布什反恐话语分析
摘要
本文将美国总统论证对外干涉必要性和正义性的话语称为美国外交话语。本文试图以布什论述反恐战争的外交话语(简称布什反恐话语)为例分析美国外交话语中存在的主要话语规范,探寻建构话语规范的社会文化价值观念及现实因素,讨论特定话语规范对美国民众外交偏好的建构。本文所使用的语料主要包括布什在“9.11”之后的公开演讲和2002到2008年的《国情咨文》,尤其是其中布什论述“9.11”与反恐战争联系、恐怖主义根源以及发动伊拉克战争原因的话语。
本文使用话语分析的方法来分析美国外交政策。本文首先介绍了话语分析方法基于语言学、哲学,以及国际关系理论之语言学转向的理论基础。接下来建立了分析美国外交话语的理论框架:分析美国外交话语规范;探寻建构该规范的美国社会文化价值观念;讨论话语行为和规范对民众外交偏好的建构。
按照这一理论框架,经过对布什反恐话语的语料分析,本文总结出布什反恐话语的三个规范:宗教规范、民主规范和保守规范。宗教规范和民主规范是美国外交话语的主要规范,保守规范是保守派所使用的次级规范。这三种规范都可以在美国社会文化价值观念中找到思想渊源。
布什本人的思想倾向赋予了这三种话语规范以个人特色:他使用体现基督教右翼信仰的话语;他把“民主输出”提高到美国国家安全战略目标的高度,并与反恐战争联系在一起;作为保守派,他的话语也体现了新保守派的影响。布什反恐话语的特色也是由当时的社会形势决定的:美国基督教右翼势力兴起;保守思想及新保守派思想影响扩大;基督教右翼与保守派势力相结合。而且,反恐战争,尤其是伊拉克战争,发动的理由并不充分。布什需要借助以上话语规范把反恐战争塑造为:传播“福音”的宗教战争,“输出民主”的战争,消除恐怖主义、维护美国国家安全的战争。
布什的反恐话语使用多种语用策略,并且不惜歪曲事实。布什政府还以多种手段操纵媒体;美国媒体出于对布什反恐话语的价值认同以及对利益的追求,也主动配合布什反恐话语的社会运作,不惜发表不实报道。美国媒体的这种报道,印证了反恐话语的规范及主要论述。媒体的独立地位和客观面貌使美国民众易于接受经过媒体报道确认的反恐话语,加深了反恐话语的影响。
反恐话语因为基于美国社会文化价值观念,迎合了当时的社会形势,又经过媒体的广泛宣传,有效地影响了美国民众的外交偏好,使反恐战争的发动获得了支持。随着形势的发展,很多美国民众反对反恐战争。但是,反恐话语仍然深刻影响了美国民众对恐怖主义根源和恐怖分子身份的认知。这种认知会对他们的外交偏好产生一定影响。
This dissertation explores and investigates how George W. Bush illustrates the issues related to terrorism and the War on Terror, in an attempt to build a model which can help to explain the interaction between foreign policy discourse, foreign policy, and American social conceptions.
The dissertation defines George W. Bush's remarks after the "9.11" terrorist attacks as "anti-terrorism discourses", especially those remarks concerning the justification of the War on Terror. The author uses them as an example of foreign policy discourse.
Bush's "anti-terrorism discourses" are deeply rooted in American religious fundamentalism, conservative morality, and the neoconservative world-view. For these reasons they can easily cater to, and manipulate, people's perceptions of the War on Terror.
The American media also plays a major role in promoting Bush's "anti-terrorism discourses," and convinces people to support Bush's war. Much of the media have been twisting or otherwise misrepresenting the facts in their reports, especially in the run-up to, and during the early stages of, the war against Iraq.
Bush's "anti-terrorism discourses", and the related propaganda by the media, not only motivated the American people to support the war on terror, but also have had dramatic influence on the American people's view of the "terrorists" and the roots of terrorism. Thus, it's reasonable to conclude that even when Bush ends his time in office, the American policy on terrorism will not undergo any significant change.
The author considers it legitimate to build a model which shows that those foreign policy discourses, originating from prevailing American perceptions based on culture and religion, have reinforced these perceptions in the process of promoting specific foreign policy.
From this model we become aware that American foreign policy discourses don't always reflect the truth of its foreign policy. Consequently, the perceptions they reflect and reinforce, need to be paid attention to.
The methodology used in the dissertation is discourse analysis based on social constructivism and cognition theory. Corpus are built to provide data for the analysis.
本文使用话语分析的方法来分析美国外交政策。本文首先介绍了话语分析方法基于语言学、哲学,以及国际关系理论之语言学转向的理论基础。接下来建立了分析美国外交话语的理论框架:分析美国外交话语规范;探寻建构该规范的美国社会文化价值观念;讨论话语行为和规范对民众外交偏好的建构。
按照这一理论框架,经过对布什反恐话语的语料分析,本文总结出布什反恐话语的三个规范:宗教规范、民主规范和保守规范。宗教规范和民主规范是美国外交话语的主要规范,保守规范是保守派所使用的次级规范。这三种规范都可以在美国社会文化价值观念中找到思想渊源。
布什本人的思想倾向赋予了这三种话语规范以个人特色:他使用体现基督教右翼信仰的话语;他把“民主输出”提高到美国国家安全战略目标的高度,并与反恐战争联系在一起;作为保守派,他的话语也体现了新保守派的影响。布什反恐话语的特色也是由当时的社会形势决定的:美国基督教右翼势力兴起;保守思想及新保守派思想影响扩大;基督教右翼与保守派势力相结合。而且,反恐战争,尤其是伊拉克战争,发动的理由并不充分。布什需要借助以上话语规范把反恐战争塑造为:传播“福音”的宗教战争,“输出民主”的战争,消除恐怖主义、维护美国国家安全的战争。
布什的反恐话语使用多种语用策略,并且不惜歪曲事实。布什政府还以多种手段操纵媒体;美国媒体出于对布什反恐话语的价值认同以及对利益的追求,也主动配合布什反恐话语的社会运作,不惜发表不实报道。美国媒体的这种报道,印证了反恐话语的规范及主要论述。媒体的独立地位和客观面貌使美国民众易于接受经过媒体报道确认的反恐话语,加深了反恐话语的影响。
反恐话语因为基于美国社会文化价值观念,迎合了当时的社会形势,又经过媒体的广泛宣传,有效地影响了美国民众的外交偏好,使反恐战争的发动获得了支持。随着形势的发展,很多美国民众反对反恐战争。但是,反恐话语仍然深刻影响了美国民众对恐怖主义根源和恐怖分子身份的认知。这种认知会对他们的外交偏好产生一定影响。
This dissertation explores and investigates how George W. Bush illustrates the issues related to terrorism and the War on Terror, in an attempt to build a model which can help to explain the interaction between foreign policy discourse, foreign policy, and American social conceptions.
The dissertation defines George W. Bush's remarks after the "9.11" terrorist attacks as "anti-terrorism discourses", especially those remarks concerning the justification of the War on Terror. The author uses them as an example of foreign policy discourse.
Bush's "anti-terrorism discourses" are deeply rooted in American religious fundamentalism, conservative morality, and the neoconservative world-view. For these reasons they can easily cater to, and manipulate, people's perceptions of the War on Terror.
The American media also plays a major role in promoting Bush's "anti-terrorism discourses," and convinces people to support Bush's war. Much of the media have been twisting or otherwise misrepresenting the facts in their reports, especially in the run-up to, and during the early stages of, the war against Iraq.
Bush's "anti-terrorism discourses", and the related propaganda by the media, not only motivated the American people to support the war on terror, but also have had dramatic influence on the American people's view of the "terrorists" and the roots of terrorism. Thus, it's reasonable to conclude that even when Bush ends his time in office, the American policy on terrorism will not undergo any significant change.
The author considers it legitimate to build a model which shows that those foreign policy discourses, originating from prevailing American perceptions based on culture and religion, have reinforced these perceptions in the process of promoting specific foreign policy.
From this model we become aware that American foreign policy discourses don't always reflect the truth of its foreign policy. Consequently, the perceptions they reflect and reinforce, need to be paid attention to.
The methodology used in the dissertation is discourse analysis based on social constructivism and cognition theory. Corpus are built to provide data for the analysis.
引文
①罗伯特·杰维斯:《国际政治中的知觉与错误知觉》(秦亚青译),北京·世界知识出版社,2003年版。
②傅梦孜:《保守主义思潮涌动下的美国霸权外交》,载《保守主义理念与美国的外交政策》(任晓、沈丁立主编),上海三联书店,2003年版,第199-201页。
③蔡佳禾:《摆动中的回归──保守主义思潮对G.W.布什政府对外政策的影响》,载《保守主义理念与美国的外交政策》(任晓、沈丁立主编),上海三联书店,2003年版,第179-198页。
①理查德·克罗卡特:《反美主义与全球秩序》(陈平译),北京·新华出版社,2004年版,第5页。
②“根据你在新闻中看到或听到的,你是否相信萨达姆·侯赛因的伊拉克政府藏匿基地组织的恐怖分子并帮助他们发展化学武器?”有75%的受访者回答“相信”。尽管如此,根据2003年2月CBS的调查显示,只有31%的被调查者同意“伊拉克对于美国的国家利益构成明显威胁,美国需要立刻采取行动”。64%的被调查者认为“在采取针对伊拉克的行动之前,美国需要等待联合国同意”。62%的被调查者认为“美国应该等待,应该给予联合国核查人员更多时间”。“Poll: No Rush To War: Americans Want U.S. To Get Int'l Support Before Attacking Iraq,”http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2002/09/24/opinion/polls/main523130.shtml, last visited on Apr. 31st, 2008.
③THE PIPA/KNOWLEDGE NETWORKS POLL, www.pipa.org/OnlineReports/ForeignAid/WorldPoverty_Jun05/WorldPoverty_Jun05_rpt.pdf, last visited on Apr. 31st, 2008.
④在2003年1月和4月盖勒普国际进行了两项调查。在一月份的调查中,当被问到“是否支持无条件地;在联合国制裁的情况下;或美国和盟友单方面发动伊拉克战争时”,在包括20个欧洲国家在内的36个国家中没有一个国家的多数民众赞同无条件发动对伊拉克的战争。赞成在联合国制裁的情况下或美国和盟友单方面发动伊拉克战争的比例也非常低。在4月份的调查中,当被问到“如果发动对伊拉克的军事行动,你是否认为你的国家应该支持这一行动?”在包括欧洲国家在内的38个国家中有34个反对自己的国家支持这一行动。“American popular opinion on invasion of Iraq,”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_popular_opinion_on_invasion_of_Iraq, last visited on Apr. 3rd, 2008.
⑤皮尤调查中心在2003年4、5月间进行了一项调查,这项调查的结果显示,在没有参与美国的对伊战争的13个国家中,绝大多数人支持政府的这一决定。在出兵的英国和澳大利亚,大多数人赞同出兵。在西班牙,大多数人反对政府派兵。在允许美国使用基地的科威特和土耳其,科威特的大多数民众赞同,大多数的土耳其民众反对。“U.S. Image Up Slightly, But Still Negative:American Character Gets Mixed Reviews,”http://pewglobal.org/reports/display.php?PageID=803, last visited on Apr. 3rd, 2008.
⑥George W. Bush,“President Bush Outlines Iraqi Threat,”http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2002/10/20021007-8.html, last visited on Mar. 25th, 2008.
①George W. Bush,“President's Radio Address,”http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2003/02/20030208.html, last visited on Apr. 18th, 2008.
②George W. Bush,“President Says Saddam Hussein Must Leave Iraq Within 48 Hours,”http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2003/03/20030317-7.html, last visited on Apr. 18th, 2008.
③Dick Cheney,“Vice President Honors Veterans of Korean War,”http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2002/08/20020829-5.html, last visited on Apr. 18th, 2008.
④“Testimony of U.S. Secretary of Defense Donald H. Rumsfeld before the House Armed Services Committee regarding Iraq,”http://www.defenselink.mil/speeches/speech.aspx?speechid=284, last visited on Apr. 18th, 2008.
⑤“Press Briefing by Ari Fleischer,”http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2003/01/20030109-8.html, last visited on Apr. 18th, 2008.
⑥Dick Cheney,“The Vice President Appears on Meet the Press,”http://www.whitehouse.gov/vicepresident/news-speeches/speeches/vp20020324.html, last visited on Apr. 18th, 2008.
⑦George W. Bush,“Address to a Joint Session of Congress and the American People,”http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2001/09/20010920-8.html, last visited on Apr. 18th, 2008.
⑧George W. Bush,“President Bush Outlines Iraqi Threat,”http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2002/10/20021007-8.html, last visited on Mar. 25th, 2008.
⑨2002年8月CNN《今日美国》(USA Today)的一个民意调查显示,55%的被调查者认为伊拉克“现阶段拥有大规模杀伤性武器”,39%的美国人认为伊拉克正在努力发展大规模杀伤性武器,但是现在还不拥有大规模杀伤性武器。“Public opinions on International Affairs:Conflict With Iraq,”http://www.americans-world.org/digest/regional_issues/Conflict_Iraq/mil_action.cfm, last visited on Apr. 31st, 2008.
⑩在2003年3月,当被问到“世界上的人如何看待美国发动伊拉克战争时”,只有35%的美国人认为世界上的大多数民众反对美国出兵伊拉克,31%的民众认为人们观点不一。有高达31%的民众认为大多数人赞同。在6月、7月和9月、10月进行的调查,人们的观点变化不大。民意调查数据转引自Steve Kull, Clay Ramsy & Evan Lewis,“Misperceptions, the Media and the Iraq War,”Political Science Quarterly, Vol. CXVIII, Number IV, 2003-2004, pp. 570-571.
①Judith Miller,“AFTEREFFECTS: ILLICIT ARMS; U.S. Aides Say Iraqi Truck Could Be a Germ-War Lab,”New York Times, May 8th, 2003, http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9A02E5DE163FF93BA35756C0A9659C8B63, last visited on Mar. 29th, 2008.
②Barton Gellman,“U.S. Suspects Al Qaeda Got Nerve Agent From Iraqis Analysts: Chemical May Be VX, And Was Smuggled Via Turkey,”Washington Post, Dec. 12th, 2002, Page A1. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/06/12/AR2006061200701.html, last visited on Mar. 31st, 2008.
③参见Franklin Foer,“The Source of the Trouble,”New York Magazine, http://www.nymag.com/nymetro/news/media/features/9226/index.html, last visited on Apr. 4th, 2008.
①张曙光:《美国对华战略考虑与决策:1949-1972》,上海外语教育出版社,2002年版,第370-371页。
②参见Locher, Birgit, and Prugl,“Elisabeth, Feminism: Constructivism’s Other Pedigree”; Jennifer, Milliken, “Discourse Study: Bring Rigor to Critical Theory”; Audie, Klotz,“Can We Speak a Common Constructivist Language?”Karin M., Fierke & Knud Erik, Jorgensen eds., Constructing International Relations: the Next Generation, (New York: M.E. Sharpe, 2001).
③参见任晓:《试论中国国际关系理论话语》,载《国际关系理论新视野》(任晓编),北京·长征出版社,2001年版。沈芳菲:《从语言角度看中国国际秩序理论发展20年》,载《国际关系理论新视野》(任晓编)。刘永涛:《话语、权力与“中国威胁”建构》,载《美国问题研究》(第二辑)(倪世雄、刘永涛主编),北京·时事出版社,2002年版,第342-357页。张家栋、沈丁立:《恐怖语境下的恐怖主义》,载《世界经济与政治》,2003年第12期。但兴悟:《中西政治文化与话语体系中的霸权——中西霸权观比较》,载《世界经济与政治》,2004年第9期。刘永涛:《伊拉克“战争动员”:对美国总统话语的一种分析》,载《世界经济与政治》,2005年第6期。郑华:《话语分析与国际关系研究:福柯的‘话语观’对后现代国际关系的影响》,载《现代国际关系》,2005年第4期。
④最初的话语分析始于现代语言学的鼻祖索绪尔开创的结构语言学。结构语言学把语言分为“语言”(langue)和“言语”(parole)。“语言”和“言语”就象一个硬币的两面,“语言”是指深层结构,也就是社会约定俗成的语言规则。“它既是言语技能的社会产物,又是社会集团为了使个人有可能行使这一机能所采用的一整套必不可少的规约”。“言语”则是指人们对语言的使用,是个性化的语言。这就开始了人们对语言的审视。语言不再被看作自然的存在。参阅后人整理的瑞士语言学家费尔迪南·德·索绪尔的著作,《普通语言学教程》(高名凯译),北京·商务印书馆,1996年版。或Ferdinand de. Saussure, Course in General Linguistics (LaSalle, Ill.: Open Court, 1986).
