供地制度中,已有耕地生态安全维护的内容；在以节约和集约用地为主导的供地制度中,扩大了土地资源生态安全维护的范围；在以环境友好为主导的供地制度中,生态安全维护己通过环境影响评价等制度予以体现。随着生态安全研究的深入与经济社会发展态势的变化,建设用地供给制度将以生态安全为基础性价值目标。
基于生态安全,建立建设用地供给法律制度,应当确立生态安全的基础性价值地位,同时协调生态安全与经济增长、社会和谐之间的关系。经济增长应以生态安全为基础,不得以牺牲生态安全为代价求发展,应当在保障生态安全的前提下求发展。生态安全同时要为经济增长服务。不能因维护生态安全而阻碍或者禁止经济增长,但经济增长应转变增长方式、发展循环经济、低碳经济,以期减少和控制对生态安全的威胁。生态安全也是社会和谐的基础,社会和谐包括了人与自然的和谐。应当以生态安全为基础,围绕经济增长主题,建设和谐社会。以此确定建设用地供给立法中的生态安全、经济增长、社会和谐等方面的目标体系,并坚持以下原则：建设用地供给与生态承载力相协调；与污染控制相协调；与生态安全格局相协调；与生态—经济—社会复合系统状态相协调。
基于生态安全,应当建立建设用地供给生态管制制度。制订生态安全标准,为生态管制提供参照依据；制订建设项目污染与破坏分类分级标准,优先安排低污染、低破坏、低消耗、低投入、高效益的建设项目,并根据生态安全标准和污染破坏分类分级标准,控制建设用地供给规模与结构。编制生态安全规划,根据生态安全的需要,划分允许建设区、有条件建设区和禁止建设区,建设用地供给必须符合生态安全规划,在生态安全规划确定的允许建设用地区内供给建设用地,或者在满足规定条件方允许建设的区域内供给建设用地,不得在禁止建设用地区内供给建设用地。对符合生态安全要求的建设项目,颁发建设用地生态安全许可证,允许其在取得其他资格后供给建设用地的。对不符合生态安全要求的建设项目,则实行“一票否决制”,不予提供建设用地资格。建立生态安全补偿制度。对因维护生态安全而损失了权益的区域或个人,应当按其损失权益的多少,则生态安全受益方支付相应的补偿,以期通过经济补偿方式实现一定程度的生态公平。建立生态安全监控与奖惩制度,建立生态安全监控体系,对不按生态安全要求供给建设用地的,按后果的严重程度确定相应的法律责任,建立责任追究制度；对促进生态安全的,予以奖励。
生态管制制度是一个系统工程,除上述核心制度外,还需要必要的辅助制度：这些制度不能超越生态管制制度的主导地位,但对生态管制制度的实施十分有益。如生态安全信息制度、生态安全预警制度、生态安全事故应急处理制度、生态安全档案制度等。生态安全信息工作包括与生态安全有关的信息的收集、整理、分析、评价、建立数据库等,建设用地供给生态安全信息制度的内容有：生态安全信息收集、整理、分析、评价、储存、应用和公开及管理的主体、方式、程序及其监督与责任等。建设用地供给的生态危机预警制度的主要内容有：建立建设用地供给的生态安全监控系统、生态危机指标体系、危机预警体系、监督检查制度等。建设用地生态事故应急处理制度的内容有：生态安全突发事件的应急处置、恢复与重建、信息发布,以及应急组织体系、运行机制、应急保障、监督管理等。建设用地生态安全档案制度的内容有：建设用地供给生态安全的资料收集、整理、鉴定、归档、提供利用等。
生态管制制度可能与经济发展政策、市场经济体制、私有权益等发生冲突。生态管制与经济发展政策存在一定的冲突,为维护生态安全,就必须对经济增长的模式、产业政策、项目选择、资源消耗等进行必要的管制,这些管制必然影响经济增长。生态管制与市场体制之间也存在一定的冲突,生态管制是政府对资源配置的直接干预,将影响市场机制发挥其高效配置资源功能。生态管制也可能导致公益与私益间的冲突,生态管制通过限制公共权力和私有权益维护生态安全,而私人总是在寻求权益最大化。应当建立权力的公平分配、利益补偿等冲突协调机制,抑制生态危机或者暴力冲突。
基于生态安全,建设用地供给法律制度的实施主体可分为两大类,公共主体和私人主体。建设用地供给按其供给主体和实现目的不同,可以分为公共供给和市场供给。首先应当明确建设用地供给法律制度的实施主体。在建设用地公共供给法律制度的实施主体是政府,应当明确政府在建设用地安全供给中的职责与权限；建设用地市场供给法律制度的实施主体是建设用地产权人,应当明确建设用地产权人的权利与义务。主体只能在符合生态安全要求的前提下供给建设用地,未按生态安全要求提供建设用地的,应当承担相应安全责任。
基于生态安全,建设用地供给法律制度的实施流程,要以公平、公开、正义、秩序、效率、人权、安全等为目标进行设计。建设用地公共供给应当坚持以人为本、保障人的生存权与健康权,增加社会公共福利、促进社会公平、公正等原则,其基本流程是：编制公共供给规划,拟订公共供给计划,研究公共供给的可行性,取得公共供给许可,准备公共供给,实施公共供给,监管和维护公共品。建设用地市场供给流程,要坚持依法、自由、平等、诚实、信用和安全管制等原则,其基本流程是：获得市场供给资格、通过市场供给建设用地,供给主体缴纳有关税费,办理权属和用途变更登记,收集发布建设用地市场信息。
基于生态安全,建设用地供给法律制度在实施时,可能还存在规划冲突与部门冲突等问题。规划冲突表现为单个规划与其他单个规划的冲突,单个规划与整个规划体系的冲突、同一规划体系内部冲突、不同规划体系之间的冲突等。这些冲突因价值目标、针对性、区域性、时间性等的不同而存在,且难以通过完善单个规划本身而消解。应当针对整个规划体系,设计各类规划的根本性价值目标体系、效力层级体系,纳天马行空、各自为政的单个规划于统一根本价值目标、统一效力层级的规划体系。建设用地供给法律制度实施的部门冲突,则应加强行政立法,强化依法行政,尽可能协调法律法规中的价值目标冲突,根据冲突的原则与程度,制订相应的应对措施,同时改革行政管理体制,健全权力运行与监督体系。
基于生态安全,建设用地供给法律制度的实施效益评价是对建设用地安全供给法律制度有效性的定量分析与定性评价。应当建立一种涵括生态效益、经济效益和社会效益的综合评价指标体系,采用主观与客观相结合,以客观评价为主的评价方法体系,并将实施效益评价结果纳入领导班子和领导干部绩效考核体系,将实施效益做为“绩”的考核内容,使实施效益成为领导班子调整、领导干部选拔任用、奖励惩诫的依据之一
任何法律制度都不是适应所有社会状态并恒久有效,任何法律制度都应适应生态-经济-社会复合系统的阶段性变化而做阶段性调整。基于生态安全的建设用地供给法律制度,也要适时调整更新。
本文研究的重点是生态安全引导下的建设用地供给法律制度的构建与实施,强调了生态安全的引领性地位,探索建立生态管制型建设用地供给制度模式,以期为生态安全的维护在土地资源配置领域做出努力。
