含钪钛合金的制备及其相关基础问题研究
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摘要
钛及钛合金作为一种重要的结构材料,从上世纪50年代以来就已成为研究的热点。热点之一就是通过合金化不断开发新的合金体系以提高钛及钛合金室温和高温性能。论文作者采用真空电弧熔炼和真空自耗电极电弧熔炼技术制备了Ti-Sc、Ti-Al-Sc以及Ti-Al-V-Sc系的系列合金,借助光学显微镜、扫描电子显微镜、透射电子显微镜、差热分析仪、X射线衍射仪、显微硬度计以及热模拟实验机等手段,研究了合金化元素Sc对钛及钛合金相转变、相组成、组织演变、高温变形及其机制等物理冶金问题的影响,主要研究内容及结论如下:
(1)研究了Sc元素的添加对Ti的α→β相转变过程中组织形态、显微硬度、晶格常数的影响,并从热力学角度分析了Sc对Ti的影响。结果表明:添加2wt%Sc显著细化了Ti的铸态显微组织并将显微硬度从190HV_(0.01)提高至308HV_(0.01);随Sc含量增加,合金组织组织形态由块状和针状α(Ti-2Sc和Ti-5Sc)变化为沿β晶界生长的α片层簇组织(Ti-25Sc)以及螺旋状组织(Ti-37Sc);合金的晶格常数a、c和c/a在αTi相区内(＜7wt%Sc)随Sc含量的变化而呈线性变化,而在(α-Ti+α-Sc)两相区内(＞25wt%Sc)变化不大;Sc降低了Ti的α→β相变温度,是Ti的β稳定化元素。
(2)研究了Sc对Ti-Al二元合金和Ti-6Al-4V合金的组织形态、相组成和显微硬度的影响。结果表明:Sc显著细化了主要由αTi和Ti_3Al相组成的Ti-6Al和Ti-10Al合金的铸态组织,添加Sc后还有AlSc和Al_3Sc相生成。Sc降低了铸态Ti-6Al和Ti-10Al合金的显微硬度,后者显微硬度高于前者。经β相区、近α+β相区和α相区温度下真空退火后,Ti-6Al合金中Ti_3Al相消失,Ti-3Al-3Sc和Ti-8Al-2Sc合金中Al_3Sc相消失,Ti-10Al合金中有次生Ti_3Al相生成。退火态Ti-Al和Ti-Al-Sc合金的显微硬度均高于铸态时的显微硬度,并且随退火温度升高显微硬度有所增加。添加0.3wt%Sc显著细化了Ti-6Al-4V合金中的α片层组织,对原始β晶粒尺寸影响不大,添加0.5wt%Sc后α片层组织和原始β晶粒均得到细化,等轴状α相的体积分数减少,片层状α相的体积分数增加,Sc提高了片层α相的显微硬度,合金在锻造过程中因内氧化而生成弥散分布的Sc_2O_3颗粒。
(3)研究了Ti-6Al-4V、Ti-6Al-4V-0.3wt%Sc和Ti-6Al-4V-0.5wt%Sc合金高温压缩变形的特点。合金的流变应力随变形温度升高和应变速率降低而减小,850℃下,合金的流变应力升至峰值后呈现动态软化特征。当温度升高至850℃以上时,合金的流变形应力升至峰值后呈现稳态流变特征,并且部分变形条件下呈现应变硬化特征。在(?)=1s~(-1)/850℃、(?)=0.1s~(-1)/850℃和(?)=1s~(-1)/1050℃变形条件下,Sc明显提高了合金的峰值应力。以Sellars和Tegart提出的包含变形激活能Q和温度T的双曲正弦形式本构模型为基础,求得了合金高温变形的材料常数,并建立了合金高温变形流变应力本构方程。Ti-6Al-4V、Ti-6Al-4V-0.3Sc和Ti-6Al-4V-0.5Sc合金的激活能在β相区分别为134.014kJ/mol、121.643kJ/mol和101.367kJ/mol,在α+β两相区分别为670.474kJ/mol、542.273kJ/mol和679.783kJ/mol。合金高温变形的局部化流变参数φ值受应变速率的影响较大,温度一定时,随应变速率增加而减小,β相区的φ值小于α+β两相区的φ值,Sc含量对φ值的影响不大。
(4)基于热加工图的基本原理,采用Ti-6Al-4V、Ti-6Al-4V-0.3Sc和Ti-6Al-4V-0.5Sc合金的高温压缩实验数据分别绘制了合金在应变为0.05、0.2、0.4和0.6时的热加工图,讨论了合金的变形稳定性。在四种真应变条件下,合金在低温和高温下共有2～3个流变失稳区域出现,失稳区域的范围随真应变和Sc含量的增加而变大,主要是应变速率范围的增大。在部分失稳条件下的样品中观察到了绝热剪切带、局部化流变、压缩试样表面开裂等失稳现象。Ti-6Al-4V合金的峰值功率耗散效率随Sc含量的增加而降低,即在合金变形初始态显微组织由等轴状向针状变化时,峰值功率耗散效率降低。三合金在较宽的变形条件范围内均具备动态再结晶发生的条件。
