美国公共外交研究（1917-2009）
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摘要
外交是人类文明发展的产物,是人类解决争端、谋求合作的理性手段。随着国际交往的扩大和相互依存度的提高,各国公众越来越关注国际问题,了解外部世界,参与国际事务,加强国际交流。由于公众地位的变化,其在国家政策的决策过程中发挥着越来越重要的作用。世界各主要国家都力争以本国利益为出发点,在普通大众中树立良好的国家形象,宣传和解释自己的政策,传播自己的价值观,以达到影响国际舆论、进而实现本国利益最大化的目的。时代的进步把针对别国公众进行的公共外交提到了重要位置,使其成为国家外交活动的重要组成部分。
美国是世界上公共外交强度最大、活动方式最多的国家。公共外交是美国对外政策中不可忽视的组成部分,是美国推行外交政策,塑造国家形象并赢得国际舆论支持的重要武器,对美国对外政策起到了重要的辅助作用。从美国立国以来,历经两次世界大战、旷日持久的冷战,其策略手法样式繁多、总体特点鲜明突出。
本文对美国公共外交的历史进行分期,并从公共外交的执行机构、主要公共外交活动、重点战略区域的公共外交策略、公共外交的监督体系、公共外交的法律体系以及公共外交的缺陷等方面对美国公共外交的历史进行描述。
独立战争期间,公共外交就为美国创造良好的国际环境发挥了作用。而后,美国一直进行公共外交活动。一战期间,美国政府设立公共信息委员会,开始有意识的公共外交活动。一战结束后到二战爆发前,美国的国际传播渠道、和专门的公共外交机构建立,公共外交活动从国际广播、电影、图书出版和国际教育等方面逐渐开展。二战期间,公共外交为美国赢得军事上的胜利发挥了不可忽视的作用。
在冷战全面展开以后,美国的公共外交逐渐展开并确立在国家政治生活中的地位。美国新闻署,负责教育和文化事务的助理国务卿、负责公共外交和公共事务的副国务卿、公共外交咨询委员会先后成立或设置,公共外交逐渐成为一个独立的外交领域。这些机构与教育与文化事务局、国际信息局、中央情报局、国防部等一同构成了公共外交的政策指导机构、执行机构和监督机构。
美联社、合众社、美国之音、自由欧洲电台、自由电台、马蒂电台和电视台、自由亚洲电台、自由伊拉克电台、自由阿富汗电台、萨瓦电台、法达电台等共同构成了美国国际信息网络,对于宣传美国政策、介绍美国信息、反驳敌对宣传、使外国民众了解美国的历史、文化和社会制度等起了重要作用。
除了国际信息网络之外,美国政府利用出版和翻译图书、出口电影、鼓励和资助学生和专家之间的国际交流、向外国派遣“和平队”志愿者等方式,向外输出美国的文化与价值观,影响外国公众,树立美国良好的国家形象。其中富布赖特计划、和平队计划等都是通过法案确立了其合法地位的、长期开展的公共外交活动。
美国还通过了《富布赖特法案》、《史密斯—蒙特法案》、《富布赖特—海斯法》《和平队法案》、《国际教育法》、《国际广播法》、《情报改革与防止恐怖主义法》等法律,共同组成了公共外交的法律体系,一方面保障公共外交有序、健康地开展,另一方面保障美国公民的合法权利不受到对外信息宣传和过度反恐的侵害。
总的来说,经过几十年的发展,美国的公共外交已经确立了比较完整的政策指导机构、执行机构和监督机构,开展了一些大规模的公共外交活动,建立并完善了公共外交法律体系。
但是,美国的公共外交也存在重大缺陷。第一,美国的公共外交缺乏主动性,无论是在冷战还是“9·11”事件,美国政府总是在重大国际事件发生之后才大规模开展应激性的公共外交。第二,美国的公共外交缺乏战略观念,美国政府对公共外交的投入一直在低水平徘徊,公共外交没有得到美国政府应有的重视。第三,无论是在越南战争时期,还是“9·11”事件之后,美国时常采取不得人心的政策,其公共外交也不可能取得良好的效果。
针对美国公共外交的优势和缺陷,本文提出对我国公共外交活动的建议:第一,要订立长远战略规划;第二,要建立公共外交的长效机制;第三,要加强民间力量的参与;第四,公共外要覆盖尽可能多的公众;第五,要培育开放的接收体系;第六,开展公共外交不能急功近利。
Diplomacy is the product of civilization and the rational method to resolve disputes. The audience give more and more attention to international problems, grasp the external world, participate international affairs, strongthen international exchange. The audience have played a big role in formulating a policy by the improvement of their social status. The main countries struggle for promoting their images, inform and explain their policies, communicate their values to influence international public opinion and make further efforts to maximize their national interest. The time and tide attach importance to public diplomacy and it has become the important part of national diplomacy.
American is the nation with the most active and powerful public diplomacy practice. Public diplomacy has become an unneglectable part of American foreign policy, has been taken as a well-known weapon to build the national image and win the support of global public opinion and played a supplementary role in American foreign relations. From the building of America, public diplomacy witnessed and experienced the two World Wars and Cold War, and it employed various methods and made its feature easy to be detected.
This thesis differentiates several periods of U.S public diplomacy and gives a discription on excution, activities, different strategic regions, supervision, legal systerm and the defect.
During War of lndependence public diplomacy play a role for American to make a better international climate. From then on U.S. has developed public diplomacy. During the World War I the U.S. government established Committee on Public Information, which is the begin of intentional public diplomacy. Before the World War II, because of the international communication channel’s building and the administration’s establishing the activies of public diplomacy has expanded in the field of international broadcasting, movies, publication, and international education and so on. During the World War II the public diplomacy played a role in military triumph.
USIA, Assistant Secretary of State for Educational and Cultural Affairs, Undersecretary for Public Diplomacy and Public Affairs, United States Advisory Commission on Public Diplomacy were established and public diplomacy has become a independent field. These organizations are the public diplomacy systerm with Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs, Bureau of International Information Programs, CIA and Department of Defense.