⑦布迪厄对语言象征性权力的探讨。Pierre Bourdieu, Language and Symbolic Power (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1992).费尔克拉夫认为语言在社会变化中起到了重要的塑造作用。Norman Fairclough, Discourse and Social Change (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1992). Norman Fairclough, Language and Power (Essex: Longman Publishing, 1989).夏皮罗探讨了不同的语言可以建构人们对政策的不同理解。Michael J.Shapiro, Language and Politics (New York: New York University Press, 1984). Michael J.Shapiro, Language and Political Understanding: The Politics of Discursive Practices (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1981).沃达克探讨了语言和意识形态与权力的关系,以及语言中所存在的性别偏见。Ruth Wodak, Language, Power, and Ideology(Amsterdam: Benjamins, 1989); Ruth Wodak, Gender and Discourse (London: Sage, 1997).
①葛兰西提出“有机的知识分子”的概念,也就是那些在社会中行使知识分子的职能的人,而这样的人,必然来自并代表某个阶级或社会集团,因此那些上层建筑中积极宣传上层建筑的政策的人就属于“有机的知识分子”。参见葛兰西:《狱中札记》,北京:中国社会科学出版社,2000年版,第4-7页。
②参见葛兰西:《狱中札记》。
③参见Michel Foucault, The Order of Things: An Archeology of the Human Sciences (New York: Vintage, 1973)。J·丹纳赫、T·斯奇拉托、J·韦伯:《理解福柯》(刘瑾译),沈阳·百花文艺出版社,2002年版,第40-41页。
④参见刘永涛:《语言、身份建构和美国对外政策话语中的“邪恶论”》,载《国际观察》2005年第5期,第31-38页。
⑤Wendt,“Anarchy is what states make of it: the construction of power politics,”International Organization, Spring 1992, p.391.
⑥比如:Peter Katzenstein, ed., The Culture of National Security (New York: Columbia University Press, 1996). Alexander Wendt,“Anarchy is What States Made of it: the Social Construction of Power Politics,”International Organization, Vol. XLVI, No.II, 1992. Jonathan Mercer,“Anarchy and Identity,”International Organization, Vol. XLIX, No.II, 1995. Alexander Wendt,“Identity and Structural Change in International Politics,”The Return ofCulture and Identity in IR Theory, eds. Yosef Lapid & Friedrich Kratochwil (Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1996). Barry Buzan, The United States and the Great Powers: World Politics in the Twenty-First Century (Boston: Polity, 2004). Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities (London: Verso, 1983). Nicholas G. Onuf, World of Our Making (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1989). David Campbell, Writing Security (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1992).
①比如:黄刚:《冷战后美日同盟:建构主义解释》,载《国际观察》2002年第1期。孙溯源:《集体认同与国际政治——一种文化视角》,载《现代国际关系》2003年第1期。董小燕:《试论欧洲认同及其与民族意识的张力》,载《世界经济与政治》2002年第1期。姜运仓:《东亚经济合作中的身份建构》,载《国际观察》2004年第4期。张旭鹏:《文化认同理论与欧洲一体化》,载《欧洲研究》2004年第4期。俞新天:《东亚认同感的胎动——从文化的角度》,载《世界经济与政治》2004年第6期。
②比如:戴维·坎贝尔探讨了美国国家安全话语通过建构威胁来塑造自身身份。David Campbell, Writing Security (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1992);刘永涛用建构主义分析了一个国家的外交政策不仅由国际体系的物质结构决定,还与国家的身份有关。而身份应该在语言建构的环境下认识。美国对外政策中的“邪恶论”在一定程度上是建构美国身份的需要。刘永涛:《语言、身份建构和美国对外政策话语中的“邪恶论”》,载《国际观察》2005年第5期,第31-38页。刘永涛也指出文化是国家的一种认同,是国家之间区分自我与他者的手段,美国文化通过意识形态的方式对美国外交政策产生影响。美国的对外文化政策保护了本国的政治认同,影响了颠覆了他者的认同,使其无法对美国认同构成威胁。刘永涛:《冷战后对外文化战略透析》,载《现代国际关系》2001年第5期,第12-15页。刘永涛在另一篇文章中指出中美两国之间的安全利益及行为,不仅受制于国家的实力分配、均势等国际体系的物质结构,还受制于这一体系的规范、国家认同等社会结构。文章探讨了规范、认同等社会文化因素对中美安全关系的影响,提出应该努力增加中美之间的集体安全认同。刘永涛还涉及了批评理论在安全领域的研究,指出安全威胁的来源可以是国家想像出来的或者是国家通过话语等工具建构出来的。国家在确定威胁来源方面享有特殊权利。如果国家认定某一个东西是一种威胁来源,那么,它就可以成为一种威胁来源,国家可以借保护“国家安全”的名义,“合法”动用国家资源、对内对外采取武力行动。刘永涛:《规范、认同和中美安全合作前景》,载《世界经济与政治》1999年第1期,第33-36页、第45页。
①爱德华·W·萨义德:《东方学》(王宇根译) ,北京:三联书店,1999年版,第2页。
②Jurgen Habermas, The Theory of Communicative Action (Boston: Beacon Press, 1987), p.287.
③Jaye Ellis,“International Regimes and the Legitimacy of Rules: A Discourse-Ethical Approach,”Alternatives, Vol.
XXVII (2002), p.282. ⑤哈贝马斯依据其话语理论,提出了对国际政治进行根本改造的方法。他设想通过建立象欧盟一样的区域性民主政治逐渐建立超国家的公民社会,最终实现整个世界范围的政治和民主一体化。Jurgen Habermas, On the Logic of the Social Sciences (Cambridge: The MIT Press, 1988)
⑥参见Nicholas G. Onuf, World of Our Making (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1989); Nicholas Onuf,“Constructivism: A User’s Manual,”International Relations in Constructed World, eds. Kubalkova Vendulka, Nicholas Onuf & Paul Kowert (New York: M. E. Sharpe, 1998), p.63.
⑦比如:王子昌用话语分析的方法解构了美国的话语霸权对“中国威胁”的建构。王子昌:《解构美国话语霸权——对“中国威胁论”的话语分析》,载《东南亚研究》2003年第4期,第47页。吴一敏指出话语权是国家实力的表现,包含着对言说者地位和权力的隐蔽性认同,隐含着物质利益和力量的竞争。西方国家通过文化认同、解释权垄断和新闻压制等运作形式推行的话语霸权,发展中国家也必须积极寻求应对之策。吴一敏:《解读西方发达国家的话语霸权》,载《南京政治学院学报》2005年第3期,第112-114页。也有很多研究没有明确提出话语的概念,但关注话语所反映的文化霸权以及文化霸权在国际关系中的重要性。
⑧比如:王沪宁的《文化扩张与文化主权:对主权观念的挑战》提出文化在国际关系中的敏感性大大加强,引起了国际关系的重要变革。包括语言在内的文化因素在国际关系领域主要表现为文化霸权的扩张和另一些国家在维护文化主权的过程中产生的“文明的冲突”。王沪宁:《文化扩张与文化主权:对主权观念的挑战》,载《复旦学报(社会科学版)》1994年第3期。也有学者揭示了美国对外文化战略所宣扬的自由、民主、社会个人的理性选择等内容中包含的话语霸权如何服务于美国全球霸权的目标。李荣静,《当代美国政府的对外文化战略及其实质》,载《理论与现代化》2004年11月第6期,第37-41页。
①除了奥纳夫,还有克拉托赫维尔的《规则、规范和决定》、德里安(James DerDerian)和夏皮罗(Michael Shapiro)的《国际(文本间)关系》(International / Intertextual Relations),以及1990年《国际研究季刊》的特刊,这些研究成果使国际关系研究的语言学转向达到高潮。转引自孙吉胜:《国际关系的语言转向与建构主义理论发展研究:以语言游戏为例》,载《外交评论》2007年2月总第94期,第40页。
②参见程雨民主编:《英语语体学》,上海外语教育出版社,1989年版。
③Lugwig Wittgenstein, Philosophical Investigation, Second edition, Translated by G.E. M Anscombe, (Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishers, Ltd., 1997), pp.1-2
④其中最有代表性的就是罗伯特·杰维斯:《国际关系中的知觉与错误知觉》。
⑤见孙吉胜:《国际关系的语言转向与建构主义理论发展研究:以语言游戏为例》,载《外交评论》,2007年第1期。
①弗朗西斯·比尔和罗伯特·哈里曼主编的《后现实主义:国际关系中的修辞转折》运用语言学和修辞学的方法揭示了对外政策活动中的话语、沟通和劝说具有不可忽视的力量,当今国家应该以建设性而不是破坏性的方式去影响别国,是话语修辞研究的重要著作。Francis A. Beer & Robert Hariman, eds., Post-Realism: The Rhetorical Turn in International Relations (Michigan: Michigan University Press, 1996).
②如:Kathleen E. Kendall ed., Presidential Campaign Discourse: Strategic Communication Problems (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1995).有些学者以具体的外交话语为材料,解读特定的话语中蕴含的政策信息。郑华以福柯有关话语的论述为理论框架,以美方召开的三次记者招待会为研究材料,用话语分析的方法,解读了布什的北京之行。如:郑华:《从话语分析的角度看布什访华——从美方的三次记者招待会谈起》,载《国际论坛》2006年3月第8卷第2期,第26-31页。也有学者分析了在中美撞击事件中不同语言所包含的意义差别。包军、鹿琦:《试析语言与国际政治》,载《贵州师范大学学报》,2004年第1期,第41-44页。还有一些文章以外交部新闻发言人的话语为范本,分析了外交话语的信息功能和互动功能,以及外交话语的精确性和模糊性。熊涛、何劲:《外交话语的信息功能和互动功能》,载《广东技术师范学院学报》2006年第2期,第86-89页。郭立秋、王红利:《外交语言的精确性和模糊性》,载《外交学院学报》2002年第4期,第80-84页。
③如:博斯道夫(Denise M. Bostdorff)分析了总统在影响、操纵美国外交危机的话语的作用以及美国危机话语与总统影响力的消长关系。Denise M. Bostdorff, The Presidency and the Rhetoric of Foreign Crisis (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1994).
④罗伯特·杰维特(Robert Jewett)和约翰·劳伦斯(John Shelton Lawrence)的著作,详细分析了“邪恶”的话语在美国民族精神塑造中的作用。Robert Jewett & John Shelton Lawrence, Captain America and the Crusade against Evil: The Dilemma of Zealous Nationalism, (Cambridge: Wm. B. Berdmans Publishing Co., 2003).
①费尔克拉夫的著作很多,主要有以下著作Language and Power (London: Longman, 1989; second revised edition 2001). Discourse and Social Change (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1992). Critical Language Awareness (edited volume) (London: Longman, 1992). Media Discourse (London: Edward Arnold, 1995). Critical Discourse Analysis (London: Longman, 1995). Norman Fairclough & Lilie Chouliaraki, Discourse in Late Modernity - Rethinking Critical Discourse Analysis (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1999). New Labour, New Language? (London: Routledge, 2000). Analysing Discourse: Textual Analysis for Social Research (London: Routledge, 2003). Language and Globalization (London: Routledge 2006). Norman Fairclough, Giuseppina Cortese & Patrizia Ardizzone, Discourse in Contemporary Social Change (Oxford: Peter Lang Publishing Group, 2007).
①乔纳森·波特:《话语和社会心理学:超越态度和行为》(肖文明等译),北京·人民大学出版社,2006年版,第8页。
①参见http://www.chinaren.com/20051018/n227237764.shtml, last visited on July 10th, 2008. http://www.southcn.com/it/wsqw/200309020565.htm, last visited on July 10th, 2008.
②刘永涛:《理解含义:理论、话语和国际关系》,载《外交评论》,2007年第2期。
③参见:《新牛津英语词典》(The New Oxford Dictionary of English),上海外语教育出版社,2001年版,第527页。Merriam-Webster’s Online Dictionary, http://aolsvc.merriam-webster.aol.com/dictionary/discourse, last visited on Apr. 13th, 2008.
①乔纳森·波特:《话语和社会心理学:超越态度和行为》,第5页。
②米歇尔·福柯:《知识考古学》(马月译),北京·生活·读书·新知出版社,2007年4月,第117-118页。
③乔纳森·波特:《话语和社会心理学:超越态度和行为》,第5页。
④James Der Derian & Michael J. Shapiro, International/ Intertextual Relations: Postmodern Readings of World Politics (Lexington: Lexington Books, 1989).
①Ferdinand de Saussure,“Third Course of Lectures on General Linguistics,”http://www.marxists.org/reference/subject/philosophy/works/fr/saussure.htm, Last visited on Aug. 24th, 2007.索绪尔:《普通语言学教程》(高明凯译),北京·商务印书馆,1996年版。
②索绪尔:《普通语言学教程》,第102页。
③索绪尔:《普通语言学教程》,第104页。
④索绪尔:《普通语言学教程》,第323页。
⑤Ronald Reagan,“Proclamation 4908 -- Afghanistan Day,”http://www.reagan.utexas.edu/archives/speeches/1982/31082c.htm, March 10th, 1982, last visited on Apr. 19th, 2008.
⑥Juan Cole,“Fisking the War on Terror,”http://www.juancole.com/2005/08/fisking-war-on-terror-once-upon-time.html, last visited on May 7th, 2008.
⑦William J. Clinton,“Executive Order 13129, July 4th, 1999,”http://www.wjopc.com/site/constitutional/execorders/Clinton.pdf, last visited on Apr. 19th, 2008.
①杨子娟:《剖析美国对塔利班政策的实质》,载《贵州师范大学学报》(社会科学版),2007年第6期,第36-40页。
③George W. Bush,“Presidential Address to the Nation,”Oct. 7th, 2001, http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2001/10/20011007-8.html, last visited on Apr. 19th, 2008.
④米歇尔·福柯:《疯癫与文明》(刘北成、杨远婴译),北京·生活·读书·新知出版社,2007年4月,前言第4-5页。
①关于文化对外交决策的影响的论述,可参见:Michael H. Hunt, Ideology and U.S. Foreign Policy (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1987).周琪:《意识形态与美国外交》,上海人民出版社,2006年版。
②江怡:《对语言哲学的批判:维特根斯坦与康德》,载《哲学研究》,1990年第5期,第96到100页。
③参见李慎之:《数量优势下的恐惧》,载《二十一世纪的忧思——李慎之文选》续一,香港:明报出版社,2003年版,第257页。
④王晓德:《关于美国对外关系的文化思考》,载《世界经济与政治》,1996年第12期,第56页。
⑤王缉思:《美国霸权的逻辑》,载《美国研究》,2003年第3期,第22页。
⑥George W. Bush,“President Honors Veterans at West Virginia Fourth of July Celebration,”http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2002/07/20020704-3.html, last visited on Sept. 11th, 2008.
①参见哈拉尔德·米勒:《文明的共存:对塞缪尔·亨廷顿“文明冲突论”的批判》(郦红等译),北京·新华出版社,2002年版,第21页。
②熊志勇:《美国公众舆论与战争──以朝鲜战争、越南战争和伊拉克战争为例》,载《外交学院学报》2004年9月第77期,第51页。
③参见熊志勇:《美国公众舆论与战争──以朝鲜战争、越南战争和伊拉克战争为例》,上引报刊。
①Jennifer W. See,“Ideology,”Encyclopedia of American Foreign Policy, Second Edition, volume II, eds. Alexander DeConde, Richard Dean Burns & Fredrik Logevall (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 2001), p.188.
②“In today’s pages: American Values and the Next President,”Los Angeles Times, Dec. 10th, 2007, http://opinion.latimes.com/opinionla/2007/12/in-todays-pag-5.html, last visited on July 8th, 2008.
①厄尔·弗赖伊:《可征服的美国:二十一世纪的美国对外政策》,转引自王晓德:《关于美国对外关系的文化思考》,载《世界经济与政治》,1996年第12期,第53页。
②Derek Chollet & Tod Lindberg,“A Moral Core for U.S. Foreign Policy,”Policy Review, December 2007 & January 2008. http://www.hoover.org/publications/policyreview/11832051.html, last visited on Sept. 12, 2008.
③资中筠:《二十世纪后半叶世界舞台上的美国》,载《资中筠集》,北京·中国社会科学出版社,2002年7月版,第123页。
④资中筠:《追根溯源:对美国对话政策(1945-1950)的再思考》,载《资中筠集》,第302页。
⑤任晓、沈丁立主编:《保守主义理念与美国的外交政策》,上海三联书店,2003年9月版,序第1-2页。
①Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr.,“Foreign Policy and the American Character,”Foreign Affairs, Fall 1983.