(5)利用光学金相和透射电子显微分析研究了Sc(0.3wt%,0.5wt%)对Ti-6Al-4V合金在β相区和α+β相区变形机制的影响。在β单相区变形时,合金在低应变速率下发生自扩散控制的大晶粒超塑性变形,原始β晶粒清晰可见,β相转变为针状α马氏体相;高应变速率下试样边部发生再结晶,内部晶粒由于变形被拉长,添加Sc使再结晶出现时的应变速率减小,此时再结晶为静态再结晶;添加Sc使低应变速率变形后原始β晶粒尺寸有所减小,对高应变速率变形后的晶粒尺寸没有太大影响。合金在α+β两相区变形时,不管在高应变速率还是在低应变速率下,α相均发生了动态再结晶;Ti-6Al-4V合金出现绝热剪切带,再结晶晶粒呈等轴状态,合金试样内部晶粒受变形被拉长;添加Sc后使动态再结晶更为明显,并且再结晶晶粒尺寸较大,没有明显的绝热剪切带出现,仅在合金试样内部有局部化流变带产生。合金变形组织的不均匀性随变形温度的升高而变小,变形过程中的绝热温升不是影响组织不均匀性的主要因素。在850℃/0.1s~(-1)变形条件下,添加Sc后Ti-6Al-4V合金的变形组织出现孪晶特征的层片状α相、晶界处的位错塞积、等轴α晶粒内部的位错消失以及细小弥散析出相等,这也正是在低温高应变速率变形条件下Sc提高合金峰值应力的原因。
As important structural materials,titanium and its alloys had attracted much attention and remained long time hot topics since 1950s.One way to solve problems such as low room temperature plasticity,poor high temperature strength and service temperature is to develop new alloying system with better properties.In this paper,the alloys of Ti-Sc,Ti-Al-Sc and Ti-Al-V-Sc systems were prepared by vacuum arc melting and vacuum self consumable arc melting techniques.The influence of Sc on phase transformation,phase component,microstructure evolution and high temperature plastic deformation and its mechanism of titanium and titanium alloys were investigated by optical microscope,scanning electron microscope,transmission electron microscope,differential scanning calorimeter,X-ray diffraction instrument, microhardness tester and thermal simulation machine.The main contents and conclusions are as followings:
(1) The influence of Sc on phase transformation,microstructure,microhardness and lattice constant of pure Ti showed that,the addition of 2wt%Sc markedly refined the microstructure of as-cast pure Ti and improved its microhardness from about 190HV_(0.01) to 308 HV_(0.01).With the increase of Sc content,the microstructures of alloys changed from bulk and acicularαphase(Ti-2Sc and Ti-5Sc) toαcolony along priorβgrain boundary(Ti-25Sc) and spiral helicine grains(Ti-37Sc).The lattice constants ofα,c and c/a values change with Sc content inαTi(＜7wt%Sc) phase region,but remain constant in(αTi+αSc)(＞25wt%Sc) two-phase region with little difference.The addition of Sc lowered the temperature ofα→βphase transformation, T_(α/β),furthermore,based on thermodynamic analysis Sc was functioned as aβ-phase stabilizer.