Construction land supply is one of the crucial factors that affect ecological security. Inadequate supply of construction land may cause structural imbalance and function decline of ecosystem. To control the ecological security threat from construction land, we must go deeper and strike the root of the problem. So we should seek scientific mode of supply from scale, structure, distribution of time or space and other elements of construction land supply. And this formation and implementation of construction land supply mode need the legal system, which has credibility, force, rechtskraft and executive force, to be ensured and promoted.
The main purpose of the research of construction land supply legal system which is based on ecological security is analyzing influencing mechanism, building legal system and implementation mechanism of ecological safety and the land supply through the research achievements and practical experience.
Domestic study of ecological security, mainly concentrated in the aspect of ecological security evaluation based on the pressure-state-response. Using RS, GIS and BP neural network to puts forward the evaluation index system, establish the evaluation model, analysis the results and put forward suggest of promoting ecological security in view of the evaluation objects. At the same time, specific area or type of ecological problems are studied and solve and maintenance measures are discussed. People who study ecological security abroad, mainly put forward the concept of ecological security, discuss the relationship among the ecological security, economic security, social security and national security. They believe every aspect such as social and economic policies, the country's political structure and the legal system that can influence the ecological security should be changed to control and reduce the ecological risk. The domestic study of construction land supply mainly has four aspects:Construction land supply policy system, construction land market supply mechanism, the property rights protection and the empirical research. And main system includes use control system and the economical and intensive system. Foreign research on construction land supply is mainly concentrated in the field of economics. The study points out that the land is one of the three factors of production. Land supply, demand and land price has its own particularity, and land supply has close relationship with economic growth, so efficient use of land resources can greatly promote economic growth. Domestic research of construction land supply which is based on ecological security includes construction land space early warning, control of the aggregate land for construction purposes and space control partition. Abroad study includes ecological city construction and ecological community construction. Study on system mainly includes environment impact assessment system and so on.