②参见小约瑟夫·奈:《理解国际冲突:理论与历史》(张小明译),上海世纪出版集团,2005年版,第24-25页。
③参见小约瑟夫·奈:《理解国际冲突:理论与历史》第24-35页。
④维特根斯坦:《哲学研究》(李步楼译),北京·商务印书馆,1996年,第201页。
②J.L. Austin, How to Do Things with Words (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1962).参见杨玉成:《奥斯汀论言和行》。
③转引自大卫·考恩:《布什的谎言》(李春怡等译),北京·东方出版社,2004年版,第174页。
④《旧金山纪事报》,2002年9月20日,转引自张善明、袁秀凡:《美国的贪欲──对世界的警示》,北京·经济管理出版社,2004年版,第142页。
⑤J.L. Austin: How to Do Things with Words (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1962).参见杨玉成:《奥斯汀论言和行》,http://philosophy.cass.cn/chuban/zxyj/yjgqml/04/0401/011.htm, last visited on Apr. 14th, 2008.
①乔纳森·波特:《话语和社会心理学:超越态度和行为》,第6页。
②罗伯特·杰维斯:《国际政治中的知觉与错误知觉》,《导言》第112页。
③罗伯特·杰维斯:《国际政治中的知觉与错误知觉》,《导言》第113页。
④罗伯特·杰维斯:《国际政治中的知觉与错误知觉》,《导言》第206页。
⑤泽乌丁·萨达尔等:《谁在恨美国》(袁征、朱琳、付宇译),北京·中国青年出版社,2004年版,第37页。
①维特根斯坦:《逻辑哲学论》(郭英译),北京·商务印书馆,1992年版。参见:江怡:《对语言哲学的批判:维特根斯坦与康德》,载《哲学研究》,1990年第5期,第96到100页。
②江怡:《维特根斯坦传》,石家庄·河北人民出版社,1998年版,第117-125页。
③George W. Bush,“Address to a Joint Session of Congress and the American People,”Sept. 20th, 2001, http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2001/09/20010920-8.html, last visited on Apr. 19th, 2008.
④米歇尔·福柯:《疯癫与文明》,前言第4-5页。
⑤米歇尔·福柯:《疯癫与文明》,前言第2页。
①亚历山大·温特:《国际政治社会理论》(秦亚青译),上海人民出版社,2000年版。
②亚历山大·温特:《国际政治社会理论》。
③参见David Campbell, Writing Security: United States Foreign Policy and the Politics of Identity (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1992).
②米歇尔·福柯:《疯癫与文明》,第31页。
①转引自张巨岩:《权力的声音:美国的媒体和战争》,北京·三联书店,2004年,第14页。
②Jeff Gerth,“Military's Information War Is Vast and Often Secretive,”New York Times, Dec. 11th, 2005, http://www.nytimes.com/2005/12/11/politics/11propaganda.html, last visited on Apr. 11th, 2008.
③James Dao & Eric Schmitt,“Pentagon Readies Efforts to Sway Sentiment Abroad,”New York Times, Feb. 19th, 2002, http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9c06efd71f3ff93aa25751c0a9649c8b63, last visited on Apr. 12th, 2008.
②参考约翰·朱迪斯对美国基督教理念的分析,总结出美国外交话语的规范。《上帝选择的国度:宗教对美国外交政策的影响》(文清译),原载于卡内基国际和平基金会《政策简讯》,第37期,载卡内基中文网http://www.carnegieendowment.org/programs/china/chinese/Research/ForeignPolicySecurity/ChosenNation.cfm, last visited on May 8th, 2008.
③转引自约翰·朱迪斯:《上帝选择的国度:宗教对美国外交政策的影响》(文清译),原载于卡内基国际和平基金会《政策简讯》,第37期,载卡内基中文网http://www.carnegieendowment.org/programs/china/chinese/Research/ForeignPolicySecurity/ChosenNation.cfm, last visited on May 8th, 2008.
①转引自王鸣鸣:《宗教信仰与美国对外政策》,载李慎明、王逸舟主编:《2005年:全球政治与安全报告》,北京·社科文献出版社,2004年版,第217-239页。
②转引自约翰·朱迪斯:《上帝选择的国度:宗教对美国外交政策的影响》
④Ronald Reagan,“The Evil Empire,”http://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/ronaldreaganevilempire.htm, last visited on Jan.20th, 2008.
①参考约翰·朱迪斯:《上帝选择的国度:宗教对美国外交政策的影响》。
②理查德·克罗卡特:《反美主义与全球秩序》(陈平译),北京·新华出版社,2004年版,前言第5页。
③天主教、东正教和新教统称为基督教。
④塞缪尔·亨廷顿:《我们是谁?──美国国家特性面临的挑战》(程克雄译),北京·新华出版社,2005年版,第80-83页。也可参见亨廷顿发表在《华尔街日报》上的文章“Under God: Michael Newdow is right. Atheists are outsiders in America,”Wall Street Journal, http://www.opinionjournal.com/editorial/feature.html?id=110005223, last visited on Feb. 20th, 2009.关于美国基督徒的统计数字也可参见Russell Ash, The Top 10 of Everything (New York: DK Publishing, Inc., 1997), pp. 160-161.该书认为美国有85%的人口是基督徒。维基百科上对美国人进行电话调查得出的统计数字表明1990年有88.3%的美国人自称基督徒,到2001年有79.8%的美国人认为自己是基督徒。http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographics_of_the_United_States#Religious_affiliation, last visited on Feb. 20th, 2009.
⑤Kwame Anthony Appiah,“The Multiculturist Misunderstanding,”New York Review of Books, Oct. 9th, 1997, p.31.转引自塞缪尔·亨廷顿:《我们是谁?──美国国家特性面临的挑战》,第83页。
①塞缪尔·亨廷顿:《我们是谁?──美国国家特性面临的挑战》,第69-71页。
②丁一凡:《美国批判:自由帝国扩张的悖论》,北京出版社,2006年版,第166页。
③邱晓军:《美国的宗教对其社会意识形态的影响》,载《科教文汇》2007年1月,第149页。
④邱晓军:《美国的宗教对其社会意识形态的影响》,上引报刊,第149页。
⑤《“民主自由”的美国为何侵略成性》,载《联合早报》2007年6月15日, http://www.zaobao.com/special/forum/pages5/forum_us070615.html, last visited on May 23rd, 2008.
⑥邱晓军:《美国的宗教对其社会意识形态的影响》,上引报刊,第149页。
①塞缪尔·亨廷顿:《我们是谁?──美国国家特性面临的挑战》,第69-71页。
②艾伦·赫茨克:《在华盛顿代表上帝》,上海世纪出版集团,2003年1月版。
①根据董小川:《美国总统教会取向》制表,见董小川:《20世纪美国宗教与政治》,北京·人民出版社,2002年版,第38页。
②翟立明、姜天明:《宗教与美国大选》,载《辽宁大学学报》, http://www.wyzxsx.com/Article/Class20/200702/15153.html, last visited on May 22nd, 2008.
③Richard V. Pierard & Robert D. Linder, Civil Religion and the Presidency (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 1988), p.70.
④Paul Kengor, God and Ronald Reagan: A Spiritual Life (New York: Harper, 2004).
⑤Ronald Reagan:“The Evil Empire,”http://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/ronaldreaganevilempire.htm, last visited on Jan.20th, 2008.
②刘建飞:《美国的保守主义趋势》,载《现代国际关系》2004年第11期,第11页。
③翟立明、姜天明:《宗教与美国大选》,载《辽宁大学学报》, http://www.wyzxsx.com/Article/Class20/200702/15153.html, last visited on May 22nd, 2008.
④“God and George W. Bush,”http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/5748598/, last visited on Jan.29th, 2008.
⑤除了God以外,布什还使用the Author of Liberty, Providence等说法,可以参考后面的分析。
⑥“President George W. Bush’s Inaugural Address,”http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/inaugural-address.html, last visited on Feb. 13th, 2008.
①根据白宫网站上的《国情咨文》原文,笔者使用Concordance软件创建语料库统计。
②Abraham McLaughlin,“Bush’s Two Tasks: Lead, Heal Nation,”Christian Science Monitor, Sept. 14th, 2001.
④Alan Dershowitz, Supreme Injustice: How the High Court Hijacked Election 2000 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001).
⑤Melissa August, et al.“One Year Ago In Time,”Monday, Dec. 31st, 2001, Times, http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1001541,00.html, last visited on May 1st, 2008.
⑥“Address to a Joint Session of Congress and the American People,”http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2001/09/20010920-8.html, last visited on Feb. 16th, 2008.
①“President Bush Announces Major Combat Operations in Iraq Have Ended,”http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2003/05/20030501-15.html, last visited on Feb.23rd, 2008.
②Frank Rich,“On‘Fixed Ideas’Since September 11,”New York Review of Books, Volume L, NumberIV, March 13th, 2003. http://www.nybooks.com/articles/article-preview?article_id=16119, last visited on May 1st, 2008.
③Alex Johnson,“God on the ballot,”http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/5819171/, last visited on Jan. 29th, 2008.
④“President Delivers‘State of the Union’,”http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2003/01/20030128-19.html, last visited on Feb. 16th, 2008.
⑤“President Sworn-In to Second Term,”http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2005/01/20050120-1.html, last visited on Feb. 13th, 2008.
①“President Bush Announces Major Combat Operations in Iraq Have Ended,”http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2003/05/20030501-15.html, last visited on Feb.23rd, 2008.
②“President Speaks to the United Nations General Assembly,”http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2004/09/20040921-3.html, last visited on Feb. 13th, 2008.
③George W. Bush,“President Delivers State of the Union Address,”http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2002/01/print/20020129-11.html, last visited on May 1st, 2008.
④Thomas B. Byer,“A City upon a Hill, American Literature and the Ideology of Exceptionalism,”Marks of distinction, American Exceptionalism Revisited, ed. Dale Carter (Aarthurs: Aarhus University Press, 2001), pp.52-53.
⑤Jr. Arthur M. Schlesinger, The Cycles of American History (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1976), p.15.
⑥“President Delivers‘State of the Union’,”http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2003/01/print/20030128-19.html, last visited on Mar. 8th, 2008.
⑦“President Delivers State of the Union Address,”http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2002/01/print/20020129-11.html, last visited on May 23rd, 2008.
⑧“President Delivers‘State of the Union’,”http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2003/01/print/20030128-19.html, last visited on Mar. 8th, 2008.
②George W. Bush,“Address to a Joint Session of Congress and the American People,”http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2001/09/20010920-8.html, last visited on Jan. 29th, 2008.
③于歌:《美国的本质》,北京·当代中国出版社,2006年版,第140页。
④约翰·朱迪斯:《上帝选择的国度:宗教对美国外交政策的影响》
①Alex Johnson,“Bush—Born Again, or Not?”http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/6115719/, last visited on Jan. 26th, 2008.
②麦克·希尔:《布什的启示录情结》,见Counterpunch January, 2003.转引自于歌:《美国的本质》,北京·当代中国出版社,2006年版,第143页。
③栗林辉夫:《布什的上帝与上帝之国美利坚》,日本基督教出版局,第24页。转引自于歌:《美国的本质》,第142页。
④“President George W. Bush's Inaugural Address,”http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/inaugural-address.html, last visited on Feb. 15th, 2008.
⑤“好心的撒玛利亚人”这个典故来自《圣经·路加福音10》(LUKE 10)“好心的撒玛利亚人的比喻(”The Parable of the Good Samaritan)。传说有一个商人从耶路撒冷到耶利哥,不幸在路上被强盗抢光所有的财物,扒光所有的衣服,赤身裸体,并且被打得遍体鳞伤。一位祭祀的人路过,但是他假装没看见离开了。一个利末人也从他的身边走过。就在他奄奄一息的时候,好心的撒玛利亚人路过,把他救起,放在自己的驴背上,并带他到一家小旅店给他养伤。当撒玛利亚人要离开的时候,还不忘给店主银子,拜托他帮忙照顾这位受伤的人。www.az1314.com/ReadNews.asp?NewsID=1059, last visited on Feb.15th, 2008.
⑥“President Delivers "State of the Union",”http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2003/01/20030128-19.html, last visited on Feb.15th, 2008.
⑦原文是There is pow’r, pow’r, wonder working pow’r In the blood of the Lamb.这种说法来源于赞美诗:意识是“这里有一种力量,力量,一种创造奇迹的力量,在羔羊的血液中”。《赞美诗:289》, http://www.digitalhymnal.org/zip/HymnWords.txt, last visited on May 20th, 2008.
⑧相关评论参见David L. Greene,“Bush Turns Increasingly to Language of Religion,”http://www.commondreams.org/headlines03/0210-06.htm, last visited on Feb. 15th, 2008.
⑨相关评论参见James Heflin,“Wonder-Working Power,”http://www.alternet.org/story/15667/, last visited on May 20th, 2008.
①“Religion, Rhetoric, and the Presidency: A Conversation with Michael Gerson,”http://pewforum.org/events/?EventID=67, last visited on May 6th, 2008.
②《圣经·路加福音6》的原文是“Why do you see the speck in your neighbor's eye, but do not notice the log in your own eye? Or how can you say to your neighbor, "Friend, let me take the speck out of your eye," when you yourself do not see the log in your own eye? You hypocrite, first take the log out of your own eye, and then you will see clearly to take the speck out of your neighbor's eye.”http://www.near-death.com/experiences/origen045.html, last visited on Feb. 16th, 2008.
③Michael Gerson,“The Danger for America Is Not Theocracy,”(address delivered in The Ethics and Public Policy Center semi-annual conference on religion and public life in 2004), http://www.beliefnet.com/story/159/story_15943.html, last visited on Feb. 13th, 2008.
⑤“Statement by the President in His Address to the Nation,”http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2001/09/20010911-16.html, last visited on feb.11th, 2008.来自Psalm 23:4, http://bible.cc/psalms/23-4.htm, last visited on Feb.12th, 2008.
⑥参见www.biblegateway.com/passage/?book_id=29&chapter=49&version=22, last visited on Feb.22nd, 2008.
①所谓“重生”的经验,被视为是一个福音派(evangelical Protestants)教徒身份的一个重要特征它是指一个人在与“圣灵”,通常是耶稣基督的交流中进行了心灵的对话,有了脱胎换骨的变化。在《圣经·诗篇》All my fresh springs shall be in Thee. (PSALM 1XXXVii. P. B.V.)就描述了这种体验,相关评论可以参考Oswald Chambers, My Utmost For His Highest (Westwood: Barbour and Company, Inc. 1963).也可参见http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/6115719/, last visited on Jan.20th, 2008.
②布什在书中有这样的描述“比利·格雷厄姆牧师(Reverend Billy Graham)到他缅因州的家中作客。一天晚上,在布什家族的聚会中,比利·格雷汉姆牧师坐在火边回答大家的提问。他所说的话、他因为深受上帝的影响所展现出来的慈善使布什的内心深受感染。后来布什和格雷汉姆牧师的谈话更是在他灵魂深处播下了芥末种子(a mustard seed)。第二年,这颗种子成长起来”。George W. Bush, A Charge To Keep: My Journey to the White House (New York: Easton Press, 1999). P.136.
③在《圣经》《马修书》(Matthew 13:31-32)中,认为芥末籽尽管是最小的一种种子,但是也可以长成参天大树。因此,在《福音书》(the Gospels)经常把“芥末籽”和“重生”的经验联系在一起。参见http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/6115719/, last visited on Jan.20th, 2008.
④重生的基督徒(born again Christian)是美国当代基督教右翼势力福音派的主要组成人员。“重生”教徒认为《圣经》是确实可靠的真理。他们在同性恋权利、堕胎和学校祈祷这些问题上的观点更加保守。托马斯·帕特森:《美国政治文化》(顾肃、吕建高译),北京·东方出版社,2007年版,第213页。所谓的“福音派”则更多是指一种宗教风格或倾向。把基督教右翼说成是福音派是一种政治上常用的表述,但是实际上支持基督教右翼的除了福音派,还有非福音派新教徒、天主教徒、犹太教徒和一些非教徒的保守人士。肯尼思·D·沃尔德、段琦:《宗教团体对中美关系进展的影响》,载《世界宗教研究》,1999年第1期,第136页。
⑤埃里克·洛朗:《布什的秘密世界》(贾宗谊译),北京·新华出版社,2005年版,第17页。
⑦这首诗是布什就任州长时,他的父亲老布什写在纸上交给他的。这首诗来自基督教新教经典《亨利·马太圣经注释》,是亨利·马太对《利未记》中上帝吩咐祭司要“遵守耶和华的吩咐“的感想。我有本分当尽,我有上主当尊,我有宝贵灵魂当救,引领他进天庭。我愿听候主命,服事现今世代,竭尽一切能力才智,殷勤成就主工。求主使我谨慎,活在主面光中,使你仆人常做准备,面陈所做事工。助我警醒祷告,凡事靠主引导,持守真道不违托付,忠心至见主面。George W. Bush, p.45.中文译文来自斯蒂芬·曼斯菲尔德:《活出使命:布什总统的信仰》(林淑真译),北京·中国档案出版社,2006年版,载新浪读书: http://book.sina.com.cn/nzt/cha/bushidexinyang/10.shtml, last visited on May 20th, 2008.