(2) The influence of Sc on phase component,microstructure evolution and mcirohardness of Ti-Al binary alloys and Ti-6Al-4V alloy were investigated.Sc helped to refine as-cast microstructure remarkably of Ti-6Al and Ti-10Al alloys,the phase component of as-cast Ti-Al binary alloys was mainlyαTi and Ti_3Al,AlSc and Al_3Sc phases appeared in the alloys after the addition of Sc.After vacuum annealing inβphase region,nearα+βphase region andαphase region,Ti_3Al phase disappeared in Ti-6Al alloy,Al_3Sc phase disappeared in Ti-3Al-3Sc and Ti-8Al-2Sc alloy, secondary Ti_3Al phase formed in Ti-10Al alloy.The microhardness of annealed Ti-Al and Ti-Al-Sc alloys were higher than that of as-cast alloys and increased with annealing temperature.The addition of 0.3wt%Sc refinedαcolony and had little effect on size of priorβgrain of Ti-6Al-4V alloy,however,the addition of 0.5wt%Sc not only refinedαcolony but also priorβgrain.Sc improved the microhardness of lamellarαphase and had little effect on the microhardness of bulkαphase.During the forging process of Ti-6Al-4V alloy,Sc formed oxide Sc_2O_3 due to the internal oxidation.After forging,the volume fraction of equiaxedαdecreased and lamellarαphase increased respectively with the increase of Sc content.
(3) The high temperature deformation characteristics of Ti-6Al-4V, Ti-6Al-4V-0.3wt%Sc and Ti-6Al-4V-0.5wt%Sc alloy were investigated.Flow stress of alloys decreased with the increase of deformation temperature and the decrease of strain rate.Deformed at 850℃,the flow stress showed soften feature after peak state. With the increase of deformation temperature,the flow stress rapidly arrive peak followed by a steady state,some cases appeared strain hardening.The addition of Sc improved the peak stress value of Ti-6Al-4V alloy under the deformation conditions of(?)=1s~(-1)/850℃,(?)=0.1~s~(-1)/850℃and(?)=1s~(-1)/1050℃.On the basis of hyperbolic sine constitutive model containing activation energy Q and temperature T proposed by Sellars and Tegart,the materials constant and flow stress constitutive equations of high temperature deformation were obtained.The deformation activation energy of Ti-6Al-4V,Ti-6Al-4V-0.3Sc and Ti-6Al-4V-0.5Sc alloys inβphase region were 134.014kJ/mol,121.643kJ/mol and 101.367kJ/mol respectively,inα+βphase region were 670.474kJ/mol,542.273kJ/mol and 679.783kJ/mol.When the deformation temperature was determined,the flow localization parameterφwhich depended on strain rate decreased with the strain rate.The parameterφvalues inβphase region were higher than that inα+βphase region,Sc content had little effect on parameterφ.
(4) Based on the principle of thermal processing map,high temperature compressed deformation datas were used to obtain the processing map of Ti-6Al-4V, Ti-6Al-4V-0.3Sc and Ti-6Al-4V-0.5Sc alloys under the true stain of 0.05,0.2,0.4 and 0.6,depending on the maps the deformation stability of alloys was discussed.At four true strains,there were two or three instable regions in high and low temperature range.The range of instable regions enlarged with the increase of true strain and Sc content,especially of strain rate range.Under some instable conditions,adiabatic shear band.flow localization and cracks on the surface were observed in compressed samples.The peak power dissipation efficiency of alloys decreased with the Sc content.The peak power dissipation efficiency of equiaxed microstructure was higher than that of acicular microstructure.The alloys had dynamic recrystallization condition in a large range of deformation conditions.
(5) The influence of Sc on deformation mechanism of Ti-6Al-4V alloy was studied by optical microscope and transmission electron microscope.Inβphase region,large grain superplasticity deformation controlled by self-diffusion happened at low strain rates,the priorβgrain boundary was clear andβphase transformed to acicular martensiteαphase;the static recrystallization appeared at edge part of deformed samples and prior grains were prolonged under the compressed pressure.The addition of Sc lowered the strain rate at which recrystallization can happen,and refined priorβgrain after low strain rate deformation,but had little effect on the size of priorβgrain after high strain rate deformation.Inα+βphase region,dynamic recrystallization happened inαphase under low and high strain rate deformation;adiabatic shear band appeared in Ti-6Al-4V alloy with equiaxed recrystallized and prolonged grains;after the addition of Sc to Ti-6Al-4V alloy,the dynamic recrystallization was more obvious and has larger grain size.There was no evident adiabatic shear band in alloy with Sc, only flow localization appeared.The deformation microstructure of alloy was more homogeneous at higher temperature,and the adiabatic temperature rise was not the main reason for inhomogeneous microstructure.Under the deformation conditions of low temperature and high strain rate,the addition of Sc improved the peak stress value of Ti-6Al-4V alloy,the transmission electron microscope observation show the mechanism,such as lamellarαphase showing twinning characteristic,dislocation pile up near the grain boundary,dislocation disappeared inside equiaxed grains and fine precipitations.