U.S. international information net composes of AP, UPI, VOA, Radio Free Europe, Radio Liberty, Radio and Televiosion Marti, Radio Free Asia, Radio Free Iraq, Radio Free Afghanistan, Radio Sawa, Radio Farda and so on. They inform U.S. policies, introduce U.S.history, culture and social systerm and refute the hostile propaganda.
U.S. government communicates culture and value to influence the audience and make a good image by publication, movies, providing fund to exchange of students and scholar, volunteer of Peace Corps. The Program of Fulbright and Peace Corps are legitimate activities and have been taken for decades.
The Fulbright Act of 1946, Smith-Mundt Act, The Mutual Educational and Cultural Act of 1961, Peace Corps Act, International Education Act of 1966, International Broadcasting Act, and Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act of 2004 have passed. These acts have formed the legal systerm. The legal systerm makes public diplomacy work smoothly. On the other hand, it protects civic right against aggression from proganda and anti-terrorism.
In a word, U.S. public diplomacy has established the systerm whick is composed of policies directing, execution, supervision, engaged large-scale activities and improve public diplomacy legal system.
However, U.S. public diplomacy has vital defects. Firstly, U.S. lacks of initiative in public diplomacy. The government always take irritability activities after affairs or disaster. Secondly, U.S. public diplomacy is short of strategic programme. Thirdly, U.S. public diplomacy won’t be always very effective because of the awful foreign policies.
According to advantage and shortcoming of U.S. this thesis gives some suggestions to China. The first one, we should work out a long plan. The second one, we should build a long-term mechanism. The third one, we should encourage the nongovernmental resource. The forth one, the public diplomacy should cover more and more audience. The fifth one, we should build an open reception systerm. The last one, we should be ready for a long time stuggle for success.
美国是世界上公共外交强度最大、活动方式最多的国家。公共外交是美国对外政策中不可忽视的组成部分,是美国推行外交政策,塑造国家形象并赢得国际舆论支持的重要武器,对美国对外政策起到了重要的辅助作用。从美国立国以来,历经两次世界大战、旷日持久的冷战,其策略手法样式繁多、总体特点鲜明突出。
本文对美国公共外交的历史进行分期,并从公共外交的执行机构、主要公共外交活动、重点战略区域的公共外交策略、公共外交的监督体系、公共外交的法律体系以及公共外交的缺陷等方面对美国公共外交的历史进行描述。
独立战争期间,公共外交就为美国创造良好的国际环境发挥了作用。而后,美国一直进行公共外交活动。一战期间,美国政府设立公共信息委员会,开始有意识的公共外交活动。一战结束后到二战爆发前,美国的国际传播渠道、和专门的公共外交机构建立,公共外交活动从国际广播、电影、图书出版和国际教育等方面逐渐开展。二战期间,公共外交为美国赢得军事上的胜利发挥了不可忽视的作用。
在冷战全面展开以后,美国的公共外交逐渐展开并确立在国家政治生活中的地位。美国新闻署,负责教育和文化事务的助理国务卿、负责公共外交和公共事务的副国务卿、公共外交咨询委员会先后成立或设置,公共外交逐渐成为一个独立的外交领域。这些机构与教育与文化事务局、国际信息局、中央情报局、国防部等一同构成了公共外交的政策指导机构、执行机构和监督机构。
美联社、合众社、美国之音、自由欧洲电台、自由电台、马蒂电台和电视台、自由亚洲电台、自由伊拉克电台、自由阿富汗电台、萨瓦电台、法达电台等共同构成了美国国际信息网络,对于宣传美国政策、介绍美国信息、反驳敌对宣传、使外国民众了解美国的历史、文化和社会制度等起了重要作用。
除了国际信息网络之外,美国政府利用出版和翻译图书、出口电影、鼓励和资助学生和专家之间的国际交流、向外国派遣“和平队”志愿者等方式,向外输出美国的文化与价值观,影响外国公众,树立美国良好的国家形象。其中富布赖特计划、和平队计划等都是通过法案确立了其合法地位的、长期开展的公共外交活动。
美国还通过了《富布赖特法案》、《史密斯—蒙特法案》、《富布赖特—海斯法》《和平队法案》、《国际教育法》、《国际广播法》、《情报改革与防止恐怖主义法》等法律,共同组成了公共外交的法律体系,一方面保障公共外交有序、健康地开展,另一方面保障美国公民的合法权利不受到对外信息宣传和过度反恐的侵害。
总的来说,经过几十年的发展,美国的公共外交已经确立了比较完整的政策指导机构、执行机构和监督机构,开展了一些大规模的公共外交活动,建立并完善了公共外交法律体系。
但是,美国的公共外交也存在重大缺陷。第一,美国的公共外交缺乏主动性,无论是在冷战还是“9·11”事件,美国政府总是在重大国际事件发生之后才大规模开展应激性的公共外交。第二,美国的公共外交缺乏战略观念,美国政府对公共外交的投入一直在低水平徘徊,公共外交没有得到美国政府应有的重视。第三,无论是在越南战争时期,还是“9·11”事件之后,美国时常采取不得人心的政策,其公共外交也不可能取得良好的效果。
针对美国公共外交的优势和缺陷,本文提出对我国公共外交活动的建议:第一,要订立长远战略规划;第二,要建立公共外交的长效机制;第三,要加强民间力量的参与;第四,公共外要覆盖尽可能多的公众;第五,要培育开放的接收体系;第六,开展公共外交不能急功近利。
Diplomacy is the product of civilization and the rational method to resolve disputes. The audience give more and more attention to international problems, grasp the external world, participate international affairs, strongthen international exchange. The audience have played a big role in formulating a policy by the improvement of their social status. The main countries struggle for promoting their images, inform and explain their policies, communicate their values to influence international public opinion and make further efforts to maximize their national interest. The time and tide attach importance to public diplomacy and it has become the important part of national diplomacy.
American is the nation with the most active and powerful public diplomacy practice. Public diplomacy has become an unneglectable part of American foreign policy, has been taken as a well-known weapon to build the national image and win the support of global public opinion and played a supplementary role in American foreign relations. From the building of America, public diplomacy witnessed and experienced the two World Wars and Cold War, and it employed various methods and made its feature easy to be detected.