①画中一个看起来奋勇无畏的牛仔形象似乎是小布什的自画像。牛仔在恶劣的天气中、在崎岖的路面上、在大批敌人的追赶下勇敢地向前。布什认为这幅画反映了一个19世纪在美国西部传教的传教士不畏险阻的精神,而这种服务于上帝的精神,也给他和他的幕僚指引了方向,也就是要努力服务于自己的信仰,传播自己的信仰。George W. Bush, p.45.
②有人对这幅画和这幅画的作者进行了一番研究,结果发现这幅画反映的实际是一个盗马贼努力逃脱的场面。Scott Horton,“The Illustrated President,”http://harpers.org/archive/2008/01/hbc-90002237, last visited on Jan.28th, 2008.
③转引自Paul Harris,“Bush says God chose him to lead his nation,”http://observer.guardian.co.uk/international/story/0,6903,1075950,00.html, last visited on Jan. 29th, 2008.也可参见该书的节选,http://www.bookschina.com/2569539.htm, last visited on Dec. 20th, 2007。
④“President George W. Bush's Inaugural Address,”January 20th, 2001, http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/inaugural-address.html, last visited on May 11th, 2008.
⑤塞缪尔·亨廷顿:《我们是谁?美国国家特性面临的挑战》,第283-291页。
①朱易:《保守派犹豫、麦肯恩根基不稳》,2008年2月13日《联合早报》,http://www.zaobao.com/yl/tx080213_501.shtml, last visited on Feb. 13th, 2008.
②Chris Jansing,“For which candidate is the bell tolling,”http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/6056604/, last visited on Jan. 24th, 2008.
③Alex Johnson,“God on the ballot”, http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/5819171/, last visited on Jan. 29th, 2008.
④Ibid.
⑤Alex Johnson,“For Bush, a hunt for the right voters”, http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/6011114/, last visited on Jan. 28th, 2008.
⑥塞缪尔·亨廷顿:《我们是谁?美国国家特性面临的挑战》,第283-291页。
①Alex Johnson,“God on the ballot,”http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/5819171/, last visited on Jan. 29th, 2008.
②根据MSNBC的网上调查,在43656人中有58%的人认为布什政府领导下的美国政府在跨越政教分离的界限方面有很大问题。http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/6115719/, last visited on Jan.26th, 2008.
③Alex Johnson,“Bush—born again, or not?”http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/6115719/, last visited on Jan.26th, 2008.
④根据http://www.sourcewatch.org/index.php?title=Evil-doers上搜集的布什从2001年9月14日到2002年4月9日的演讲,笔者使用Concordance软件创建语料库统计。
①Collins Cobuild English Dictionary,上海外语教育出版社,2003年版,第569页。
②《圣经旧约·创世记》第三章,http://www.icysoul.org/article/bible/Gen_3.html, last visited on 14th, 2006.
③《圣经新约·彼得前书》,第三章,http://www.icysoul.org/article/bible/1Pe_3.html, last visited on Nov. 14th, 2006.
④“What Do‘Good’&‘Evil’Mean?”http://theroadtoemmaus.org/RdLb/21PbAr/Eth/Good&Evil.htm, last visited on Nov. 14th, 2006.
⑤比如:布什把伊朗、伊拉克和朝鲜称作“邪恶轴心”(the Axis of Evil) ,如果单从这个说法来分析,似乎伊朗、伊拉克和朝鲜联合在了一起,准备策划或发动针对世界的行动。但是,实际上伊朗和伊拉克是多年的宿敌,也没有任何情报表明这三个国家结成了联盟,而且正如阿富汗总统卡尔扎伊指出,伊朗多年以来一直帮助削弱塔利班和基地组织。即使很多美国人也很难理解“邪恶轴心”(the Axis of Evil)到底是什么意思。很难相信布什真的相信这三个国家正在联合在一起,酝酿针对世界的阴谋。http://www.irregulartimes.com/axisanagram.html, last visited on Nov. 15th, 2006.
①瓦西利斯·福斯卡斯等:《新美帝国主义:布什的反恐战争和以血换石油》(薛颖译),北京·世界知识出版社,2006年版,第88页。
②George W. Bush,“President Delivers State of the Union Address,”http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2002/01/print/20020129-11.html, last visited on Dec. 26th, 2008.本译文引自美国大使馆官方网站。http://chinese.usembassy-china.org.cn/2002speech.html, last visited on Dec. 26th, 2008.
①泽乌丁·萨达尔等:《谁在恨美国》(袁征、朱琳、付宇译),北京·中国青年出版社,2004年版,第37页。
②George W. Bush,“President Delivers State of the Union Address,”http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2002/01/print/20020129-11.html, last visited on Dec. 26th, 2008.如非特别指出,本文引用的布什《国情咨文》的中文译文均来自美国大使馆官方网站。本译文引自http://chinese.usembassy-china.org.cn/2002speech.html, last visited on Dec. 26th, 2008.
③Sandra Silberstein, War of Words: Language, Politics and 9/11 (London: Routledge, 2002), p.xii.
④关于美国外交话语中的此类用法可以参见张庆冰:《美国政治话语中的隐喻研究》,载《语言政治理论》,第28-29页。
⑤Crenshaw Martha, ed., Terrorism, Legitimacy, and Power: The Consequences of Political Violence (Scranton:Wesleyan University Press, 1983), p.91.
①George W. Bush,“President Delivers State of the Union Address”, http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2002/01/print/20020129-11.html, last visited on Dec. 26th, 2008.本译文引自美国大使馆官方网站。http://chinese.usembassy-china.org.cn/2002speech.html, last visited on Dec. 26th, 2008.
②瓦西利斯·福斯卡斯等:《新美帝国主义:布什的反恐战争和以血换石油》,第88页。
③www.einaudi.cornell.edu/iew, last visited on May 21st, 2007
①“9.11”爆发的原因,参见泽乌丁·萨达尔等:《谁在恨美国》,第57页。
②Mohsin Hamid,“Why Do They Hate Us?”http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/07/20/AR2007072001806.html, last visited on Oct. 11th, 2007.
④参见康奈尔大学网站www.einaudi.cornell.edu/iew, last visited on May 21st, 2007
①巴巴拉·冈纳尔:《寻求掩饰:邪恶回来了》,2002年2月11日《新政治家》。转引自泽乌丁·萨达尔等:《谁在恨美国》,第56页。
③维森特·戴维斯和莫里斯·伊斯特:《美国外交政策中的意识形态──洛克自由主义范例》,转引自张宏毅:《美国政治价值观与世界霸权》,载《理论前沿》2004年第4期,第11页。
④比尔·克林顿:《希望与历史之间》(金灿荣译),海口·海南出版社,1997年版,第116页。
⑤George H. W. Bush,“State of the Union Address, Envisioning One Thousand Points of Light,”http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0900156.html, last visited on Mar. 2nd, 2009.
①Robert Schlesinger, White House Ghosts: Presidents and Their Speechwriters (New York: Simon & Schuster, Inc. 2008), p.47.
②Siobhan McEvoy-Levy, American Exceptionalism and US Foreign policy: Public diplomacy at the End of the Cold War (London: Palgrave, 2001), pp. 31-32.
③相关论述可参见门洪华:《美国输出民主战略浅析》,载《国际政治研究》,1999年第1期,第22到23页。
④参见大英百科在线, http://www.britannica.com/presidents/article-214232, last visited on Mar.3rd, 2009.
⑤George H. W. Bush,“Address to the Nation on Panama Invasion,”http://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/ghwbushpanamainvasion.htm, last visited on Mar. 3rd, 2009.
⑥George H. W. Bush,“Address to the Nation on Invasion of Iraq,”http://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/ghwbushiraqinvasion.htm, last visited on Mar. 3rd, 2009.
⑦Syed Abdul Siraj & Jyotika Ramaprasad,“Image of Pakistan in Elite US Newspapers: Exploring News Framing,”http://www.issi.org.pk/journal/2007_files/no_4/article/a1.htm, last visited on Mar. 3rd, 2009.
①刘国平:《美国民主制度输出》,北京·社会科学文献出版社,2006年版,第1页。本文将制度也看作社会文化价值观念的一部分,因为制度会深刻地影响思想和文化,美国的民主制度和民主观念更加密不可分。
②丹尼尔·布尔斯廷:《美国人:开拓历程》,北京·美国大使馆文化处,1987年版,第3页。
③刘国平:《美国民主制度输出》,第1页。
④J·斯帕尼尔:《第二次世界大战后美国的外交政策》(段若石译),北京·商务印书馆,1992年版,第431页。
⑤詹姆斯·B·莫特雷:《美国的非常规冲突政策和战略》,载中国现代国际关系研究所选编:《冷战后的美国与世界》,北京·时事出版社,1991年版,第97页。
⑥约瑟夫·奈:《美国霸权的困惑──为什么美国不能独断专行》(郑志国等译),北京·世界知识出版社,2002年版,第142-143页。
⑦沃尔特·拉塞尔·米德:《美国外交政策及其如何影响了世界》(曹化银译),北京·中信出版社,2003年版,第174页。
⑧刘国平认为“美国民主体制包括:两党制,代议选举制,国会、总统和司法三权分立制衡,联邦的地方分权等”,“如果接受了美国宪法,也就接受了这种民主体制”。刘国平:《美国民主制度输出》,北京·社会科学文献出版社,2006年版,第113页。
①刘国平:《美国民主制度输出》,北京·社会科学文献出版社,2006年版,第1页。
②沃尔特·拉塞尔·米德:《美国外交政策及其如何影响了世界》,第171页。
③沃尔特·拉塞尔·米德:《美国外交政策及其如何影响了世界》,第152页。
④沃尔特·拉塞尔·米德:《美国外交政策及其如何影响了世界》,第152页。
①陆建德:《永不停息的叛逆者——代序》,见诺姆·乔姆斯基著:《恐怖主义文化》(张鲲,郎丽璇),上海译文出版社,2006年版。
②沃尔特·拉塞尔·米德:《美国外交政策及其如何影响了世界》,第174页。
③《国务卿赖斯强调推行转型外交促进民主》,载《美国参考》,转引自美国大使馆网站, http://chinese.usembassy-china.org.cn/011806speech.html, last visited on May 8th, 2008.
④郭宪纲:《美国输出“民主”的第三部曲──评布什政府酝酿改造大中东的计划》,载《国际问题研究》2004年第4期,第41页。
⑤沃尔特·拉塞尔·米德:《美国外交政策及其如何影响了世界》,第177页。
①参见Michael Moore, Fahrenheit 9/11, Lions Gate Entertainment, IFC Films (theatrical) & Sony Pictures Home Entertainment, 2004.
②比如:在推翻萨达姆之后,美国并没有在伊拉克实行直接选举,因为美国担心与伊朗关系密切的什叶派会在选举中获胜。郭宪纲:《美国输出“民主”的第三部曲──评布什政府酝酿改造大中东的计划》,载《国际问题研究》2004年第4期,第43页。
③比如:在智利,民选总统阿连德致力于用“第三条道路”来实现智利的经济发展,也就是将智利的民主与某些社会主义的因素结合。为了实现经济发展,他努力提高某些关键领域的国有化程度,特别是美国企业投资巨大的铜业。他的改革触动了美国的利益。尼克松政府以威胁美国安全为名,支持军事独裁者皮诺切特推翻了阿连德。从此,皮诺切特的独裁一直持续到冷战结束,美国转而支持“亲民主”的派别,迫使他下台。Mary Fran T. Malone,“Can the United States Export Democracy,”A University Dialogue on Democracy, University of New Hampshire, 2007-2008.
④Thomas Carothers, Critical Mission: Essays on Democracy Promotion (Washington, DC: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 2004).
⑤沃尔特·拉塞尔·米德:《美国外交政策及其如何影响了世界》,第180页。
②吕国欣:《“民主”──美国颠覆他国的工具》,载《太平洋论坛》2005年第3期,第3期。
③“The National Security Strategy”, September 2002, http://www.whitehouse.gov/nsc/nss/2002/index.html, last visited on May 8th, 2008.
④郭宪纲:《美国输出“民主”的第三部曲──评布什政府酝酿改造大中东的计划》,上引报刊,第41页。
①“President Bush Discusses Freedom in Iraq and Middle East,”http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2003/11/20031106-2.html, last visited on Feb. 4th, 2008.
②“President George W. Bush's Inaugural Address,”January 20th, 2001, http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/inaugural-address.html, last visited on May 11th, 2008.
③刘国平:《美国民主制度输出》,第155页。
④George W. Bush,“President Bush Delivers State of the Union Address,”http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2007/01/print/20070123-2.html, last visited on May 26th, 2008.
⑤George W. Bush,“STATE OF THE UNION ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT,”http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2007/01/print/20070123-2.html, last visited on May 26th, 2008.
⑥“State of the Union Address,”http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2004/01/print/20040120-7.html, last visited on May 28th, 2008. http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2005/02/print/20050202-11.html, last visited on Mar. 9th, 2008.
⑦“STATE OF THE UNION ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT,”http://www.whitehouse.gov/stateoftheunion/2006/print/index.html, last visited on Mar. 9th, 2008.
⑧“Text: President Bush's Acceptance Speech to the Republican National Convention,”http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A57466-2004Sep2.html, last visited on Feb. 23rd, 2008.
①“State of the Union Address,”http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2004/01/print/20040120-7.html, last visited on May 28th, 2008. http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2005/02/print/20050202-11.html, last visited on Mar. 9th, 2008.
②“President Delivers State of the Union Address,”http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2002/01/print/20020129-11.html, last visited on Mar. 8th, 2008.
③“The National Security Strategy,”September 2002, http://www.whitehouse.gov/nsc/nss/2002/index.html, last visited on May 8th, 2008.
①George W. Bush,“President Sworn-In to Second Term,”January 20th, 2005, http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2005/01/20050120-1.html, last visited on May 16th, 2008.
②“The National Security Strategy,”September 2002, http://www.whitehouse.gov/nsc/nss/2002/index.html, last visited on May 8th, 2008.
④郭宪纲:《美国输出“民主”的第三部曲──评布什政府酝酿改造大中东的计划》,上引报刊,第42页。
⑤George W. Bush,“President Delivers‘State of the Union’”, http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2004/01/print/20040120-7.html, last visited on May 11th, 2008.
⑥郭宪纲:《美国输出“民主”的第三部曲──评布什政府酝酿改造大中东的计划》,上引报刊,第41页。
⑦去掉applause,因为该词是原文中表示现场听众鼓掌的意思。去掉American,因为该词可以具有形容词意义。去掉years和year,因为这两个词表示时间,不符合此处的分析目的。去掉help,因为该词具有动词意义。
⑧使用concordance软件对布什《国情咨文》进行统计,《国情咨文》原文选自白宫网站。
①“President Bush Delivers Graduation Speech at West Point”, www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2007/08/20070828-2.html, last visited on Jan.1st, 2008.
①布什2003年2月在全国宗教广播电台大会的讲话。转引自王鸣鸣:《宗教信仰与美国对外政策》,上引编著,第217-239页。
②George W. Bush,“President Delivers‘State of the Union’,”http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2003/01/print/20030128-19.html, last visited on Mar. 8th, 2008.
③吕国欣:《“民主”──美国颠覆他国的工具》,载《太平洋论坛》2005年第3期,第3页。
①张善明、袁秀凡:《美国的贪欲──对世界的警示》,北京·经济管理出版社,2004年版,第141页。
②约瑟夫·西林乔恩:《满口谎言》,原载《原子科学家会刊》2005年1/2月刊,转载于卡内基中文网,http://www.carnegieendowment.org/programs/china/chinese/Research/ForeignPolicySecurity/NoClaimTrue.cfm, last visited on May 24th, 2008.
③“Complete 9/11 Commission Report”可以在http://www.9-11commission.gov/report/index.htm下载。
④Peter Beaumont & Joanna Walters,“Greenspan admits Iraq was about oil, as deaths put at 1.2m,”http://observer.guardian.co.uk/world/story/0,,2170237,00.html, last visited on Jan. 16th, 2008.
⑤Vassilis K. Fouskas & Bülent G?kay, The New American Imperialism: Bush's War on Terror and Blood for Oil (Westport: Praeger, 2005).
⑥相关的讨论参见沃尔特·拉塞尔·米德:《美国外交政策及其如何影响了世界》,第47─58页。
①Jennifer L. Windsor,“Promoting Democratization Can Combat Terrorism,”Washington Quarterly (summer 2003), pp.46-47.
②James Philips,“After the Elections: The Road to Political Stability in Iraq,”December 16th, 2005, http://www.heritage.org/Research/Iraq/wm945.cfm, last visited on May 19th, 2008.