Based on ecological security construction land supply, legal system research should be based on the existing theoretical results. These theoretical results should be included security and ecological security, land supply and demand, construction land and farmland, powers and rights, the construction and implementation of legal system, etc. Referred to in this article, the ecological security, it is to point to human survival and development process, regardless of their area, including now and future, the ecological system balance in structure, stable function, and can continue to provide for human survival and development of high quality resources which meet the needs of material and spiritual enjoyment. The way of construction land supply referred in this article is the main body will supply land to qualified units or individuals at a certain price. The legal system referred in this paper is the political, economic rules and procedures created by the government according to certain purpose and procedure, as well as the implementation mechanism of them.
Between the construction land supply and ecological security, there exist two relationships:The mutual exclusion and mutual benefit. Mutual exclusion is the major relationship. It performs as severe environmental pollution, resource destruction and biological security threats due to the supply. The main reason of mutual exclusion includes:The infinite pursuit of economic growth, over-consumption of resources, insufficient control of the pollutant discharge, lack of restraint in the consumption of resources and so on. To slow the exclusion, people should adjust the scale, structure, layout and rhythm of the supply. Meanwhile, there also exists mutually beneficial relationship such as food security, environmental management and ecological improvement. The main reason that cause mutually beneficial includes government regulation, public awareness and advancement of science. The relationship could be promoted through special supply of construction land, modification on the ecological fragile area, reduce of the ecological crisis and ecological disaster relief.
According to its main goal, construction land supply approximately has the following modes:Rights protection oriented supply mode, which emphasizes the protection of rights including construction land ownership, use and other rights, and its starting point is the'legal rights should not be infringed'; economic growth oriented supply mode, which emphasizes the core status of economic development, and its starting point is'development is the absolute principle'and'delays are dangerous'; food security oriented supply mode, which emphasizes that construction land supply should not occupy basic farmland, and its starting point is'food security'; conservation and intensive utilization of resources oriented supply mode, which emphasizes the efficient use and protection of scarce resources, total quantity control of the supply, and its starting point is'Sustainable use of resources'; environment friendly oriented supply mode, which emphasizes that construction land supply shall be submitted to the low pollution, low damage, low consumption, but high benefit industry in order to reduce the damage to the environment at the same time as development, and its starting point is'Economic and social sustainable development'. But with the development of ecological security research, people begin to explore and establish ecological security oriented supply mode in order to find a way which the supply of construction land can promote the ecological security, economic growth and social harmony.
Along with the evolution of the legal system of construction land supply, ecological security value position is in evolution, too. In the supply system dominated by interests and economic growth, the ecological security value couldn't be reflected. In the supply system dominated by food security, the content of the cultivated land ecological security maintenance has already existed. In the supply system dominated by conservation and intensive land use, the scope of land resource ecological security maintenance has been expanded. In the supply system dominated by environmentally friendly, the ecological security maintenance has been reflected by environmental impact assessment. With the deepening of the ecological security research and changes of economic and social development situation, ecological security will be the basic value goal of construction land supply system.
Based on ecological security, we must set up legal system of construction land supply. Establish the basic value position of ecological security, thematic value position of economic growth and nature value position of social harmony. Economic growth should be based on the ecological security, not be at the cost of ecological security. The growth should be on the premise of ecological security. At the same time, Ecological security shall serve the economic growth. People can't impede or prohibit economic growth by maintaining ecological security. But people shall also shift the pattern of economic growth, develop circular economy and low carbon economy to reduce and control for ecological security threats. Ecological security also is the basis of social harmony which includes the harmony of man and nature. So we should build harmonious society around the theme of economic growth and on the base of ecological security. We also should establish objective system of construction land supply in such aspects like promoting ecological security, economic growth, social harmony and the application of science and technology. And adhere to the following principles:coordination between scale of construction land supply and ecological carrying capacity; coordination between the supply structure and pollution control; coordination between the layout of the supply and ecological security pattern; coordination between the rhythm of the supply and the security of ecology-economic-social system.
Based on ecological security, the supply of construction land ecological control system should be established. This system includes ecological safety standards that provide reference basis for ecological control; includes standards of classification of construction projects pollution and destruction that can give priority to the construction project with low consumption, low pollution, low damage, low investment but high benefit, and control the scale of construction land supply and the structure according to the ecological security classification and standard classification of destruction and pollution. Also, the ecological security planning should be prepared, make people to divide construction permitted zone, conditionally-permitted zone and banned zone according to needs of ecological security. So that construction land supply must conform to the ecological security planning. And supply should only be allowed in permitted zone or conditionally-permitted zone, not the banned zone. Moreover, people can issue construction land ecological safety license, they can supply construction land to construction projects which meet the requirements for ecological security after granted other qualifications. If any of the project doesn't meet the requirements for ecological security, people won't provide the qualification of supply. Meanwhile, compensation system of ecological security is necessary. According to this system, ecological security beneficiaries shall pay the corresponding compensation to region or person that may lose rights and interests due to maintain ecological security. This can achieve a certain degree of ecological justice. People can establish ecological safety monitoring and reward-penalty system, to reward someone promotes ecological and penalize someone doesn't.