This thesis differentiates several periods of U.S public diplomacy and gives a discription on excution, activities, different strategic regions, supervision, legal systerm and the defect.
During War of lndependence public diplomacy play a role for American to make a better international climate. From then on U.S. has developed public diplomacy. During the World War I the U.S. government established Committee on Public Information, which is the begin of intentional public diplomacy. Before the World War II, because of the international communication channel’s building and the administration’s establishing the activies of public diplomacy has expanded in the field of international broadcasting, movies, publication, and international education and so on. During the World War II the public diplomacy played a role in military triumph.
USIA, Assistant Secretary of State for Educational and Cultural Affairs, Undersecretary for Public Diplomacy and Public Affairs, United States Advisory Commission on Public Diplomacy were established and public diplomacy has become a independent field. These organizations are the public diplomacy systerm with Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs, Bureau of International Information Programs, CIA and Department of Defense.
U.S. international information net composes of AP, UPI, VOA, Radio Free Europe, Radio Liberty, Radio and Televiosion Marti, Radio Free Asia, Radio Free Iraq, Radio Free Afghanistan, Radio Sawa, Radio Farda and so on. They inform U.S. policies, introduce U.S.history, culture and social systerm and refute the hostile propaganda.
U.S. government communicates culture and value to influence the audience and make a good image by publication, movies, providing fund to exchange of students and scholar, volunteer of Peace Corps. The Program of Fulbright and Peace Corps are legitimate activities and have been taken for decades.
The Fulbright Act of 1946, Smith-Mundt Act, The Mutual Educational and Cultural Act of 1961, Peace Corps Act, International Education Act of 1966, International Broadcasting Act, and Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act of 2004 have passed. These acts have formed the legal systerm. The legal systerm makes public diplomacy work smoothly. On the other hand, it protects civic right against aggression from proganda and anti-terrorism.
In a word, U.S. public diplomacy has established the systerm whick is composed of policies directing, execution, supervision, engaged large-scale activities and improve public diplomacy legal system.
However, U.S. public diplomacy has vital defects. Firstly, U.S. lacks of initiative in public diplomacy. The government always take irritability activities after affairs or disaster. Secondly, U.S. public diplomacy is short of strategic programme. Thirdly, U.S. public diplomacy won’t be always very effective because of the awful foreign policies.
According to advantage and shortcoming of U.S. this thesis gives some suggestions to China. The first one, we should work out a long plan. The second one, we should build a long-term mechanism. The third one, we should encourage the nongovernmental resource. The forth one, the public diplomacy should cover more and more audience. The fifth one, we should build an open reception systerm. The last one, we should be ready for a long time stuggle for success.
引文
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8元青.民国时期的留美学生与中美文化交流[J].南开学报(哲学社会科学版),2000(5):63-71
9参见Harold Nicolson.“Diplomacy”[M]. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press, 1988
10 Athur Hoffman. International Communication and the New Diplomacy[M]. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1968:3
11 Allen Hansen. USIA: Public Diplomacy in the Computer Age[M]. New York: Praeger, 1989:2
12 Allen Hansen. USIA: Public Diplomacy in the Computer Age[M]. New York: Praeger, 1989:2
13 Richard F. Starr. Public Diplomacy: U.S.A. Versus U.S.S.R.[M]. New York: Hoover Institution Press, 1988: 96
14 Hans N.Tuch. Communicating with the World: U.S. Public Diplomacy Overseas[M]. New York:St. Martin's Press, 1990:7
15 U.S. Department of State. Dictionary of International Relations Terms[M]. Washington: Dept. of State Library, 1987:85
16 Kenneth Thompson. Rhetoric and Public Diplomacy[M]. New York: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 1987:ix
17 Gifford Malone. Political Advocacy and Culture Communicaiton: Organizing the Nation’s Public Diplomacy[M]. New York: University Press of America, 1988: 2-3
18 Allen Hansen. USIA: Public Diplomacy in the Computer Age[M]. New York: Praeger, 1989: 5; Richard F. Starr. Public Diplomacy: U.S.A. Versus U.S.S.R.[M]. New York: Hoover Institution Press, 1988: 119
19 Hans N.Tuch. Communicating with the World: U.S. Public Diplomacy Overseas[M]. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1990: 153
20 http://www.publicdiplomacy.org/1.htm#defined, [2010-12-28]
21 U.S. Advisory Commission on Public Diplomacy. Consolidation of USIA into the State Department: an Assessment after One Year[Z]. Washington D.C., Oct. 2000: 2
22 United States Governmant Accountability Office. Report to the Chairman, Subcommittee on Science, Stat, Justice, and Commerce, and Related Agencies, Committee on Appropriations, House of Representatives[Z]. April, 2005: p.4.
23金子将史、北野充.公共外交:“舆论时代”的外交战略[M].北京:外语教学与研究出版社,2010:VII
24译自《国际公法百科全书》第9卷,阿姆斯特丹:北荷兰出版公司,1986年版,第82页;转引自:周启明、杨闯等.国外外交学[M].北京:中国人民公安大学出版社,1990:124
25韩召颖.公众外交:美国对外政策的重要工具[J].南开学报(哲学社会科学版),2001(6):89-96
26赵可金.美国公共外交的兴起[J].复旦学报(社会科学版),2003(3):86-92
27郭海儒.美苏关系疏远探源——20世纪30年代美驻苏人员公共外交活动的实质[J].学海,2003(6):153-156
28王海娟,左颖.中国外交揭开神秘盖头,外交部将设立公众外交处[N].北京晚报,2004-3-20
29周庆安.冷战后美国公共外交的传播模式研究[D].北京:清华大学,2006: 4
30李德芳.全球化时代的公共外交[D].济南:山东大学,2009: 7
31本文所说的舆论,是“社会公众对于社会公务事物大体一致的意见和态度。”参见李良荣.新闻学导论[M].北京:高等教育出版社,1999
32鲁毅,黄金祺等.外交学概论[M].北京:世界知识出版社,1997:5
33张毓强.论美国公共外交与对外宣传[D].北京:中国传媒大学,2006:3
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20参见http://www.iraqhurr.org/
21达里语网站:http://da.azadiradio.org/;普什图语网站:http://pa.azadiradio.org/
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23参见http://www.radiosawa.com/english.aspx
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26国内学者有将其译为“自由电视台”,也有音译其为“乎拉电视台”。为避免翻译带来的歧义,本文直接采用Al Hurra作为其名称。