③James Hider & Richard Beeston,“Democracy, Bush's biggest export, faces its first reality check in Iraq,”The Times, January 22nd, 2005, http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/iraq/article504962.ece?print=yes&randnum=1211268862228, last visited on May 19th, 2008.
④Paula J. Dobriansky,“Democracy Promotion,”Foreign Affairs (May/June 2003), http://www.foreignaffairs.org/20030501faresponse11226/paula-j-dobriansky-thomas-carothers/democracy-promotion.html, last visited on Feb. 1st, 2008.
⑤Thomas Carothers,“Promoting Democracy and Fighting Terror,”Foreign Affairs, (January/February, 2003), http://www.foreignaffairs.org/20030101faessay10224/thomas-carothers/promoting-democracy-and-fighting-terror.html, last visited on Jan. 31st, 2008.
⑥George W. Bush,“President Bush Discusses Freedom in Iraq and Middle East: Remarks by the President at the 20th Anniversary of the National Endowment for Democracy,”November 6th, 2003, http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2003/11/20031106-2.html, last visited on May 19th, 2008.
①“President Bush Delivers State of the Union Address”, http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2008/01/print/20080128-13.html, last visited on Mar. 9th, 2008.
②George W. Bush,“Address to a Joint Session of Congress and the American People”, September 20th, 2001, http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2001/09/20010920-8.html, last visited on May 11th, 2008.
③使用Concordance软件进行统计,《国情咨文》参见白宫网站。
②“President Delivers State of the Union Address,”http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2002/01/print/20020129-11.html, last visited on May 21st, 2008.
②Ibid, last visited on Mar. 8th, 2008.
③George W. Bush,“President Bush Addresses the Nation,”http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2003/03/20030319-17.html, last visited on May 18th, 2008.
④George Lakoff,“Nailing the frames of the Republican National Convention: President Bush's acceptance speech,”http://www.berkeley.edu/news/media/releases/2004/09/03_lakoff_gop4.shtml, last visited on Feb. 22nd, 2008.
①使用Concordance软件进行统计。原文见“Text: President Bush's Acceptance Speech to the Republican National Convention,”http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A57466-2004Sep2.html, last visited on Feb. 23rd, 2008.
②“President Outlines Steps to Help Iraq Achieve Democracy and Freedom,”http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2004/05/20040524-10.html, last visited on Feb.4th, 2008.
③“President Bush Delivers State of the Union Address,”http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2008/01/print/20080128-13.html, last visited on Mar. 9th, 2008.
④Richard E. Neustadt, Presidential Power: The politics of Leadership from FDR to Carter (New York: John Wiley, 1980), p.10.
①转引自王鸣鸣:《宗教信仰与美国对外政策》,上引编著,第217-239页。
②熊志勇:《美国公众舆论与战争──以朝鲜战争、越南战争和伊拉克战争为例》,上引报刊,第49页。
③在2003年1月和4月盖勒普国际进行了两项调查。在一月份的调查中,当被问到“是否支持无条件地;在联合国制裁的情况下;或美国和盟友单方面发动伊拉克战争时”,在包括20个欧洲国家在内的36个国家中没有一个国家的多数民众赞同无条件发动对伊拉克的战争。赞成在联合国制裁的情况下或美国和盟友单方面发动伊拉克战争的比例也非常低。在4月份的调查中,当被问到“如果发动对伊拉克的军事行动,你是否认为你的国家应该支持这一行动?”在包括欧洲国家在内的38个国家中有34个反对自己的国家支持这一行动。“American popular opinion on invasion of Iraq”, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_popular_opinion_on_invasion_of_Iraq, last visited on Apr. 3rd, 2008.
④熊志勇:《美国公众舆论与战争──以朝鲜战争、越南战争和伊拉克战争为例》,上引报刊,第49页。
⑤THE PIPA/KNOWLEDGE NETWORKS POLLL, www.pipa.org/OnlineReports/ForeignAid/WorldPoverty_Jun05/WorldPoverty_Jun05_rpt.pdf, last visited on Apr. 31st, 2008.
⑥“NBC News/Wall Street Journal Poll conducted by the polling organizations of Peter Hart (D) and Bill McInturff (R). March 7th-10th, 2008.”http://www.pollingreport.com/iraq.htm, last visited on May 1st, 2008.
⑦“Pew Research Center for the People & the Press survey conducted by Princeton Survey Research Associates International. Feb. 20th-24th, 2008.”http://www.pollingreport.com/iraq.htm, last visited on May 1st, 2008.
⑧熊志勇:《美国公众舆论与战争──以朝鲜战争、越南战争和伊拉克战争为例》,上引报刊,第51页。
⑨Dana Milband & Mike Allen,“U.S. Effort Aims to Improve Opinions About Iraq Conflict”, Washington Post, Thursday, Sept. 30th, 2004, page A20, http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn/A60725-2004Sep29?language=printer, last visited on May 24th, 2008.
⑩Richard W. Stevenson & Janet Elder,“support for War Is Down Sharply, Poll Concludes,”Washington Post, April 29th, 2004. http://www.nytimes.com/2004/04/29/politics/29POLL.html?ex=1211860800&en=bdee21e28b4a7a41&ei=5070,last visited on May 28th, 2008.
①关于保守主义的外交主张可以参见刘军宁:《保守主义》,北京·中国社会科学出版社,1998年版。周琪主编:《意识形态与美国外交》,上海人民出版社,第263-325页。任晓、沈丁立主编:《保守主义理念与美国的外交政策》。但是,所有的学者都认为保守主义的主张难以概括,但存在基本原则。
②参见George Lakoff, Moral Politics: How Liberals and Conservatives Think (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2002); Moral Politics: What Conservatives Know That Liberals Don’t ( Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1996); George Lakoff & Mark Turner, More Than Cool reason, (Chicago:University of Chicago Press, 1980); George Lakoff & Mark Johnson, Metaphors We Live By (Chicago:University of Chicago Press, 1980).
①所有《国情咨文》的原文的电子版见维基百科http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_of_the_Union, last visited on April 5th, 2008.
②参见:约翰·米尔斯海默:《大国政治的悲剧》(王义桅、唐小松译),上海人民出版社,第48─49页。
③对保守派钟情的外交政策的分析,参见周琪:《意识形态与美国外交》,第284-317页。
①George Lakoff, Moral Politics: What Conservatives Know That Liberals Don’t (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1996);也可参见George Lakoff,“Metaphor, Morality, and Politics, Or, Why Conservatives Have Left Liberals In the Dust”, http://www.wwcd.org/issues/Lakoff.html, last visited on Jan.4th, 2007.
①对保守派话语规范的分析,参见George Lakoff, Moral Politics: What Conservatives Know That Liberals Don’t ( Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1996);也可参见George Lakoff,“Linguistics professor George Lakoff dissects the‘war on terror’and other conservative catchphrases”, http://berkeley.edu/news/media/releases/2004/08/25_lakoff.shtml, last visited on Jan.4th, 2007.
②关于保守主义的不同定义参见刘军宁:《保守主义》。
③J.S.McClelland, ed., The French Right from de Maistre to Maurras (New York: Harper, 1970).转引自郝雨凡:《“9.11”事件与美国保守主义》,载《美国研究》2002年第2期,第8页。
①郝雨凡:《“9.11”事件与美国保守主义》,上载报刊,第7-10页。
②刘建飞:《美国的保守主义趋势》,上载报刊,第10-12页。
③郝雨凡:《“9.11”事件与美国保守主义》,上载报刊,第13页。
④Ronald Reagan:“The Evil Empire,”http://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/ronaldreaganevilempire.htm, last visited on Jan.20th, 2008.
⑤周琪:《意识形态与美国外交》,第298页。
①郝雨凡:《“9.11”事件与美国保守主义》,上载报刊,第13-15页。
②刘建飞:《美国的保守主义趋势》,上载报刊,第11页。
③George W. Bush, p. 235.
④刘建飞:《美国的保守主义趋势》,上载报刊,第11页。
⑤储昭根:《从中期选举看美国保守主义》,载《国际观察》2007年第4期,第62页。
⑥储昭根:《从中期选举看美国保守主义》,上载报刊,第61-63页。
⑦“Bush; McCain a‘true conservative’’, http://www.usatoday.com/news/washington/2008-02-10-bushmccain_N.htm, last visited on Feb.13th, 2008.
①George Lakoff, Moral Politics: How Liberals and Conservatives Think (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2002).
②周琪:《意识形态与美国外交》,第268页。
③周琪:《意识形态与美国外交》,第298页。
④周琪:《意识形态与美国外交》,第298页。
⑤潘锐:《论新保守主义与小布什政府国家安全战略》,载《美国问题研究》第四辑(倪世雄、刘永涛主编),时事出版社,2005年版,第280-281页。
⑥徐大同:《当代西方政治思潮:70年代以来》,天津人民出版社,2000年版,第60页。
⑦Max Boot,“Think Again: Neocons,”Foreign Policy, January/February 2004.
⑧转引自: http://www.conservapedia.com/Neo-conservatism, last visited on Feb. 10th, 2008.
⑨Max Boot, January/February 2004.
①钱乘旦主编:《美国的新保守主义》,南京·江苏人民出版社,2004年版,第119-141页。
②孙逊:《论新保守主义思潮对冷战后美国外交政策的影响》,载《战略研究》,第58-59页。
③William Kristol & Robert Kagan,“Toward a Neo-Reaganite Foreign Policy, Foreign Affairs, July/August, 1996, pp.15-32.
④周琪:《意识形态与美国外交》,第297-298页。
⑤李志东、梅仁毅:《新保守主义在美国的复兴》,载《国际论坛》2006年9月第8卷第5期,第67页。
⑥王联合:《论新保守主义及其外交影响》,载《现代国际关系》2003年第4期,第34-41页。
⑦钱乘旦主编:《美国的新保守主义》,第104页。
⑧Mark Gerson, The Neoconservative Vision: From the Cold War to the Culture Wars. (Lanham and London: Madison Books, 1997).
①钱乘旦主编:《美国的新保守主义》,第149-151页。
②李志东、梅仁毅:《新保守主义在美国的复兴》,上载报刊,第68页。
③参见张睿壮:《也谈美国保守主义的外交思想及其对美国对华政策的影响》,载《国际问题研究》,第44页。
④Donald Kagan,“Strength and Will: A Historical Perspective,”Present Dangers: Crisis and Opportunity in American foreign and Defense Policy eds., Robert Kagan (San Francisco: Encounter Books, 2000), p.339.
⑤Charles William Maynes,“Contending Schools,”The National Interest, Spring 2001, p.52.
⑥潘锐:《论新保守主义与小布什政府国家安全战略》,载《美国问题研究》第四辑(倪世雄、刘永涛主编),北京·时事出版社,2005年版,第281页。
⑦张睿壮:《也谈美国保守主义的外交思想及其对美国对华政策的影响》,载《国际问题研究》,第45-47页。
①参见Irving Kristol,“Foreign Policy in an Age of Ideology,”The National Interest, Fall 1985, pp. 13-14.转引自李志东、梅仁毅:《新保守主义在美国的复兴》,上载报刊,第68页。
②Irving Kristol, pp.13-14.
③孙逊:《论新保守主义思潮对冷战后美国外交政策的影响》,上载报刊,第59页。
④张睿壮:《也谈美国保守主义的外交思想及其对美国对华政策的影响》,上载报刊,第48页。
⑤布什反恐话语的运作方式及其中新保守派的影响将在第五、第六章予以论述。
⑥布什2001年2月27日的演讲不属于《国情咨文》,但媒体和公众认为该演讲可被看作布什的第一个《国情咨文》。该演讲的原文及评价参见http://www.usa-presidents.info/union/gwbush-1.html, last visited on April 17th, 2009.其他演讲的原文可以参见http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/sou.php, last visited on April 17th, 2009.
①该软件的在线版本参见http://www.style.org/stateoftheunion/, last visited on April 17th, 2009.
①参见周琪:《意识形态与美国外交》,第303-304页。
②Richard Perle,“We made mistakes in Iraq, but war was just,”http://www.telegraph.co.uk/opinion/main.ghtml?xml=/opinion/2008/03/16/do1612.xml, last visted May 31st, 2008
③Joshua Micah Marshall,“Bomb Saddam? How the obsession of a few neocon hawks became the center goal of U.S. foreign policy,”http://www.washingtonmonthly.com/features/2001/0206.marshall.html, last visited on May 28th, 2008.
①参见周琪:《意识形态与美国外交》,第305-307页。
②William Kristol,“Taking the War beyong Terrorism,”The Washington Post, Thursday, January 31st, 2002, http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn/A64993-2002Jan30?language=printer, last visited on May 30th, 2008.
①George Lakoff, Moral Politics: What Conservatives Know That Liberals Don’t ( Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1996);也可参见George Lakoff,“Metaphor, Morality, and Politics, Or, Why Conservatives Have Left Liberals In the Dust”, http://www.wwcd.org/issues/Lakoff.html, last visited on Jan.4th, 2007.
②周琪:《意识形态与美国外交》,第268页。
③亨利·基辛格:《大外交》(顾淑馨、林添贵译),海南人民出版社,1998年版,第682页。
④参见刘建飞:《美国的保守主义趋势》,上载报刊,第10-12页。储昭根:《从中期选举看美国保守主义》,载《国际观察》2007年第4期,第61-67页。郝雨凡:《“9.11”事件与美国保守主义》,上载报刊,第7-30页。
①George Lakoff, Moral Politics: What Conservatives Know That Liberals Don’t (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996).
③Bonnie Azab Powell,“Framing the issue: UC Berkeley professor George Lakoff tells how conservatives use language to dominate politics,”http://www.berkeley.edu/news/media/releases/2003/10/27_lakoff.shtml, last visited on Jan.10th, 2008.
④周琪:《意识形态与美国外交》,第303页。
⑤Bonnie Azab Powell,“Framing the issue: UC Berkeley professor George Lakoff tells how conservatives use language to dominate politics,”http://www.berkeley.edu/news/media/releases/2003/10/27_lakoff.shtml, last visited on Jan.10th, 2008.
①转引自徐薇薇、胡祥云:《试论新保守派与基督教右翼的联盟及其主导下的美国中东战略》,载《国际关系学院学报》2006年第6期,第6页。
②Max Boot,“Think Again: Neocons,”Foreign Policy, January/February 2004.
③也有一些学者认为施特劳斯和新保守派没有关系。参见Ivo H. Daalder & James M. Lindsay, America Unbound: The Bush Revolution in Foreign Policy (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press, 2003), pp.46-48.
④徐薇薇、胡祥云:《试论新保守派与基督教右翼的联盟及其主导下的美国中东战略》,上载报刊,第6页。
⑤参见冯春凤:《美国宗教与政治关系现状》,载《世界宗教研究》,2003年第3期,第111页。
①转引自:瓦西利斯·福斯卡斯:《新美帝国主义:布什的反恐战争和以血换石油》,第94页。
②参见瓦西利斯·福斯卡斯:《新美帝国主义:布什的反恐战争和以血换石油》,第94页。
③布什2001年2月27日的演讲原文及评价参见http://www.usa-presidents.info/union/gwbush-1.html, last visited on April 17th, 2009.其他演讲的原文可以参见http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/sou.php, last visited on April 17th, 2009.
①相关分析参见Bonnie Azab Powell,“Linguistics professor George Lakoff dissects the‘war on terror’and other conservative catchphrases,”http://berkeley.edu/news/media/releases/2004/08/25_lakoff.shtml; George Lakoff, “Nailing the frames of the Republican National Convention,”http://berkeley.edu/news/media/releases/2004/08/31_lakoff_gop1.shtml, last visited on May 26th, 2008.
①“President Bush Reaffirms Resolve to War on Terror, Iraq and Afghanistan,”http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2004/03/20040319-3.html, last visited on Feb. 21st, 2008.
②转引自大卫·考恩:《布什的谎言》,第119页。
③Filed by Raw Story,“Bush:‘Cut and run’rhetoric result of less‘sophisticated vocabulary’,”http://www.rawstory.com/printstory.php?story=3524, last visited on Feb. 19th, 2008.
①“Lesson 285 - run like clockwork / cut and run / dry run,”http://www.unsv.com/voanews/american/idioms/lessons/2004/10/11/285/, last visited on Feb. 19th, 2008.
②Ibid.
③“Cut and Run,”http://language.chinadaily.com.cn/words.shtml?from=1&id=3042, last visited on Feb. 19th, 2008.
④“Bush: U.S. Will Not Cut and Run in Iraq,”http://www.foxnews.com/printer_friendly_story/0,3566,103216,00.html, last visited on Feb. 18th, 2008.
⑤“ABC,CBS,CNN aired Bush’s‘cut and run’attack on Democrats, ignored Democratic response,”http://mediamatters.org/items/200609290009, last visited on Feb. 18th, 2008.