Ecological control system is a system engineering, so in addition to the core system, it also need the following necessary auxiliary system which can't surpass dominant position of the core system but is good for implementation:construction land ecological compensation system, construction land crisis early warning system, construction land ecological security information system, construction land ecological safety accidents emergency response system, construction land ecological security file system, public interest and private interest conflict coordination system, public participation system and etc.. The work of ecological security information includes collecting, sorting, analysis, evaluation information and establishing the database of ecological security. The content of ecological security information system of the supply includes main body, methods, procedures, supervision and responsibility of the collecting, sorting, analysis, evaluation, storage, applications, open and management of ecological security information. The content of ecological crisis early warning system of the supply includes the monitoring system of ecological security, the index system of ecological crisis, crisis early warning system, the supervision and inspection system and etc.. The content of construction land ecological accident emergency disposal system includes emergency handling, recovery and information release, and emergency organization system, operation mechanism, emergency protection, supervision and management. The content of construction land ecological security file system includes collection, collation, archiving, identification and use of data of construction land supply ecological security.
Ecological control system may conflict with the economic development policy, the market economy system, private rights and others. There are conflicts between ecological regulation and policy of economic development. The mode, industrial policy, project selection and resource consumption of economic growth shall be controlled to maintain ecological security, that will Inevitable slow the economic growth. There is also a conflict between ecological control and market system. Ecological control is government direct intervention in the allocation of resources. This will influence the market mechanism to play its efficient allocation of resources function. Ecological control could lead to a conflict between the public and private interest, ecological control maintains ecological security by limiting the public power and private rights, and private always sought to maximize interests. Conflict coordination mechanism including equitable distribution of power and benefit compensation should be built to control the ecological crisis or violence.
The implementing subject of construction land supply legal system based on ecological security can be divided into two categories, public subject and private subject. According to the differences of supply subject and implementation purposes, construction land supply can be divided into public supply and market supply. We should clear the implementing subject of construction land supply legal system. And if the government is the subject, responsibility and authority of the government should be cleared. And if construction land property owner is the subject, rights and obligations of the owner should be cleared. Subject can only supply the land under the premise of in accordance with the requirements of the ecological security. Subject shall bear the corresponding responsibility if not in accordance with the requirements.
The implementation process of construction land supply legal system based on ecological security shall be designed by the target of fair, open, justice, order, efficiency and human rights. Construction land public supply should adhere to the principle of people-oriented, increasing social public welfare, promoting social fairness and justice. The basic process is preparing the public supply planning, formulating public supply plan, studying the feasibility of public supply, getting the license for the public supply, preparing public supply, implementing the public provision, and regulating and maintaining the public goods. Construction land market supply process should adhere to the principle of legal, freedom, equality, honesty and credit. The basic process of it is getting the qualification for market supply, supplying construction land through market, paying the relevant taxes, registering the change of the ownership and usage, and collecting and releasing construction land market information.
Implementation of construction land supply legal system based on ecological security may have issues such as planning conflicts and department conflicts. Conflict performance into conflict between single and others, single and the whole system, internal conflict, and conflict between the different system. These conflicts exist because of the difference of value goal, target, region and time. And the conflict can't be solved by perfect the individual planning. So according to the whole planning system, the fundamental value target system and effectiveness hierarchy system of all kinds of planning should be designed to unite each single planning. Administrative legislation should be strengthened to solve the department conflict of construction land supply legal system. Value goal conflict of laws and regulations shall be coordinated as far as possible. Corresponding countermeasures shall be formulated according to the principle and level of conflict. At the same time, administrative system should be improved to strengthen the power operation and supervision system.
Implementing benefit evaluation of construction land supply legal system based on ecological security is the quantitative analysis and qualitative evaluation of the effectiveness of the construction land supply legal system. A comprehensive evaluation index system including ecological benefit, economic benefit and social benefit should be established. The system use evaluation method mainly on objective evaluation and bring the results of implementing benefit evaluation into performance appraisal system of leadership, in order to make the implementing benefit become one of the basis of leadership adjustment, rewards and punishment.
Any legal system is not adapt to all social status and permanent works. And any legal system should do periodic adjustment to adapt to the phase change of the ecological-economic-social composite system. Construction land supply legal system based on ecological security also shall timely adjust.
This paper focuses on the construction of ecological security based on the legal system of land supply. The paper hope to make efforts for maintenance of ecological security by putting emphasis on steering position of ecological safety and exploring the way of establishing ecological control type of construction land supply system.
引文
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