27参见http://www.Al Hurra.com/
28 William Rugh. American Encounters with Arabs[M]. Westport, CT: Praeger Security International, 2006:149.
29 James Dao and Eric Schmitt. Pengtagon Readies Efforts to Sway Sentiment Abroad[J]. New York Times, February 19, 2002. http://www.commondreams.org/headlines02/0219-01.htm
30 James Dao and Eric Schmitt. Pengtagon Readies Efforts to Sway Sentiment Abroad[J]. New York Times, February 19, 2002. http://www.commondreams.org/headlines02/0219-01.htm
31 http://edition.cnn.com/2003/WORLD/meast/08/04/sprj.irq.media/, [2011-04-07]
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37 http://www.sadat.umd.edu/new%20surveys/surveys.htm
38对于Al Jazeera这家电视台名字的译法国内存在不同意见,为减少误解,本文采用多数情况下使用的名称“半岛电视台”。
39 http://www.state.gov/r/us/2004/2”9·11”1.htm
40《美国精心培育各国新生代》,北京:《环球时报》,2006-1-19
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24.[英]大卫·麦柯里兰著,孔兆政、蒋龙翔译:《意识形态》,吉林人民出版社,2005年版
25.[英]汤林森著,冯建三译:《文化帝国主义》,上海:上海人民出版社,1999年版
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33.[美]弗朗西斯·福山著,黄胜强、许铭原译:《历史的终结及最后之人》,北京:中国社会科学文献出版社,2003年版
34.[美]比米斯著,叶笃义译:《美国外交史》,北京:商务印书馆,1985年版
35.[美]约塞夫·拉彼德、[德]费里德里希·克拉托赫维尔著,金烨译:《浙江人民出版社》,2003年版
36.[美]麦克尔·H.亨特著,褚律元译:《意识形态与美国外交》,北京:世界知识出版社,1999年版
37.[美]杰里尔·A.罗赛蒂著,周启朋、傅耀祖译:《美国对外政策的政治学》,北京:世界知识出版社,1997年版
38.[美]罗伯特·基欧汉、约瑟夫·奈著,门洪华译:《权力与相互依赖》,北京:北京大学出版社
39.[美]詹姆斯·多尔蒂、小罗伯特·普法尔茨格拉夫著,邵文光译:《争论中的国际关系理论》,北京:世界知识出版社,1987年版
40.[美]托克维尔著,董良果译:《论美国的民主》,沈阳:沈阳出版社,1999年版。
41.[日]金子将史,北野充主编,《公共外交》翻译组译,北京:外语教育与研究出版社,2010年版。
42.[美]海伦娜·芬恩:《论文化外交》,载《国外社会科学文摘》,2004年第6期
1.齐前进:《公众外交:政府决策与公众参与》,载《世界知识》,2003年第15期
2.唐小松、王义桅:《从“进攻”到“防御”——美国公共外交战略的角色变迁》,载《美国研究》,2003年第3期
3.唐小松、王义桅:《公共外交对国际关系理论的冲击:一种分析框架》,载《欧洲研究》,2003年第4期
4.唐小松、王义桅:《试析美国公共外交及其局限》,载《现代国际关系》,2003年第5期
5.唐小松、王义桅:《国外对公共外交的探索》,载《国际问题研究》,2005年第1期
6.唐小松、王义桅:《公共外交:信息时代的国家战略工具》,载《美国问题研究》,2005年00期
7.唐小松、王义桅:《美国公共外交与反恐战争悖论》,载《美国问题研究》,2004年00期
8.唐小松、王义桅:《美国公共外交研究的兴起及其对美国对外政策的反思》,载《世界经济与政治》,2003年第4期
9.王宏伟:《“9.11”后的美国公众外交》,载《国际论坛》,2003年第1期
10.赵可金:《美国公共外交的兴起》,载《复旦大学学报(社会科学版)》,2003年第3期
11.赵可金:《媒体外交及其运作机制》,载《世界经济与政治》,2004年第4期
12.胡文涛:《解读文化外交:一种学理分析》,载《外交评论》,2007年第3期
13.金应忠:《国外对外行为:公众情绪的作用》,载《学术季刊》,2000年第4期
14.关世杰:《国际文化交流与外交》,载《国际政治研究》,2000年第3期
15.刘乃京:《媒体全球化对外交的挑战》,载《国际论坛》,2001年第3期
16.刘乃京:《文化外交:国家意志的柔性传播》,载《新视野》,2002年第2期
17.仇朝兵:《“9·11”之后美国对穆斯林世界的公众外交》,载《哈尔滨工业大学学报(社科版)》,2006年第2期
18.仇朝兵:《九一一事件后美国对印度尼西亚的公共外交》,载《美国研究》,2007年第2期
19.孙红:《试析国际关系中的逆向公众舆论》,载《外交评论》,2006年第1期
20.高飞:《公共外交的界定、形成条件及其作用》,载《外交学院学报》,2005年第3期
21.唐小松:《国外对公共外交的探索》,载《国际问题研究》,2005年第1期
22.唐小松:《中国公共外交的发展及其体系构建》,载《现代国际关系》,2006年第2期
23.唐小松:《公共外交:信息时代的国家战略工具》,载《东南亚研究》,2004年第6期
24.唐小松、黄忠:《论信息时代的网络外交》,载《现代国际关系》,2008年第6期
25.唐小松、吴秀雨:《加拿大新公共外交评析》,载《国际论坛》,2010年第6期
26.邢悦:《文化功能在对外政策中的表现》,载《太平洋学报》,2002年第3期
27.徐莹、李宝俊:《国际非政府组织的治理外交及其对中国的启示》,载《国际关系学院学报》,2004年第3期
28.张声海:《公共外交与中日关系》,载《当代亚太》,2005年第4期