①George Lakoff,“Occupation: The Inconvenient Truth About Iraq,”http://www.huffingtonpost.com/george-lakoff/occupation-the-inconveni_b_24410.html, last visited on Feb. 22nd, 2008.
②“ABC,CBS,CNN aired Bush’s‘cut and run’attack on Democrats, ignored Democratic response,”http://mediamatters.org/items/200609290009, last visited on Feb. 18th, 2008.
③cut and run的中文意思,如前段所述。但是,鉴于共和党(保守派)和民主党(自由派)对此有不同解读,此处不再翻译。
④Dana Milbank,“It’s time to cut and run from‘cut and run’”, http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/06/20/AR2006062001343.html, last visited on Jan. 15th, 2008.
③Bob Burnett,“Bush Prepares to Cut and Run in Afghanistan,”http://www.commondreams.org/cgi-bin/print.cgi?file=/views06/0524-34.htm, last visited on Feb. 18th, 2008.
①支持共和党的州被称作“红色州”,支持“民主党”的州被称作“蓝色州”(blue state)。
②Lt. Gen. William E. Odom,“Cut and Run? You Bet,”http://www.foreignpolicy.com/story/cms.php?story_id=3430, last visited on Jan.15th, 2008.
③The editors,“Democrats and the War,”The Nation, November 9th, 2005, http://www.thenation.com/doc/20051128/editors, last visited on May 28th, 2008.
④George W. Bush,“State of the Union Address (2004),”http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2004/01/20040120-7.html, last visited on Feb. 22nd, 2008.
⑤“President Delivers‘State of the Union’,”http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2003/01/print/20030128-19.html, last visited on Mar. 8th, 2008.
①“Declassified Key Judgments of the National Intelligence Estimate,”www.dni.gov/press_releases/Declassified_NIE_Key_Judgments.pdf, last visited on Feb. 19th, 2008.
②“CNN/Opinion Research Corporation Poll. April 28-30, 2008. N=1,008 adults nationwide. MoE±3.”http://www.pollingreport.com/iraq.htm, last visited on May 30th, 2008.
③参见麦凯恩竞选网站:http://www.johnmccain.com/Informing/Issues/fdeb03a7-30b0-4ece-8e34-4c7ea83f11d8.htm, last visited on May 29th, 2008.
④参见奥巴马竞选网站:http://www.barackobama.com/issues/iraq/, last visited on May 29th, 2008.
⑤参见希拉里竞选网站:http://www.hillaryclinton.com/issues/iraq/, last visited on May 29th, 2008.
⑥熊志勇:《美国公众舆论──以朝鲜战争、越南战争和伊拉克战争为例》,上载报刊,第51页。
②也有一些学者认为施特劳斯和新保守派没有关系。参见Ivo H. Daalder & James M. Lindsay, America Unbound: The Bush Revolution in Foreign Policy (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press, 2003), pp.46-48.
③参见Shadia Drury, Leo Strauss and the American Right (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 1999)
④Anne Norton, Leo Strauss and the Politics of American Empire (New Haven: Yale University press, 2004), p.39.
⑤Leo Strauss, On Tyranny (New York: Free Press, 1991), p.70.
⑥参见Sheldon Rampton & John Stauber, Weapons of Mass Deception: the uses of propaganda in Bush’s war on Iraq (Los Angeles: Tarcher / Penguin, 2003)
①“Power of Nightmare”,可以从http://www.informationclearinghouse.info/video1037.htm下载,last visited on Mar. 4, 2008.
②参见Renana Brooks,“A Nation of Victims”, The Nation Magazine, (June, 2003). http://www.thenation.com/doc/20030630/brooks, last visited on Feb. 22, 2008. Renana Brooks,“It’s the language, stupid!”—The Frightening Secret to Bush’s Success”, http://www.sommetinstitute.org/publication_itsthelanguage.html, last visited on Feb. 23, 2008.
③按照该软件的定义,破折号也被包括在词的范围。
④使用Concordance软件统计,演讲原文参见所有《国情咨文》的原文的电子版见维基百科http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_of_the_Union, last visited on April 5, 2008.
①使用Concordance软件统计,演讲原文参见所有《国情咨文》的原文的电子版见维基百科http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_of_the_Union, last visited on April 5, 2008.
②美国总统的语言有两种风格:一种被称作激励式,强调光明的前景,以积极的方式谈论现实。另一种被称作说教式,强调现实的残酷。Roderick P. Hart, Verbal Style and the Presidency: A Computer-Based Analysis, (Orlando: academic Press, 1984), pp.42-44.
③原文为:The pictures of airplanes flying into buildings, fires burning, huge structures collapsing, have filled us with disbelief, terrible sadness, and a quiet, unyielding anger. George W. Bush,“Statement by the President in His Address to the Nation”, http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2001/09/20010911-16.html, last visited on May 30, 2008.也可参见http://www.famousquotes.me.uk/speeches/George_W_Bush/, last visited on April 18, 2009.
①原文为: These acts of mass murder were intended to frighten our nation into chaos and retreat. But they have failed; our country is strong. A great people has been moved to defend a great nation. Terrorist attacks can shake the foundations of our biggest buildings, but they cannot touch the foundation of America. These acts shattered steel, but they cannot dent the steel of American resolve. George W. Bush,“Statement by the President in His Address to the Nation”, http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2001/09/20010911-16.html, last visited on May 30, 2008.
②关于“9.11”之后布什政府发动反恐战争的决策情况,参见Bob Woodward, Bush at War (New York:Simon & Schuster, 2002).
③George W. Bush,“Radio Address of the President to the Nation”, http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2001/09/20010915.html, last visited on Feb. 23, 2008.
①George W. Bush,“Radio Address of the President to the Nation”, http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2001/09/20010915.html, last visited on Feb. 23, 2008.
②Renana Brooks是认知心理学家、为包括布什在内的多个美国政要提供心理咨询。她对布什语言的分析,参见专门研究美国政治中语言使用技巧的The Sommet Institute的网站,http://www.sommetinstitute.org/index.html, last visited on Feb. 24, 2008.
③参见Renana Brooks,“A Nation of Victims”, The Nation Magazine, (June, 2003). http://www.thenation.com/doc/20030630/brooks, last visited on Feb. 22, 2008. Renana Brooks,“It’s the language, stupid!”—The Frightening Secret to Bush’s Success”, http://www.sommetinstitute.org/publication_itsthelanguage.html, last visited on Feb. 23, 2008.
④George W. Bush,“Radio Address of the President to the Nation”, http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2001/09/20010915.html, last visited on Feb. 23, 2008.
①George W. Bush,“Remarks by the President After Two Planes Crash Into World Trade Center”, http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2001/09/20010911.html, last visited on Feb. 25, 2008.也可参见http://avalon.law.yale.edu/sept11/president_008.asp, last visited on April 21,2009.
②相关分析参见Sandra Silberstein, War of Words: Language, Politics and 9/11 (New York: Routledge, 2002), p. 4.阿什克里夫特的原文是“Crime scenes have been established…The full resources of…are being deployed to investigate these crimes and to assist survivors and victim families.”
③该软件的在线版本参见http://www.style.org/stateoftheunion/, last visited on April 17, 2009.
①George W. Bush,“Remarks by the President Upon Arrival at Barksdale Air Force Base”, http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2001/09/20010911-1.html, last visited on Feb. 25, 2008.
②参见Renana Brooks,“A Nation of Victims”, The Nation Magazine, (June, 2003). http://www.thenation.com/doc/20030630/brooks, last visited on Feb. 22, 2008. Renana Brooks,“It’s the language, stupid!”—The Frightening Secret to Bush’s Success”, http://www.sommetinstitute.org/publication_itsthelanguage.html, last visited on Feb. 23, 2008.
③参见Sandra Silberstein, War of Words: Language, Politics and 9/11 (New York: Routledge, 2002), pp.39-60.
①Karlyn Campbell & Kathleen Jamieson, Deeds Done in Words: Presidential Rhetoric and Genres of Governance (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990), p.118.转引自Sandra Silberstein, War of Words: Language, Politics and 9/11 (New York: Routledge, 2002), p.11.
②参见Sandra Silberstein, War of Words: Language, Politics and 9/11 (New York: Routledge, 2002), 10.
③Karlyn Campbell & Kathleen Jamieson, Deeds Done in Words: Presidential Rhetoric and Genres of Governance (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990), p.105.转引自Sandra Silberstein, War of Words: Language, Politics and 9/11 (New York: Routledge, 2002), pp.10-11.
④George W. Bush,“Address to a Joint Session of Congress and the American People,”http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2001/09/20010920-8.html, last visited on May 30, 2008.
①George W. Bush,“Address to a Joint Session of Congress and the American People,”http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2001/09/20010920-8.html, last visited on May 30, 2008.
②George W. Bush,“Address to a Joint Session of Congress and the American People,”http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2001/09/20010920-8.html, last visited on May 30, 2008.
③原文见George W. Bush,“Address to a Joint Session of Congress and the American People,”http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2001/09/20010920-8.html, last visited on May 30, 2008.
④关于布什的语言对美国公众心理的影响,参见Renana Brooks,“A Nation of Victims”, The Nation Magazine, (June, 2003). http://www.thenation.com/doc/20030630/brooks, last visited on Feb. 22, 2008. Renana Brooks,“It’s the language, stupid!”—The Frightening Secret to Bush’s Success”, http://www.sommetinstitute.org/publication_itsthelanguage.html, last visited on Feb. 23, 2008.
①原文见George W. Bush,“Address to a Joint Session of Congress and the American People,”http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2001/09/20010920-8.html, last visited on May 30, 2008.
②原文见George W. Bush,“Address to a Joint Session of Congress and the American People,”http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2001/09/20010920-8.html, last visited on May 30, 2008.
③原文见George W. Bush,“Address to a Joint Session of Congress and the American People,”http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2001/09/20010920-8.html, last visited on May 30, 2008.
④详细分析参见第五章第一节。
⑤参见大卫·考恩:《布什的谎言》,北京·东方出版社,2004年版,第114—148页,第231-266页。
①大卫·考恩:《布什的谎言》,北京·东方出版社,2004年版,第114页。
②鲍勃·伍德沃德:《布什的战争》(孙康琦译),上海译文出版社,2003年版。
③大卫·考恩:《布什的谎言》,北京·东方出版社,2004年版,第114—148页,第231-266页。
④Steve Perry,“The Bush Administration’s Top 40 Lies about War and Terrorism”, http://www.commondreams.org/views03/0730-06.htm, last visited on Mar. 1, 2008.
⑤转引自大卫·考恩:《布什的谎言》,北京·东方出版社,2004年版,第115页。
①彼得·卑尔根:《圣战组织──走进本·拉登的秘密世界》,转引自大卫·考恩:《布什的谎言》,北京·东方出版社,2004年版,第117页。
②National Strategy for Combating Terrorism, p.2, p.29.英文文本可以在白宫网站上找到。http://www.whitehouse.gov/nsc/nsct/2006/, last visited on Mar. 6, 2008.
①转引自大卫·考恩:《布什的谎言》,北京·东方出版社,2004年版,第131页。
②转引自大卫·考恩:《布什的谎言》,北京·东方出版社,2004年版,第134页。
①参见大卫·考恩:《布什的谎言》,北京·东方出版社,2004年版,第114—148页,第231-266页。
②转引自大卫·考恩:《布什的谎言》,北京·东方出版社,2004年版,第174页。
③“President Delivers‘State of the Union’”, http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2003/01/print/20030128-19.html, last visited on Mar. 8, 2008.
④“President Bush Outlines Iraqi Threat”, http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2002/10/20021007-8.html, last visited on Mar. 11, 2008.
①“President Delivers‘State of the Union’”, http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2003/01/print/20030128-19.html, last visited on Mar. 8, 2008.
②《旧金山纪事报》,2002年9月20日,转引自张善明、袁秀凡:《美国的贪欲──对世界的警示》,北京·经济管理出版社,2004年版,第142页。
③“Complete 9/11 Commission Report”可以在http://www.9-11commission.gov/report/index.htm下载。
④“President George Bush Discusses Iraq in National Press Conference”, http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2003/03/20030306-8.html, last visited on May 30, 2008.
⑤“Complete 9/11 Commission Report”可以在http://www.9-11commission.gov/report/index.htm下载。
①“Nazi propaganda by Joseph Goebbels”, http://www.calvin.edu/academic/cas/gpa/goebmain.htm, last visited on May 30, 2008.
②Nancy Snow, Information War: American Propaganda, Free Speech and Opinion Control since 9-11, (New York: Seven Stories Press, 2003), p.61.
②参见邵文光:《美国政府与新闻媒体的关系》,载《国际新闻界》1998年5-6月刊,第28-33页。
④参见邵文光:《美国政府与新闻媒体的关系》,上引报刊,第28-33页。
①参见邵文光:《美国政府与新闻媒体的关系》,上引报刊,第28-33页。
②孙瑛、罗宇凡:《伊拉克战争中的美国传媒控制政策透视》,载《中山大学学报论丛》2006年第26卷第11期,第155页。
③“The US propaganda machine: Oh, what a lovely war,”http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/the-us-propaganda-machine-oh-what-a-lovely-war-472002.html, last visited on Apr. 7, 2008.
④“The US propaganda machine: Oh, what a lovely war,”http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/the-us-propaganda-machine-oh-what-a-lovely-war-472002.html, last visited on Apr. 7, 2008.
⑤Jeff Gerth,“Military's Information War Is Vast and Often Secretive,”New York Times, Dec. 11, 2005. http://www.nytimes.com/2005/12/11/politics/11propaganda.html, last visited on Apr. 11, 2008.
⑥Jeff Gerth,“Military's Information War Is Vast and Often Secretive,”New York Times, Dec. 11, 2005. http://www.nytimes.com/2005/12/11/politics/11propaganda.html, last visited on Apr. 11, 2008. Jeff Gerth,“Military's Information War Is Vast and Often Secretive,”New York Times, Dec. 11, 2005. http://www.nytimes.com/2005/12/11/politics/11propaganda.html, last visited on Apr. 11, 2008.
①Nancy Snow, p.48.
②Jeff Gerth,“Military's Information War Is Vast and Often Secretive,”New York Times, Dec. 11, 2005. http://www.nytimes.com/2005/12/11/politics/11propaganda.html, last visited on Apr. 11, 2008.
⑤James Dao & Eric Schmitt,“Pentagon Readies Efforts to Sway Sentiment Abroad,”New York Times, Feb. 19, 2002. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9c06efd71f3ff93aa25751c0a9649c8b63, last visited on Apr.12, 2008.
①“The Truth About Jessica,”The Guardian, Thursday May 15, 2003, special report.
②Nancy Snow, p.46.
③转引自Source Watch Encyclopedia, http://www.sourcewatch.org/index.php?title=Jessica_Lynch, last visited on Apr. 12, 1008.
①参见美国国防部网站,http://www.defenselink.mil/news/Feb2003/d20030228pag.pdf, last visited on Mar. 20, 2008.
③孙瑛、罗宇凡:《伊拉克战争中的美国传媒控制政策透视》,载《中山大学学报论丛》2006年第26卷第11期,第156-157页。
④孙瑛、罗宇凡:《伊拉克战争中的美国传媒控制政策透视》,上引报刊,第156-157页。
⑤David Hoffman,“Beyond Public Diplomacy,”Foreign Affairs, Vol. 81, No. 2, March/April 2002, p.1.
①Nancy Snow, p.47.
②罗伯特·海曼等:《公平报道的美国经验》(郭虹等译),汕头大学出版社,2003年版,第8页。
③五个w包括where, when, who, what, why。
④参见[美]新闻自由委员会:《一个自由而负责的新闻界》(展江等译),北京·中国人民大学出版社,2004年版。
①张志君:《美国媒体自由的本质》,载《电视研究》2003年第六期,第27页。
②Michael Massing,“Now They Tell Us,”http://www.nybooks.com/articles/16922, last visited on Mar. 28, 2008.
③Nancy Snow, p.47.
①商娜红:《制度视野中的媒介伦理:职业主义与英美新闻自律》,济南·山东人民出版社,2006年版,第182页。
②毕竟、范旭:《从福克斯现象看美国媒体偏见》,载《当代传播》2005年第1期。
③Nancy Snow, p.40.
①陈小枚:《论<纽约时报>的新闻平衡──以2003年美伊战争专题报道为例》,载《广州大学学报(社会科学版)》2004年第3卷,第29页。
②陈小枚:《论<纽约时报>的新闻平衡──以2003年美伊战争专题报道为例》,上引报刊,第29页。
①陈小枚:《论<纽约时报>的新闻平衡──以2003年美伊战争专题报道为例》,上引报刊,第29页。
②From the editors,“The Times and Iraq: A Sample of the Coverage”, New York Times, May 26, 2004, http://www.nytimes.com/ref/international/middleeast/20040526CRITIQUE.html, last visited on Apr. 4, 2004.