(1)研究了Sc元素的添加对Ti的α→β相转变过程中组织形态、显微硬度、晶格常数的影响,并从热力学角度分析了Sc对Ti的影响。结果表明:添加2wt%Sc显著细化了Ti的铸态显微组织并将显微硬度从190HV_(0.01)提高至308HV_(0.01);随Sc含量增加,合金组织组织形态由块状和针状α(Ti-2Sc和Ti-5Sc)变化为沿β晶界生长的α片层簇组织(Ti-25Sc)以及螺旋状组织(Ti-37Sc);合金的晶格常数a、c和c/a在αTi相区内(＜7wt%Sc)随Sc含量的变化而呈线性变化,而在(α-Ti+α-Sc)两相区内(＞25wt%Sc)变化不大;Sc降低了Ti的α→β相变温度,是Ti的β稳定化元素。
(2)研究了Sc对Ti-Al二元合金和Ti-6Al-4V合金的组织形态、相组成和显微硬度的影响。结果表明:Sc显著细化了主要由αTi和Ti_3Al相组成的Ti-6Al和Ti-10Al合金的铸态组织,添加Sc后还有AlSc和Al_3Sc相生成。Sc降低了铸态Ti-6Al和Ti-10Al合金的显微硬度,后者显微硬度高于前者。经β相区、近α+β相区和α相区温度下真空退火后,Ti-6Al合金中Ti_3Al相消失,Ti-3Al-3Sc和Ti-8Al-2Sc合金中Al_3Sc相消失,Ti-10Al合金中有次生Ti_3Al相生成。退火态Ti-Al和Ti-Al-Sc合金的显微硬度均高于铸态时的显微硬度,并且随退火温度升高显微硬度有所增加。添加0.3wt%Sc显著细化了Ti-6Al-4V合金中的α片层组织,对原始β晶粒尺寸影响不大,添加0.5wt%Sc后α片层组织和原始β晶粒均得到细化,等轴状α相的体积分数减少,片层状α相的体积分数增加,Sc提高了片层α相的显微硬度,合金在锻造过程中因内氧化而生成弥散分布的Sc_2O_3颗粒。
(3)研究了Ti-6Al-4V、Ti-6Al-4V-0.3wt%Sc和Ti-6Al-4V-0.5wt%Sc合金高温压缩变形的特点。合金的流变应力随变形温度升高和应变速率降低而减小,850℃下,合金的流变应力升至峰值后呈现动态软化特征。当温度升高至850℃以上时,合金的流变形应力升至峰值后呈现稳态流变特征,并且部分变形条件下呈现应变硬化特征。在(?)=1s~(-1)/850℃、(?)=0.1s~(-1)/850℃和(?)=1s~(-1)/1050℃变形条件下,Sc明显提高了合金的峰值应力。以Sellars和Tegart提出的包含变形激活能Q和温度T的双曲正弦形式本构模型为基础,求得了合金高温变形的材料常数,并建立了合金高温变形流变应力本构方程。Ti-6Al-4V、Ti-6Al-4V-0.3Sc和Ti-6Al-4V-0.5Sc合金的激活能在β相区分别为134.014kJ/mol、121.643kJ/mol和101.367kJ/mol,在α+β两相区分别为670.474kJ/mol、542.273kJ/mol和679.783kJ/mol。合金高温变形的局部化流变参数φ值受应变速率的影响较大,温度一定时,随应变速率增加而减小,β相区的φ值小于α+β两相区的φ值,Sc含量对φ值的影响不大。
(4)基于热加工图的基本原理,采用Ti-6Al-4V、Ti-6Al-4V-0.3Sc和Ti-6Al-4V-0.5Sc合金的高温压缩实验数据分别绘制了合金在应变为0.05、0.2、0.4和0.6时的热加工图,讨论了合金的变形稳定性。在四种真应变条件下,合金在低温和高温下共有2～3个流变失稳区域出现,失稳区域的范围随真应变和Sc含量的增加而变大,主要是应变速率范围的增大。在部分失稳条件下的样品中观察到了绝热剪切带、局部化流变、压缩试样表面开裂等失稳现象。Ti-6Al-4V合金的峰值功率耗散效率随Sc含量的增加而降低,即在合金变形初始态显微组织由等轴状向针状变化时,峰值功率耗散效率降低。三合金在较宽的变形条件范围内均具备动态再结晶发生的条件。
(5)利用光学金相和透射电子显微分析研究了Sc(0.3wt%,0.5wt%)对Ti-6Al-4V合金在β相区和α+β相区变形机制的影响。在β单相区变形时,合金在低应变速率下发生自扩散控制的大晶粒超塑性变形,原始β晶粒清晰可见,β相转变为针状α马氏体相;高应变速率下试样边部发生再结晶,内部晶粒由于变形被拉长,添加Sc使再结晶出现时的应变速率减小,此时再结晶为静态再结晶;添加Sc使低应变速率变形后原始β晶粒尺寸有所减小,对高应变速率变形后的晶粒尺寸没有太大影响。合金在α+β两相区变形时,不管在高应变速率还是在低应变速率下,α相均发生了动态再结晶;Ti-6Al-4V合金出现绝热剪切带,再结晶晶粒呈等轴状态,合金试样内部晶粒受变形被拉长;添加Sc后使动态再结晶更为明显,并且再结晶晶粒尺寸较大,没有明显的绝热剪切带出现,仅在合金试样内部有局部化流变带产生。合金变形组织的不均匀性随变形温度的升高而变小,变形过程中的绝热温升不是影响组织不均匀性的主要因素。在850℃/0.1s~(-1)变形条件下,添加Sc后Ti-6Al-4V合金的变形组织出现孪晶特征的层片状α相、晶界处的位错塞积、等轴α晶粒内部的位错消失以及细小弥散析出相等,这也正是在低温高应变速率变形条件下Sc提高合金峰值应力的原因。
As important structural materials,titanium and its alloys had attracted much attention and remained long time hot topics since 1950s.One way to solve problems such as low room temperature plasticity,poor high temperature strength and service temperature is to develop new alloying system with better properties.In this paper,the alloys of Ti-Sc,Ti-Al-Sc and Ti-Al-V-Sc systems were prepared by