29.刘国华、李阵:《战后日本的公共外交》,载《日本学刊》,2007年第4期
30.刘国华、李阵:《浅析日本的公共外交及其局限性》,载《日本学论坛》,2006年第4期
31.赵立宇、梁春生:《“休闲外交”——政要们的公共利器》,载《公共世界》,2003年第2期
32.刘德斌:《“软权力”说的由来与发展》,载《吉林大学学报(哲学社会科学版)》,2004年第4期
33.朱虹:《公共外交:全球化中外交理念的新发展》,载《学习时报》,2006年3月8日
34.颜希硕:《政治文化因素对美国公共外交的影响——以小布什政府为例》,载《中南财经政法大学研究生学报》,2009年第5期
35.颜希硕:《“攻心之战”——伊拉克战争后的美国公共外交》,载《法制与社会》,2007年第7期
36.檀有志:《网络外交:美国公共外交的一件新式武器》,载《国际论坛》,2010年第1期
37.檀有志:《错位与调适:美国对华公共外交探析》,载《美国问题研究》,2009年第2期
38.叶靓、邵育群:《美国“公共外交2.0”:现状与发展趋势》,载《当代世界》,2010年第3期
39.单成现:《浅析公共外交与国际政治的理论契合点》,载《中国商界(下半月)》,2010年第5期
40.李德芳、李卫红:《全球化时代的公共外交——权力变迁视角的分析》,载《聊城大学学报(社会科学版)》,2010年第3期
41.菲利普·赛博、陆佳怡、钟新:《跨国新闻、公共外交及虚拟国家》,载《国际新闻界》,2010年第7期
42.尼古拉斯·卡尔、钟新、陆佳怡:《公共外交:以史为鉴的七条法则》,载《国际新闻界》,2010年第7期
43.钟新、何娟:《英国:从文化外交到公共外交的演进》,载《国际新闻界》,2010年第7期
44.刘延国:《引进国外智力应当重视公共外交》,载《国际人才交流》,2010年第9期
45.王娟:《浅谈新闻传播中的公共外交策略》,载《当代传播》,2010年第4期
46.刘建平:《从美国的公共外交认识国际传播》,载《中国图书评论》,2010年第8期
47.廖宏斌:《公共外交:国际经验与启示》,载《当代世界与社会主义》,2009年第1期
48.胡百精:《公共外交的语境、内涵与形态》,载《国际公关》,2009年第2期
49.李志永:《公共外交相关概念辨析》,载《外交评论(外交学院学报)》,2009年第2期
50.桑颖:《试析互联网在公共外交中的作用》,载《学理论》,2009年第9期
51.杜艳:《美国的公共外交与文化霸权战略》,载《科教文汇(中旬刊)》,2008年第1期
52.于朝晖:《整合公共外交——国家形象构建的战略沟通新视角》,载《国际观察》,2008年第1期
53.刘晓玲:《公共关系和公共外交》,载《国际公关》,2008年第6期
54.冯敬鸿、陈得印:《美国公共外交分析》,载《沈阳工程学院学报(社会科学版)》,2007年第1期
55.赵启正:《公共外交与民间交往在中美关系中的作用——对佐利克演讲的评说》,载《中国图书评论》,2007年第7期
56.李艳艳:《“9·11”后的美国公共外交》,载《社会观察》,2006年第6期
57.林玲:《试论美国在阿拉伯——伊斯兰世界的公共外交》,载《阿拉伯世界研究》,2006年第6期
58.郑天喆：《作为伪教育的美国公共外交》，载《国外理论动态》，2004年第12期
59.郭海儒:《美苏关系疏远探源——20世纪30年代美驻苏人员公共外交活动的实质》,载《学海》,2003年第6期
60.胡文涛:《解读文化外交:一种学理分析》,载《外交评论》,2007年第3期
61.李杰:《软实力建设与中国的和平发展》,载《国际问题研究》,2007年第1期
62.苏长和:《自由主义与世界政治——自由主义国际关系理论的启示》,载《世界经济与政治》,2004年第7期
63.李智:《论文化外交对国家国际威望树立的作用》,载《学术探索》,2004年第100期。
64.李智:《试论美国的文化外交:软力量的作用》,载《太平洋学报》,2004年第2期。
65.李新华:《美国文化外交浅析》,载《思想理论教育导刊》,2004年第11期
66.张毓强、张楠:《“面向2008年的公共外交与国际形象论坛”述评》,载《现代传播》,2007年第3期
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55 International Information, Education and Cultural Relations: Recommends for the Furure, pp.29-34. [2011-01-22] http://www.eric.ed.gov/PDFS/ED139677.pdf
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63 1983 Report of the United States Advisory Commission on Public Diplomacy[Z],p.32.[2011-4-13] http://www.eric.ed.gov/PDFS/ED242622.pdf
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1伯姆斯塔德(R. A. Bumstead),学群译,士琳校.克林顿的内政、外交政策[J].国外社会科学文摘,1993(2):7
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4 Leo Boart. Cool Words, Cold War: A New Look at USIA’s Premises for Propaganda[M].Washington: The University Press, 1995:XXVI-XXVII.
5 Walter Laqueur. Save Public Diplomacy: Broadcasting America’s Message Matters[J]. Foreign Affairs, Vol. 73, Iss. 5, Sep/Oct 1994:19.
6 Christopher Layne. From Preponderance to Offshore Balancing: America’s Future Grand Strategy[J]. International Security, Vol.22, Iss.1, June 1997:86-124.