③陈小枚:《论<纽约时报>的新闻平衡──以2003年美伊战争专题报道为例》,上引报刊,第28页。
①Franklin Foer,“The Source of the Trouble”, New York Magazine, http://www.nymag.com/nymetro/news/media/features/9226/index.html, last visited on Apr. 4, 2008.
②Katharine Q. Seelye,“Times and Reporter Reach Agreement on Her Departure”, New York Times, Nov. 9, 2005, http://www.nytimes.com/2005/11/09/business/09cnd-miller.html, last visited on Apr. 2, 2008.
③Franklin Foer,“The Source of the Trouble”, New York Magazine, http://www.nymag.com/nymetro/news/media/features/9226/index.html, last visited on Apr. 4, 2008.
④Judith Miller,“AFTEREFFECTS: ILLICIT ARMS; U.S. Aides Say Iraqi Truck Could Be a Germ-War Lab,”New York Times, May 8, 2003, http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9A02E5DE163FF93BA35756C0A9659C8B63, last visited on Mar. 29, 2008.
⑤Judith Miller,“AFTEREFFECTS: THE HUNT FOR EVIDENCE; Trailer is a Mobile Lab Capable of Turning Out Bioweapons, a Team Says,”New York Times, May 11, 2003, http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9A02E5DE163FF93BA35756C0A9659C8B63, last visited on Mar. 29, 2008.
①Michael Massing,“Now They Tell Us,”The New York Review of Books, (Feb. 26, 2004), Vol. 51, No. 3. http://www.nybooks.com/articles/16922, last visited on Mar. 29, 2008.
②Judith Miller,“Judith Miller’s Farewell,”New York Times, Nov. 10, 2005, http://www.nytimes.com/2005/11/10/opinion/l10miller.html, last visited on Apr. 2, 2008.
③《华盛顿邮报》记者伍德沃德根据“神秘人物”提供的线索揭露了尼克松窃听民主党总部的丑闻。尽管受到美国法院的传讯,伍德沃德也没有透露线人的身份。这个秘密保守了30年,直到2005年才“深喉”才浮出水面,证实是联邦调查局的高级官员马克·菲尔特。
④覃里雯:《新闻业遭遇新时代下被利用的英雄们》,载中华人民共和国新闻出版总署网站,2005年8月2日, http://press.gapp.gov.cn/news/wen.php?val=news&aid=3013, last visited on Apr. 2, 2008.
⑤参见Russ Baker,“‘Scoops’and Truth at the Times,”The Nation (June 2003), http://www.thenation.com/doc/20030623/baker, last visited on Mar. 29, 2008.
①转引自Antony Loewenstein,“Engineering consent: The New York Times' role in promoting war on Iraq,”Sydney morning Herald (March 23, 2004), http://www.informationclearinghouse.info/article5931.htm, last visited on Mar. 29, 2008.
②转引自Franklin Foer,“The Source of the Trouble,”New York Magazine, http://www.nymag.com/nymetro/news/media/features/9226/index.html, last visited on Apr. 4, 2008.
③Thomas Friedman,“Because We Could,”New York Times, http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C00E2D91030F937A35755C0A9659C8B63, last visited on Mar. 27, 2008.
④转引自《今日美国》,http://www.usatoday.com/news/world/iraq/2003-05-30-wolfowitz-iraq_x.htm, last visited on Mar.27, 2008.
①Thomas L. Friedman,“A War for Oil? ,”New York Times, http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9802E4D91F3FF936A35752C0A9659C8B63, last visited on Mar. 27, 2008.
③Thomas Friedman,“Because We Could ,”New York Times, http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C00E2D91030F937A35755C0A9659C8B63, last visited on Mar. 27, 2008.
①Thomas L. Friedman,“A War for Oil? ,”New York Times, http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9802E4D91F3FF936A35752C0A9659C8B63, last visited on Mar. 27, 2008.
②Thomas Friedman,“Because We Could ,”New York Times, http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C00E2D91030F937A35755C0A9659C8B63, last visited on Mar. 27, 2008.
③Thomas L. Friedman,“‘Sodom’Hussein’s Iraq’,”New York Times, http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=990DE1D91038F932A35751C1A9649C8B63&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=2, last visited on Mar. 28, 2008.
①Thomas Friedman,“Because We Could ,”New York Times, http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C00E2D91030F937A35755C0A9659C8B63, last visited on Mar. 27, 2008.
②David Sanger & John O’Neil,“Political Season Opens With Focus on Security,”New York Times, Sept.5, 2006.
③转引自Robert Kagan,“It Wasn't Just Miller's Story ,”Washington Post, Oct. 25, 2005, P.A21. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/10/24/AR2005102401405.html, last visited on Apr. 4, 2008.
②Franklin Foer,“The Source of the Trouble,”New York Magazine, http://www.nymag.com/nymetro/news/media/features/9226/index.html, last visited on Apr. 4, 2008.
①Franklin Foer,“The Source of the Trouble,”New York Magazine, http://www.nymag.com/nymetro/news/media/features/9226/index.html, last visited on Apr. 4, 2008.
②Judith Miller,“Judith Miller’s Farewell,”New York Times, Nov. 10, 2005, http://www.nytimes.com/2005/11/10/opinion/l10miller.html, last visited on Apr. 2, 2008.
③From the editors,“The Times and Iraq,”New York Times, May 26, 2004, http://www.nytimes.com/2004/05/26/international/middleeast/26FTE_NOTE.html?ei=5007&en=94c17fcffad92ca9&ex=1400990400&partner=USERLAND&pagewanted=print&position=, last visited on Apr. 4, 2008.
②From the editors,“The Times and Iraq,”New York Times, May 26, 2004, http://www.nytimes.com/2004/05/26/international/middleeast/26FTE_NOTE.html?ei=5007&en=94c17fcffad92ca9&ex=1400990400&partner=USERLAND&pagewanted=print&position=, last visited on Apr. 4, 2008.
③尽管此前在很多媒体都出现了类似的“指控”,但是,因为威尔逊如他自己所说,是最后一个会见萨达姆的美国外交官,当年积极主张美国将萨达姆逐出科威特,还曾经担任老布什政府驻加蓬大使,在克林顿政府时期帮助国家安全委员会制定对非洲政策。尤其是曾经受命于2002年1月末向中央情报局调查尼日利亚是否向伊拉克出售铀。他还承认自己是很多“情报”中引用的“赴尼日利亚特别大使”。他声明自己的调查表明没有发现尼日利亚向伊拉克出售铀。但是,在2002年9月英国政府的《白皮书》中,英国政府用伊拉克试图向非洲购买铀来作为论证萨达姆拥有大规模杀伤性武器的例证。布什引用这种说法,反复指控伊拉克试图从非洲购买铀。参见Joseph C. Wilson 4th,“What I Didn’t Find in Africa,”New York Times, July 6, 2003, http://www.nytimes.com/2003/07/06/opinion/06WILS.html?ex=1372824000&en=6c6aeb1ce960dec0&ei=5007, last visited on Apr. 2, 2008.
①Michael Elliott,“So, What Went Wrong ,”Time ,Monday,Oct. 06,2003, http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1005814,00.html
②From the editors,“The Times and Iraq,”New York Times, May 26, 2004, http://www.nytimes.com/2004/05/26/international/middleeast/26FTE_NOTE.html?ei=5007&en=94c17fcffad92ca9&ex=1400990400&partner=USERLAND&pagewanted=print&position=, last visited on Apr. 4, 2008.
③From the editors,“The Times and Iraq: A Sample of the Coverage,”New York Times, May 26, 2004, http://www.nytimes.com/ref/international/middleeast/20040526CRITIQUE.html, last visited on Apr. 4, 2004.
①Barton Gellman,“U.S. Suspects Al Qaeda Got Nerve Agent From Iraqis Analysts: Chemical May Be VX, And Was Smuggled Via Turkey,”Washington Post, Dec. 12, 2002, Page A1. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/06/12/AR2006061200701.html, last visited on Mar. 31, 2008.
②Jack Shafer,“The Right To Be Wrong: And the elephant in the New York Times newsroom,”The Slate, April 28, 2004, http://www.slate.com/id/2099617/, last visited on Mar. 31, 2008.
③Michael Getler,“Here’s some news, but be careful,”Washington Post, Dec. 22, 2002, Page B06. http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn/A20351-2002Dec20?language=printer, last visited on Mar. 31, 2008.
④Barton Gellman,“Iraq's Arsenal Was Only on Paper: Since Gulf War, Nonconventional Weapons Never Got Past the Planning Stage,”Washington Post, Jan. 7, 2004, Page A01. http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn/A60340-2004Jan6?language=printer, last visited on Apr. 1, 2008.
①Seth Ackerman,“The most biased name in news,”Fair, July/August 2001, http://www.fair.org/index.php?page=1067, last visited on Apr. 12, 2008.
②参见美国议员Bernie Sanders的分析, http://bernie.house.gov/, last visited on Apr. 12, 2008.
③参见美国议员Bernie Sanders的分析, http://bernie.house.gov/, last visited on Apr. 12, 2008.
②关于福克斯的不实报道,参见“Fox News Channel Controversies,”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fox_News_Channel_controversies, last visited on April 23, 2009.
③Seth Ackerman,“The most biased name in news,”Fair, July/August 2001, http://www.fair.org/index.php?page=1067, last visited on Apr. 12, 2008.
②“Fox News Channel Controversies,”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fox_News_Channel_controversies, last visited on April 23, 2009.
③以下对福克斯新闻节目的分析参见美国议员Bernie Sanders的分析。http://bernie.house.gov/, last visited on Apr. 12, 2008.
①参见周小普:《全球化媒介的奇观:默多克新闻集团解读》,北京·中国社会科学出版社,2006年版。Scott Collins, Crazy Like a Fox: The Inside Story of How Fox News Beat CNN, (New York: Portfolio Hardcover, 2004).
②毕竟,范旭:《从福克斯现象看美国媒体偏见》,上引报刊,第44-46页。
③Michael Getler,“Here’s some news, but be careful,”Washington Post, Dec. 22, 2002, Page B06. http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn/A20351-2002Dec20?language=printer, last visited on Mar. 31, 2008.
①关于福克斯新闻频道的详细分析,参见“Fox News Channel Controversies,”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fox_News_Channel_controversies, last visited on April 23, 2009.
②参见Knowledge Network网站,http://www.knowledgenetworks.com/ganp/, last visited on Mar. 17, 2008.
③参见“Polls and Surveys,”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fox_News_Channel_controversies#Polls_and_surveys, last visited on April 23, 2009.
④Dana Milbank and Jim VandeHei ,“No Political Fallout for Bush on Weapons,”Washington Post Saturday, May 17, 2003; Page A01.
⑤“American popular opinion on invasion of Iraq,”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_popular_opinion_of_invasion_of_Iraq#March_2003,last visited on May 30, 2008.
①Megan Thee,“Poll: U.S. support for Iraq Invasion Inches Up,”New York Times, June 3 2008, http://thecaucus.blogs.nytimes.com/2007/07/23/poll-american-support-for-war-inches-up/, last visited on May 30.
②“Poll: Steady Support For Action Against Iraq”,Fox News,March 13, 2003 Http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,81023,00.html , last visited on May 20, 2008.
埃里克·洛朗:《布什的秘密世界》,北京·新华出版社,2005年版。
艾克敏:《布什总统的信仰历程》,(姚敏,王青山译),北京·社会科学文献出版社,2006年版。
爱德华·W·萨义德:《东方学》,北京·三联书店,1999年版。
程雨民编著:《英语语体学》,上海外语教育出版社,1989年版。
大卫·考恩:《布什的谎言》,北京·东方出版社,2004年版。
丁一凡:《美国批判:自由帝国扩张的悖论》,北京出版社,2006年版。
董小川著:《20世纪美国宗教与政治》,北京·人民出版社,2002年版。
费尔迪南·德·索绪尔:《普通语言学教程》,(高名凯译),北京·商务印书馆,1996年版。
佛朗西斯·福山:《历史的终结与最后一个人》,(黄胜强译),北京·中国社会科学出版社,2007年版。
葛兰西:《狱中札记》,北京·中国社会科学出版社,2000年版。
哈贝马斯:《包容他者》,上海人民出版社,2002年版。
江怡:维特根斯坦传》,石家庄·河北人民出版社,1998年版。
李志东:《新保守主义与冷战后的美国外交政策》,郑州·河南大学出版社,2006年版。
李慎之:《数量优势下的恐惧》,载《二十一世纪的忧思--李慎之文选(续一)》(香港:明报出版社,2003)。
理查德·克罗卡特:《反美主义与全球秩序》(陈平译),北京·新华出版社,2004年版。
刘国平:《美国民主制度输出》,北京·社会科学文献出版社,2006年版。
刘继南:《国际传播与国家形象--国际关系的新视角》,北京:北京广播学院出版社2002年版。
刘军宁:《保守主义》,北京·中国社会科学出版社,1998年版。
伦纳德·西尔克:《美国的权势集团》,北京·商务印书馆,1994年版。
罗伯特·海曼等:《公平报道的美国经验》(郭虹等译),汕头大学出版社,2003年版。
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Collins Cobuild English Dictionary,上海外语教育出版社,2003年。
Johnson, Keith & Helen Johnson (eds.), Encyclopedic Dictionary of Applied Linguistics: A Handbook for Language Teaching, Oxford: Blackwell Publishers, 1998.
②傅梦孜:《保守主义思潮涌动下的美国霸权外交》,载《保守主义理念与美国的外交政策》(任晓、沈丁立主编),上海三联书店,2003年版,第199-201页。
③蔡佳禾:《摆动中的回归──保守主义思潮对G.W.布什政府对外政策的影响》,载《保守主义理念与美国的外交政策》(任晓、沈丁立主编),上海三联书店,2003年版,第179-198页。
①理查德·克罗卡特:《反美主义与全球秩序》(陈平译),北京·新华出版社,2004年版,第5页。
②“根据你在新闻中看到或听到的,你是否相信萨达姆·侯赛因的伊拉克政府藏匿基地组织的恐怖分子并帮助他们发展化学武器?”有75%的受访者回答“相信”。尽管如此,根据2003年2月CBS的调查显示,只有31%的被调查者同意“伊拉克对于美国的国家利益构成明显威胁,美国需要立刻采取行动”。64%的被调查者认为“在采取针对伊拉克的行动之前,美国需要等待联合国同意”。62%的被调查者认为“美国应该等待,应该给予联合国核查人员更多时间”。“Poll: No Rush To War: Americans Want U.S. To Get Int'l Support Before Attacking Iraq,”http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2002/09/24/opinion/polls/main523130.shtml, last visited on Apr. 31st, 2008.
③THE PIPA/KNOWLEDGE NETWORKS POLL, www.pipa.org/OnlineReports/ForeignAid/WorldPoverty_Jun05/WorldPoverty_Jun05_rpt.pdf, last visited on Apr. 31st, 2008.
④在2003年1月和4月盖勒普国际进行了两项调查。在一月份的调查中,当被问到“是否支持无条件地;在联合国制裁的情况下;或美国和盟友单方面发动伊拉克战争时”,在包括20个欧洲国家在内的36个国家中没有一个国家的多数民众赞同无条件发动对伊拉克的战争。赞成在联合国制裁的情况下或美国和盟友单方面发动伊拉克战争的比例也非常低。在4月份的调查中,当被问到“如果发动对伊拉克的军事行动,你是否认为你的国家应该支持这一行动?”在包括欧洲国家在内的38个国家中有34个反对自己的国家支持这一行动。“American popular opinion on invasion of Iraq,”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_popular_opinion_on_invasion_of_Iraq, last visited on Apr. 3rd, 2008.
⑤皮尤调查中心在2003年4、5月间进行了一项调查,这项调查的结果显示,在没有参与美国的对伊战争的13个国家中,绝大多数人支持政府的这一决定。在出兵的英国和澳大利亚,大多数人赞同出兵。在西班牙,大多数人反对政府派兵。在允许美国使用基地的科威特和土耳其,科威特的大多数民众赞同,大多数的土耳其民众反对。“U.S. Image Up Slightly, But Still Negative:American Character Gets Mixed Reviews,”http://pewglobal.org/reports/display.php?PageID=803, last visited on Apr. 3rd, 2008.
⑥George W. Bush,“President Bush Outlines Iraqi Threat,”http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2002/10/20021007-8.html, last visited on Mar. 25th, 2008.
①George W. Bush,“President's Radio Address,”http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2003/02/20030208.html, last visited on Apr. 18th, 2008.
②George W. Bush,“President Says Saddam Hussein Must Leave Iraq Within 48 Hours,”http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2003/03/20030317-7.html, last visited on Apr. 18th, 2008.