vacuum arc melting and vacuum self consumable arc melting techniques.The influence of Sc on phase transformation,phase component,microstructure evolution and high temperature plastic deformation and its mechanism of titanium and titanium alloys were investigated by optical microscope,scanning electron microscope,transmission electron microscope,differential scanning calorimeter,X-ray diffraction instrument, microhardness tester and thermal simulation machine.The main contents and conclusions are as followings:
(1) The influence of Sc on phase transformation,microstructure,microhardness and lattice constant of pure Ti showed that,the addition of 2wt%Sc markedly refined the microstructure of as-cast pure Ti and improved its microhardness from about 190HV_(0.01) to 308 HV_(0.01).With the increase of Sc content,the microstructures of alloys changed from bulk and acicularαphase(Ti-2Sc and Ti-5Sc) toαcolony along priorβgrain boundary(Ti-25Sc) and spiral helicine grains(Ti-37Sc).The lattice constants ofα,c and c/a values change with Sc content inαTi(＜7wt%Sc) phase region,but remain constant in(αTi+αSc)(＞25wt%Sc) two-phase region with little difference.The addition of Sc lowered the temperature ofα→βphase transformation, T_(α/β),furthermore,based on thermodynamic analysis Sc was functioned as aβ-phase stabilizer.
(2) The influence of Sc on phase component,microstructure evolution and mcirohardness of Ti-Al binary alloys and Ti-6Al-4V alloy were investigated.Sc helped to refine as-cast microstructure remarkably of Ti-6Al and Ti-10Al alloys,the phase component of as-cast Ti-Al binary alloys was mainlyαTi and Ti_3Al,AlSc and Al_3Sc phases appeared in the alloys after the addition of Sc.After vacuum annealing inβphase region,nearα+βphase region andαphase region,Ti_3Al phase disappeared in Ti-6Al alloy,Al_3Sc phase disappeared in Ti-3Al-3Sc and Ti-8Al-2Sc alloy, secondary Ti_3Al phase formed in Ti-10Al alloy.The microhardness of annealed Ti-Al and Ti-Al-Sc alloys were higher than that of as-cast alloys and increased with annealing temperature.The addition of 0.3wt%Sc refinedαcolony and had little effect on size of priorβgrain of Ti-6Al-4V alloy,however,the addition of 0.5wt%Sc not only refinedαcolony but also priorβgrain.Sc improved the microhardness of lamellarαphase and had little effect on the microhardness of bulkαphase.During the forging process of Ti-6Al-4V alloy,Sc formed oxide Sc_2O_3 due to the internal oxidation.After forging,the volume fraction of equiaxedαdecreased and lamellarαphase increased respectively with the increase of Sc content.