7 Samuel Huntington. The West Unique, not Universal[J]. Foreign Affairs, Vol. 75, Iss. 6, Nov/Dec 1996:41.
8 United States Advisory Commission on Public Diplomacy[Z], Annual Report, 1993, pp.15-19.
9韩召颖.输出民主:美国新闻署与美国公众外交[M].天津:天津人民出版社,2000:145
10仇朝兵.“9·11”之后美国对穆斯林世界的公众外交[J].哈尔滨工业大学学报(社会科学版), 2006(2):24-31
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13 Reorganization Plan and Report[Z]. Submitted by President Clinton to the Congress on December 30, 1998, Pursuant to Section 1601 of the Foreign Affairs Reform and Restructuring Act of 1998, as Contained in Public Law 105-277. [2009-12-11] http://www.fas.org/irp/offdocs/pdd/pdd-68-dos.htm
14 http://www.publicdiplomacy.org/1.htm,转引自王宏伟.“9·11”后的美国公众外交[J].国际论坛,2003(1):49
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19 Charlotte Beers. Funding for Public Diplomacy[Z], Statement before the Subcommittee on Commerce, Justice, and State of the House Appropriations Committee, Washington, D.C. April 24, 2002.
20参见http://www.iraqhurr.org/
21达里语网站:http://da.azadiradio.org/;普什图语网站:http://pa.azadiradio.org/
22 GAO, U.S. International Broadcasting: New Strategic Approach Focuses on Reaching Large Audiences but Lacks Measurable Program Objectives[Z]. GAO-03-772, July 2003:13.
23参见http://www.radiosawa.com/english.aspx
24参见http://www.radiofarda.com/.
25 GAO, U.S. Public Diplomacy: State Department Efforts to Engage Muslim Audiences Lack Certain Communication Elements and Face Significant Challenges. GAO-06-535. May 2006:23-13
26国内学者有将其译为“自由电视台”,也有音译其为“乎拉电视台”。为避免翻译带来的歧义,本文直接采用Al Hurra作为其名称。
27参见http://www.Al Hurra.com/
28 William Rugh. American Encounters with Arabs[M]. Westport, CT: Praeger Security International, 2006:149.
29 James Dao and Eric Schmitt. Pengtagon Readies Efforts to Sway Sentiment Abroad[J]. New York Times, February 19, 2002. http://www.commondreams.org/headlines02/0219-01.htm
30 James Dao and Eric Schmitt. Pengtagon Readies Efforts to Sway Sentiment Abroad[J]. New York Times, February 19, 2002. http://www.commondreams.org/headlines02/0219-01.htm
31 http://edition.cnn.com/2003/WORLD/meast/08/04/sprj.irq.media/, [2011-04-07]
32 Freedom Promotion Act[Z] http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov/cgi-bin/getdoc.cgi?dbname=107_cong_bills&docid=f:h3969rfs.txt.pdf
33 Freedom Promotion Act[Z] http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov/cgi-bin/getdoc.cgi?dbname=107_cong_bills&docid=f:h3969rfs.txt.pdf
34魏岳江,余长福.美国被国际恐怖主义所困扰[J].当代世界,2001(10):16
35 Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act of 2004[Z].[2011-4-17] http://intelligence.senate.gov/laws/pl108-458.pdf
36 Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act of 2004[Z],Dec 7, 2004:Sec7109-7110:3790-3794 [2011-4-17] http://intelligence.senate.gov/laws/pl108-458.pdf
37 http://www.sadat.umd.edu/new%20surveys/surveys.htm
38对于Al Jazeera这家电视台名字的译法国内存在不同意见,为减少误解,本文采用多数情况下使用的名称“半岛电视台”。
39 http://www.state.gov/r/us/2004/2”9·11”1.htm
40《美国精心培育各国新生代》,北京:《环球时报》,2006-1-19
41 http://travel.state.gov/law/legal/testimoney_2250.html, [2006-2-15]
1 Susan B. Epstein, U.S. Public Diplomacy: Backgroud and the 9/11 Commission Recommendations[Z].p.5. (Washington, CRS Report for Congress, Order Code RL32607, February 4, 2005)转引自张毓强.论美国公共外交与对外宣传[D].北京:中国传媒大学国际传播学院,2006:87.
2周庆安.冷战后美国公共外交的传播模式研究[D].北京:清华大学新闻与传播学院,2006:123
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12.The Pew Global Attitudes Project, American’s Image Further Erodes, EuropeansWant Weaker Ties, 9-Nationa Pew Global Attitudes Survey, March 18th, 2003
13.The Pew Global Attitudes Project, Mistrust of America In Europe Ever Higher Muslim Anger Persist., 9-Nationa Pew Global Attitudes Survey, March 16, 2004
14.The Pew Global Attitudes Project, American Character Gets Mixed Reviews U.S. Image Up Slightly, But Still Nagative, 16-Nationa Pew Global Attitudes Survey, June 23, 2005
15.The Pew Global Attitudes Project, Islamic Extrimist: Common Conern For Muslim and Western Publics, 17-Nation Pew Global Attitudes Survey,July 14,2005
16.United States Advisory Commission on Public Diplomacy, Annual Report, 1982,1983, 1991
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18. States Advisory Commission on Public Diplomacy, Soviet Advocacy and the U. S. Media, 1986
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21.United States Advisory Commission on Public Diplomacy, United States Public Diplomacy in China, 1989
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23.United States Advisory Commission on Public Diplomacy, Public Diplomacy for the 21st Century.1995 Report
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25.United States Advisory Commission on Public Diplomacy, Public and Diplomats in the Global Communication Age, 1998
26.The Fulbright Act of 1946
27.The Smith-Mundt Act.
28.The Advisory Group on Public Diplomacy for the Arab AND Muslim World. Changing Mind, Winning Peace. October1, 2003.
29.Peace Corps Act
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7.David Hoffman,“Beyond Public Diplomacy, Telling America’s Story”, Foreign Affairs, March/April 2002
8.Idriss Jazairy,“Public Diplomacy at a Crossroads”, The Washington Times, August19 2002
9.Lucy Jones,“Two Views: KAREN Hughes”Listening Tour”and Its Aftermath”, The Washington Report on Middle East Affairs, Dec.2005
10.Edward Kaufman,“A Boradcasting Strategy to Win Media Wars”, The Washington Quarterly, Spring 2002
11.Liam Kenney and Scott Lucas,“Enduring Freedom: Public Diplomacy and U.S. Foreigh Plicy”, American Quarterly, Jun 2005
12.Derk Kinance,“Winning Over the Muslim Mind”. The National Interest, Spring 2004
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27.Thomas L.Friedman,“Listening to the Future?”, The New York Times, May 5, 2002
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29 . Edward Schatz, Renan Levine,“Framing, Public Diplomacy, and Anti-Americanism in Central Asia”, Vol. 54, Iss. 3, 2010
30.Dmitry Rogozin,“Russia Challenged by "Public Diplomacy" of the West", International Affairs, Vol. 56, Iss. 5, 2010
31.Jason Toynbee, Farida Vis,“World music at the BBC World Service, 1942-2008: public diplomacy, cosmopolitanism, contradiction”, Media, Culture & Society, Vol. 32, Iss. 4, 2010
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33.L Risso,“The Cold War and the United States Information Agency: American Propaganda and Public Diplomacy, 1945-1989”, The English Historical Review, Vol. 125, Iss. 512, 2010
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38.[美]罗伯特·基欧汉、约瑟夫·奈著,门洪华译:《权力与相互依赖》,北京:北京大学出版社
39.[美]詹姆斯·多尔蒂、小罗伯特·普法尔茨格拉夫著,邵文光译:《争论中的国际关系理论》,北京:世界知识出版社,1987年版
40.[美]托克维尔著,董良果译:《论美国的民主》,沈阳:沈阳出版社,1999年版。
41.[日]金子将史,北野充主编,《公共外交》翻译组译,北京:外语教育与研究出版社,2010年版。
42.[美]海伦娜·芬恩:《论文化外交》,载《国外社会科学文摘》,2004年第6期
1.齐前进:《公众外交:政府决策与公众参与》,载《世界知识》,2003年第15期
2.唐小松、王义桅:《从“进攻”到“防御”——美国公共外交战略的角色变迁》,载《美国研究》,2003年第3期
3.唐小松、王义桅:《公共外交对国际关系理论的冲击:一种分析框架》,载《欧洲研究》,2003年第4期
4.唐小松、王义桅:《试析美国公共外交及其局限》,载《现代国际关系》,2003年第5期
5.唐小松、王义桅:《国外对公共外交的探索》,载《国际问题研究》,2005年第1期
6.唐小松、王义桅:《公共外交:信息时代的国家战略工具》,载《美国问题研究》,2005年00期
7.唐小松、王义桅:《美国公共外交与反恐战争悖论》,载《美国问题研究》,2004年00期
8.唐小松、王义桅:《美国公共外交研究的兴起及其对美国对外政策的反思》,载《世界经济与政治》,2003年第4期
9.王宏伟:《“9.11”后的美国公众外交》,载《国际论坛》,2003年第1期
10.赵可金:《美国公共外交的兴起》,载《复旦大学学报(社会科学版)》,2003年第3期
11.赵可金:《媒体外交及其运作机制》,载《世界经济与政治》,2004年第4期
12.胡文涛:《解读文化外交:一种学理分析》,载《外交评论》,2007年第3期
13.金应忠:《国外对外行为:公众情绪的作用》,载《学术季刊》,2000年第4期
14.关世杰:《国际文化交流与外交》,载《国际政治研究》,2000年第3期
15.刘乃京:《媒体全球化对外交的挑战》,载《国际论坛》,2001年第3期
16.刘乃京:《文化外交:国家意志的柔性传播》,载《新视野》,2002年第2期
17.仇朝兵:《“9·11”之后美国对穆斯林世界的公众外交》,载《哈尔滨工业大学学报(社科版)》,2006年第2期
18.仇朝兵:《九一一事件后美国对印度尼西亚的公共外交》,载《美国研究》,2007年第2期
19.孙红:《试析国际关系中的逆向公众舆论》,载《外交评论》,2006年第1期
20.高飞:《公共外交的界定、形成条件及其作用》,载《外交学院学报》,2005年第3期
21.唐小松:《国外对公共外交的探索》,载《国际问题研究》,2005年第1期
22.唐小松:《中国公共外交的发展及其体系构建》,载《现代国际关系》,2006年第2期
23.唐小松:《公共外交:信息时代的国家战略工具》,载《东南亚研究》,2004年第6期
24.唐小松、黄忠:《论信息时代的网络外交》,载《现代国际关系》,2008年第6期
25.唐小松、吴秀雨:《加拿大新公共外交评析》,载《国际论坛》,2010年第6期
26.邢悦:《文化功能在对外政策中的表现》,载《太平洋学报》,2002年第3期
27.徐莹、李宝俊:《国际非政府组织的治理外交及其对中国的启示》,载《国际关系学院学报》,2004年第3期
28.张声海:《公共外交与中日关系》,载《当代亚太》,2005年第4期
29.刘国华、李阵:《战后日本的公共外交》,载《日本学刊》,2007年第4期
30.刘国华、李阵:《浅析日本的公共外交及其局限性》,载《日本学论坛》,2006年第4期