(3) The high temperature deformation characteristics of Ti-6Al-4V, Ti-6Al-4V-0.3wt%Sc and Ti-6Al-4V-0.5wt%Sc alloy were investigated.Flow stress of alloys decreased with the increase of deformation temperature and the decrease of strain rate.Deformed at 850℃,the flow stress showed soften feature after peak state. With the increase of deformation temperature,the flow stress rapidly arrive peak followed by a steady state,some cases appeared strain hardening.The addition of Sc improved the peak stress value of Ti-6Al-4V alloy under the deformation conditions of(?)=1s~(-1)/850℃,(?)=0.1~s~(-1)/850℃and(?)=1s~(-1)/1050℃.On the basis of hyperbolic sine constitutive model containing activation energy Q and temperature T proposed by Sellars and Tegart,the materials constant and flow stress constitutive equations of high temperature deformation were obtained.The deformation activation energy of Ti-6Al-4V,Ti-6Al-4V-0.3Sc and Ti-6Al-4V-0.5Sc alloys inβphase region were 134.014kJ/mol,121.643kJ/mol and 101.367kJ/mol respectively,inα+βphase region were 670.474kJ/mol,542.273kJ/mol and 679.783kJ/mol.When the deformation temperature was determined,the flow localization parameterφwhich depended on strain rate decreased with the strain rate.The parameterφvalues inβphase region were higher than that inα+βphase region,Sc content had little effect on parameterφ.
(4) Based on the principle of thermal processing map,high temperature compressed deformation datas were used to obtain the processing map of Ti-6Al-4V, Ti-6Al-4V-0.3Sc and Ti-6Al-4V-0.5Sc alloys under the true stain of 0.05,0.2,0.4 and 0.6,depending on the maps the deformation stability of alloys was discussed.At four true strains,there were two or three instable regions in high and low temperature range.The range of instable regions enlarged with the increase of true strain and Sc content,especially of strain rate range.Under some instable conditions,adiabatic shear band.flow localization and cracks on the surface were observed in compressed samples.The peak power dissipation efficiency of alloys decreased with the Sc content.The peak power dissipation efficiency of equiaxed microstructure was higher than that of acicular microstructure.The alloys had dynamic recrystallization condition in a large range of deformation conditions.
(5) The influence of Sc on deformation mechanism of Ti-6Al-4V alloy was studied by optical microscope and transmission electron microscope.Inβphase region,large grain superplasticity deformation controlled by self-diffusion happened at low strain rates,the priorβgrain boundary was clear andβphase transformed to acicular martensiteαphase;the static recrystallization appeared at edge part of deformed samples and prior grains were prolonged under the compressed pressure.The addition of Sc lowered the strain rate at which recrystallization can happen,and refined priorβgrain after low strain rate deformation,but had little effect on the size of priorβgrain after high strain rate deformation.Inα+βphase region,dynamic recrystallization happened inαphase under low and high strain rate deformation;adiabatic shear band appeared in Ti-6Al-4V alloy with equiaxed recrystallized and prolonged grains;after the addition of Sc to Ti-6Al-4V alloy,the dynamic recrystallization was more obvious and has larger grain size.There was no evident adiabatic shear band in alloy with Sc, only flow localization appeared.The deformation microstructure of alloy was more homogeneous at higher temperature,and the adiabatic temperature rise was not the main reason for inhomogeneous microstructure.Under the deformation conditions of low temperature and high strain rate,the addition of Sc improved the peak stress value of Ti-6Al-4V alloy,the transmission electron microscope observation show the mechanism,such as lamellarαphase showing twinning characteristic,dislocation pile up near the grain boundary,dislocation disappeared inside equiaxed grains and fine precipitations.
引文
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