31.赵立宇、梁春生:《“休闲外交”——政要们的公共利器》,载《公共世界》,2003年第2期
32.刘德斌:《“软权力”说的由来与发展》,载《吉林大学学报(哲学社会科学版)》,2004年第4期
33.朱虹:《公共外交:全球化中外交理念的新发展》,载《学习时报》,2006年3月8日
34.颜希硕:《政治文化因素对美国公共外交的影响——以小布什政府为例》,载《中南财经政法大学研究生学报》,2009年第5期
35.颜希硕:《“攻心之战”——伊拉克战争后的美国公共外交》,载《法制与社会》,2007年第7期
36.檀有志:《网络外交:美国公共外交的一件新式武器》,载《国际论坛》,2010年第1期
37.檀有志:《错位与调适:美国对华公共外交探析》,载《美国问题研究》,2009年第2期
38.叶靓、邵育群:《美国“公共外交2.0”:现状与发展趋势》,载《当代世界》,2010年第3期
39.单成现:《浅析公共外交与国际政治的理论契合点》,载《中国商界(下半月)》,2010年第5期
40.李德芳、李卫红:《全球化时代的公共外交——权力变迁视角的分析》,载《聊城大学学报(社会科学版)》,2010年第3期
41.菲利普·赛博、陆佳怡、钟新:《跨国新闻、公共外交及虚拟国家》,载《国际新闻界》,2010年第7期
42.尼古拉斯·卡尔、钟新、陆佳怡:《公共外交:以史为鉴的七条法则》,载《国际新闻界》,2010年第7期
43.钟新、何娟:《英国:从文化外交到公共外交的演进》,载《国际新闻界》,2010年第7期
44.刘延国:《引进国外智力应当重视公共外交》,载《国际人才交流》,2010年第9期
45.王娟:《浅谈新闻传播中的公共外交策略》,载《当代传播》,2010年第4期
46.刘建平:《从美国的公共外交认识国际传播》,载《中国图书评论》,2010年第8期
47.廖宏斌:《公共外交:国际经验与启示》,载《当代世界与社会主义》,2009年第1期
48.胡百精:《公共外交的语境、内涵与形态》,载《国际公关》,2009年第2期
49.李志永:《公共外交相关概念辨析》,载《外交评论(外交学院学报)》,2009年第2期
50.桑颖:《试析互联网在公共外交中的作用》,载《学理论》,2009年第9期
51.杜艳:《美国的公共外交与文化霸权战略》,载《科教文汇(中旬刊)》,2008年第1期
52.于朝晖:《整合公共外交——国家形象构建的战略沟通新视角》,载《国际观察》,2008年第1期
53.刘晓玲:《公共关系和公共外交》,载《国际公关》,2008年第6期
54.冯敬鸿、陈得印:《美国公共外交分析》,载《沈阳工程学院学报(社会科学版)》,2007年第1期
55.赵启正:《公共外交与民间交往在中美关系中的作用——对佐利克演讲的评说》,载《中国图书评论》,2007年第7期
56.李艳艳:《“9·11”后的美国公共外交》,载《社会观察》,2006年第6期
57.林玲:《试论美国在阿拉伯——伊斯兰世界的公共外交》,载《阿拉伯世界研究》,2006年第6期
58.郑天喆：《作为伪教育的美国公共外交》，载《国外理论动态》，2004年第12期
59.郭海儒:《美苏关系疏远探源——20世纪30年代美驻苏人员公共外交活动的实质》,载《学海》,2003年第6期
60.胡文涛:《解读文化外交:一种学理分析》,载《外交评论》,2007年第3期
61.李杰:《软实力建设与中国的和平发展》,载《国际问题研究》,2007年第1期
62.苏长和:《自由主义与世界政治——自由主义国际关系理论的启示》,载《世界经济与政治》,2004年第7期
63.李智:《论文化外交对国家国际威望树立的作用》,载《学术探索》,2004年第100期。
64.李智:《试论美国的文化外交:软力量的作用》,载《太平洋学报》,2004年第2期。
65.李新华:《美国文化外交浅析》,载《思想理论教育导刊》,2004年第11期
66.张毓强、张楠:《“面向2008年的公共外交与国际形象论坛”述评》,载《现代传播》,2007年第3期
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3.周庆安,李希光[指导],《冷战后美国公共外交的传播模式研究》(博士论文),北京:清华大学,2006年
4.宁继鸣,黄少安[指导],《汉语国际推广:关于孔子学院的经济学分析与建议》(博士论文),济南:山东大学,2006年
5.张毓强,刘洪潮[指导],《论美国公共外交与对外宣传》(博士论文),北京:中国传媒大学国际传播学院,2006年
6.缪开金,李忠杰[指导],《中国文化外交研究》(博士论文),北京:中共中央党校,2006年
7.于朝晖,张曙光[指导],《整合公共外交》(博士论文),上海:上海外国语大学,2007年
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10.刘炳香,马小军[指导],《公共外交:理论、实践及对中国的借鉴》(硕士论文),北京:中共中央党校,2006年
11.龙邦,王培林[指导],《试析公共外交与国家形象建构之间的关系》(硕士论文),广州:暨南大学,2006年
12.危玮,王燕[指导],《美国公共外交浅析》(硕士论文),北京:外交学院,2006年
13.韩子玉,程又中[指导],《论美国的公共外交政策》(硕士论文),武汉:华中师范大学,2007年
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15.刘茜,张睿壮[指导],《探析公共外交在中国的实践——中美公共外交比较》(硕士论文),天津:南开大学,2007年
16.田娟,韩隽[指导],《G·W·布什政府公共外交政策探析》(硕士论文),乌鲁木齐:新疆大学,2008年
17.李彬,吴金平[指导],《美国公共外交的历程与现状分析》(硕士论文),广州:暨南大学,2008年
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19.李阵,刘国华[指导],《公共外交与中日关系》(硕士论文),合肥:中国科学技术大学,2008年
20.陈庆玲,林玲[指导],《“9·11”后美国在阿拉伯伊斯兰世界的公共外交》(硕士论文),上海:上海外国语大学,2009年
21.李坚,孙吉胜[指导],《“9·11”事件后美国对伊斯兰世界的公共外交:重塑与挑战》(硕士论文),北京:外交学院,2009年
22.严帅,林军[指导],《美国对俄罗斯公共外交评析》(硕士论文),北京:外交学院,2009年
23.郝媛静,刘建[指导],《战后美国公共外交的演变及其对文化霸权战略的影响》(硕士论文),呼和浩特:内蒙古大学,2009年
24.高明,陈玉刚[指导],《由美国政府问责署(GAO)评估报告分析小布什政府时期美国公共外交状况》(硕士论文),上海,复旦大学,2009年
25.黄红山,肖宪[指导],《1949年后中日关系中的公共外交问题研究》(硕士论文),昆明:云南大学,2009年
26.孟凡龙,耿丽华[指导],《中日关系下的公共外交研究》(硕士论文),沈阳:辽宁大学,2009年
27.任长亮,张东明[指导],《从公共外交的角度审视中俄关系的发展》(硕士论文),沈阳:辽宁大学,2010年
28.程雪峰,王家福[指导],《媒介垄断与文化渗透:冷战后美国传播霸权研究》(博士论文),长春:吉林大学,2005年