③Dick Cheney,“Vice President Honors Veterans of Korean War,”http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2002/08/20020829-5.html, last visited on Apr. 18th, 2008.
④“Testimony of U.S. Secretary of Defense Donald H. Rumsfeld before the House Armed Services Committee regarding Iraq,”http://www.defenselink.mil/speeches/speech.aspx?speechid=284, last visited on Apr. 18th, 2008.
⑤“Press Briefing by Ari Fleischer,”http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2003/01/20030109-8.html, last visited on Apr. 18th, 2008.
⑥Dick Cheney,“The Vice President Appears on Meet the Press,”http://www.whitehouse.gov/vicepresident/news-speeches/speeches/vp20020324.html, last visited on Apr. 18th, 2008.
⑦George W. Bush,“Address to a Joint Session of Congress and the American People,”http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2001/09/20010920-8.html, last visited on Apr. 18th, 2008.
⑧George W. Bush,“President Bush Outlines Iraqi Threat,”http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2002/10/20021007-8.html, last visited on Mar. 25th, 2008.
⑨2002年8月CNN《今日美国》(USA Today)的一个民意调查显示,55%的被调查者认为伊拉克“现阶段拥有大规模杀伤性武器”,39%的美国人认为伊拉克正在努力发展大规模杀伤性武器,但是现在还不拥有大规模杀伤性武器。“Public opinions on International Affairs:Conflict With Iraq,”http://www.americans-world.org/digest/regional_issues/Conflict_Iraq/mil_action.cfm, last visited on Apr. 31st, 2008.
⑩在2003年3月,当被问到“世界上的人如何看待美国发动伊拉克战争时”,只有35%的美国人认为世界上的大多数民众反对美国出兵伊拉克,31%的民众认为人们观点不一。有高达31%的民众认为大多数人赞同。在6月、7月和9月、10月进行的调查,人们的观点变化不大。民意调查数据转引自Steve Kull, Clay Ramsy & Evan Lewis,“Misperceptions, the Media and the Iraq War,”Political Science Quarterly, Vol. CXVIII, Number IV, 2003-2004, pp. 570-571.
①Judith Miller,“AFTEREFFECTS: ILLICIT ARMS; U.S. Aides Say Iraqi Truck Could Be a Germ-War Lab,”New York Times, May 8th, 2003, http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9A02E5DE163FF93BA35756C0A9659C8B63, last visited on Mar. 29th, 2008.
②Barton Gellman,“U.S. Suspects Al Qaeda Got Nerve Agent From Iraqis Analysts: Chemical May Be VX, And Was Smuggled Via Turkey,”Washington Post, Dec. 12th, 2002, Page A1. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/06/12/AR2006061200701.html, last visited on Mar. 31st, 2008.
③参见Franklin Foer,“The Source of the Trouble,”New York Magazine, http://www.nymag.com/nymetro/news/media/features/9226/index.html, last visited on Apr. 4th, 2008.
①张曙光:《美国对华战略考虑与决策:1949-1972》,上海外语教育出版社,2002年版,第370-371页。
②参见Locher, Birgit, and Prugl,“Elisabeth, Feminism: Constructivism’s Other Pedigree”; Jennifer, Milliken, “Discourse Study: Bring Rigor to Critical Theory”; Audie, Klotz,“Can We Speak a Common Constructivist Language?”Karin M., Fierke & Knud Erik, Jorgensen eds., Constructing International Relations: the Next Generation, (New York: M.E. Sharpe, 2001).
③参见任晓:《试论中国国际关系理论话语》,载《国际关系理论新视野》(任晓编),北京·长征出版社,2001年版。沈芳菲:《从语言角度看中国国际秩序理论发展20年》,载《国际关系理论新视野》(任晓编)。刘永涛:《话语、权力与“中国威胁”建构》,载《美国问题研究》(第二辑)(倪世雄、刘永涛主编),北京·时事出版社,2002年版,第342-357页。张家栋、沈丁立:《恐怖语境下的恐怖主义》,载《世界经济与政治》,2003年第12期。但兴悟:《中西政治文化与话语体系中的霸权——中西霸权观比较》,载《世界经济与政治》,2004年第9期。刘永涛:《伊拉克“战争动员”:对美国总统话语的一种分析》,载《世界经济与政治》,2005年第6期。郑华:《话语分析与国际关系研究:福柯的‘话语观’对后现代国际关系的影响》,载《现代国际关系》,2005年第4期。
④最初的话语分析始于现代语言学的鼻祖索绪尔开创的结构语言学。结构语言学把语言分为“语言”(langue)和“言语”(parole)。“语言”和“言语”就象一个硬币的两面,“语言”是指深层结构,也就是社会约定俗成的语言规则。“它既是言语技能的社会产物,又是社会集团为了使个人有可能行使这一机能所采用的一整套必不可少的规约”。“言语”则是指人们对语言的使用,是个性化的语言。这就开始了人们对语言的审视。语言不再被看作自然的存在。参阅后人整理的瑞士语言学家费尔迪南·德·索绪尔的著作,《普通语言学教程》(高名凯译),北京·商务印书馆,1996年版。或Ferdinand de. Saussure, Course in General Linguistics (LaSalle, Ill.: Open Court, 1986).
⑦布迪厄对语言象征性权力的探讨。Pierre Bourdieu, Language and Symbolic Power (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1992).费尔克拉夫认为语言在社会变化中起到了重要的塑造作用。Norman Fairclough, Discourse and Social Change (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1992). Norman Fairclough, Language and Power (Essex: Longman Publishing, 1989).夏皮罗探讨了不同的语言可以建构人们对政策的不同理解。Michael J.Shapiro, Language and Politics (New York: New York University Press, 1984). Michael J.Shapiro, Language and Political Understanding: The Politics of Discursive Practices (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1981).沃达克探讨了语言和意识形态与权力的关系,以及语言中所存在的性别偏见。Ruth Wodak, Language, Power, and Ideology(Amsterdam: Benjamins, 1989); Ruth Wodak, Gender and Discourse (London: Sage, 1997).
①葛兰西提出“有机的知识分子”的概念,也就是那些在社会中行使知识分子的职能的人,而这样的人,必然来自并代表某个阶级或社会集团,因此那些上层建筑中积极宣传上层建筑的政策的人就属于“有机的知识分子”。参见葛兰西:《狱中札记》,北京:中国社会科学出版社,2000年版,第4-7页。
②参见葛兰西:《狱中札记》。
③参见Michel Foucault, The Order of Things: An Archeology of the Human Sciences (New York: Vintage, 1973)。J·丹纳赫、T·斯奇拉托、J·韦伯:《理解福柯》(刘瑾译),沈阳·百花文艺出版社,2002年版,第40-41页。
④参见刘永涛:《语言、身份建构和美国对外政策话语中的“邪恶论”》,载《国际观察》2005年第5期,第31-38页。
⑤Wendt,“Anarchy is what states make of it: the construction of power politics,”International Organization, Spring 1992, p.391.
⑥比如:Peter Katzenstein, ed., The Culture of National Security (New York: Columbia University Press, 1996). Alexander Wendt,“Anarchy is What States Made of it: the Social Construction of Power Politics,”International Organization, Vol. XLVI, No.II, 1992. Jonathan Mercer,“Anarchy and Identity,”International Organization, Vol. XLIX, No.II, 1995. Alexander Wendt,“Identity and Structural Change in International Politics,”The Return ofCulture and Identity in IR Theory, eds. Yosef Lapid & Friedrich Kratochwil (Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1996). Barry Buzan, The United States and the Great Powers: World Politics in the Twenty-First Century (Boston: Polity, 2004). Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities (London: Verso, 1983). Nicholas G. Onuf, World of Our Making (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1989). David Campbell, Writing Security (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1992).
①比如:黄刚:《冷战后美日同盟:建构主义解释》,载《国际观察》2002年第1期。孙溯源:《集体认同与国际政治——一种文化视角》,载《现代国际关系》2003年第1期。董小燕:《试论欧洲认同及其与民族意识的张力》,载《世界经济与政治》2002年第1期。姜运仓:《东亚经济合作中的身份建构》,载《国际观察》2004年第4期。张旭鹏:《文化认同理论与欧洲一体化》,载《欧洲研究》2004年第4期。俞新天:《东亚认同感的胎动——从文化的角度》,载《世界经济与政治》2004年第6期。
②比如:戴维·坎贝尔探讨了美国国家安全话语通过建构威胁来塑造自身身份。David Campbell, Writing Security (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1992);刘永涛用建构主义分析了一个国家的外交政策不仅由国际体系的物质结构决定,还与国家的身份有关。而身份应该在语言建构的环境下认识。美国对外政策中的“邪恶论”在一定程度上是建构美国身份的需要。刘永涛:《语言、身份建构和美国对外政策话语中的“邪恶论”》,载《国际观察》2005年第5期,第31-38页。刘永涛也指出文化是国家的一种认同,是国家之间区分自我与他者的手段,美国文化通过意识形态的方式对美国外交政策产生影响。美国的对外文化政策保护了本国的政治认同,影响了颠覆了他者的认同,使其无法对美国认同构成威胁。刘永涛:《冷战后对外文化战略透析》,载《现代国际关系》2001年第5期,第12-15页。刘永涛在另一篇文章中指出中美两国之间的安全利益及行为,不仅受制于国家的实力分配、均势等国际体系的物质结构,还受制于这一体系的规范、国家认同等社会结构。文章探讨了规范、认同等社会文化因素对中美安全关系的影响,提出应该努力增加中美之间的集体安全认同。刘永涛还涉及了批评理论在安全领域的研究,指出安全威胁的来源可以是国家想像出来的或者是国家通过话语等工具建构出来的。国家在确定威胁来源方面享有特殊权利。如果国家认定某一个东西是一种威胁来源,那么,它就可以成为一种威胁来源,国家可以借保护“国家安全”的名义,“合法”动用国家资源、对内对外采取武力行动。刘永涛:《规范、认同和中美安全合作前景》,载《世界经济与政治》1999年第1期,第33-36页、第45页。
①爱德华·W·萨义德:《东方学》(王宇根译) ,北京:三联书店,1999年版,第2页。
②Jurgen Habermas, The Theory of Communicative Action (Boston: Beacon Press, 1987), p.287.
③Jaye Ellis,“International Regimes and the Legitimacy of Rules: A Discourse-Ethical Approach,”Alternatives, Vol.
XXVII (2002), p.282. ⑤哈贝马斯依据其话语理论,提出了对国际政治进行根本改造的方法。他设想通过建立象欧盟一样的区域性民主政治逐渐建立超国家的公民社会,最终实现整个世界范围的政治和民主一体化。Jurgen Habermas, On the Logic of the Social Sciences (Cambridge: The MIT Press, 1988)
⑥参见Nicholas G. Onuf, World of Our Making (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1989); Nicholas Onuf,“Constructivism: A User’s Manual,”International Relations in Constructed World, eds. Kubalkova Vendulka, Nicholas Onuf & Paul Kowert (New York: M. E. Sharpe, 1998), p.63.
⑦比如:王子昌用话语分析的方法解构了美国的话语霸权对“中国威胁”的建构。王子昌:《解构美国话语霸权——对“中国威胁论”的话语分析》,载《东南亚研究》2003年第4期,第47页。吴一敏指出话语权是国家实力的表现,包含着对言说者地位和权力的隐蔽性认同,隐含着物质利益和力量的竞争。西方国家通过文化认同、解释权垄断和新闻压制等运作形式推行的话语霸权,发展中国家也必须积极寻求应对之策。吴一敏:《解读西方发达国家的话语霸权》,载《南京政治学院学报》2005年第3期,第112-114页。也有很多研究没有明确提出话语的概念,但关注话语所反映的文化霸权以及文化霸权在国际关系中的重要性。
⑧比如:王沪宁的《文化扩张与文化主权:对主权观念的挑战》提出文化在国际关系中的敏感性大大加强,引起了国际关系的重要变革。包括语言在内的文化因素在国际关系领域主要表现为文化霸权的扩张和另一些国家在维护文化主权的过程中产生的“文明的冲突”。王沪宁:《文化扩张与文化主权:对主权观念的挑战》,载《复旦学报(社会科学版)》1994年第3期。也有学者揭示了美国对外文化战略所宣扬的自由、民主、社会个人的理性选择等内容中包含的话语霸权如何服务于美国全球霸权的目标。李荣静,《当代美国政府的对外文化战略及其实质》,载《理论与现代化》2004年11月第6期,第37-41页。
①除了奥纳夫,还有克拉托赫维尔的《规则、规范和决定》、德里安(James DerDerian)和夏皮罗(Michael Shapiro)的《国际(文本间)关系》(International / Intertextual Relations),以及1990年《国际研究季刊》的特刊,这些研究成果使国际关系研究的语言学转向达到高潮。转引自孙吉胜:《国际关系的语言转向与建构主义理论发展研究:以语言游戏为例》,载《外交评论》2007年2月总第94期,第40页。
②参见程雨民主编:《英语语体学》,上海外语教育出版社,1989年版。
③Lugwig Wittgenstein, Philosophical Investigation, Second edition, Translated by G.E. M Anscombe, (Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishers, Ltd., 1997), pp.1-2
④其中最有代表性的就是罗伯特·杰维斯:《国际关系中的知觉与错误知觉》。
⑤见孙吉胜:《国际关系的语言转向与建构主义理论发展研究:以语言游戏为例》,载《外交评论》,2007年第1期。
①弗朗西斯·比尔和罗伯特·哈里曼主编的《后现实主义:国际关系中的修辞转折》运用语言学和修辞学的方法揭示了对外政策活动中的话语、沟通和劝说具有不可忽视的力量,当今国家应该以建设性而不是破坏性的方式去影响别国,是话语修辞研究的重要著作。Francis A. Beer & Robert Hariman, eds., Post-Realism: The Rhetorical Turn in International Relations (Michigan: Michigan University Press, 1996).
②如:Kathleen E. Kendall ed., Presidential Campaign Discourse: Strategic Communication Problems (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1995).有些学者以具体的外交话语为材料,解读特定的话语中蕴含的政策信息。郑华以福柯有关话语的论述为理论框架,以美方召开的三次记者招待会为研究材料,用话语分析的方法,解读了布什的北京之行。如:郑华:《从话语分析的角度看布什访华——从美方的三次记者招待会谈起》,载《国际论坛》2006年3月第8卷第2期,第26-31页。也有学者分析了在中美撞击事件中不同语言所包含的意义差别。包军、鹿琦:《试析语言与国际政治》,载《贵州师范大学学报》,2004年第1期,第41-44页。还有一些文章以外交部新闻发言人的话语为范本,分析了外交话语的信息功能和互动功能,以及外交话语的精确性和模糊性。熊涛、何劲:《外交话语的信息功能和互动功能》,载《广东技术师范学院学报》2006年第2期,第86-89页。郭立秋、王红利:《外交语言的精确性和模糊性》,载《外交学院学报》2002年第4期,第80-84页。
③如:博斯道夫(Denise M. Bostdorff)分析了总统在影响、操纵美国外交危机的话语的作用以及美国危机话语与总统影响力的消长关系。Denise M. Bostdorff, The Presidency and the Rhetoric of Foreign Crisis (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1994).
④罗伯特·杰维特(Robert Jewett)和约翰·劳伦斯(John Shelton Lawrence)的著作,详细分析了“邪恶”的话语在美国民族精神塑造中的作用。Robert Jewett & John Shelton Lawrence, Captain America and the Crusade against Evil: The Dilemma of Zealous Nationalism, (Cambridge: Wm. B. Berdmans Publishing Co., 2003).
①费尔克拉夫的著作很多,主要有以下著作Language and Power (London: Longman, 1989; second revised edition 2001). Discourse and Social Change (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1992). Critical Language Awareness (edited volume) (London: Longman, 1992). Media Discourse (London: Edward Arnold, 1995). Critical Discourse Analysis (London: Longman, 1995). Norman Fairclough & Lilie Chouliaraki, Discourse in Late Modernity - Rethinking Critical Discourse Analysis (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1999). New Labour, New Language? (London: Routledge, 2000). Analysing Discourse: Textual Analysis for Social Research (London: Routledge, 2003). Language and Globalization (London: Routledge 2006). Norman Fairclough, Giuseppina Cortese & Patrizia Ardizzone, Discourse in Contemporary Social Change (Oxford: Peter Lang Publishing Group, 2007).
①乔纳森·波特:《话语和社会心理学:超越态度和行为》(肖文明等译),北京·人民大学出版社,2006年版,第8页。
①参见http://www.chinaren.com/20051018/n227237764.shtml, last visited on July 10th, 2008. http://www.southcn.com/it/wsqw/200309020565.htm, last visited on July 10th, 2008.
②刘永涛:《理解含义:理论、话语和国际关系》,载《外交评论》,2007年第2期。
③参见:《新牛津英语词典》(The New Oxford Dictionary of English),上海外语教育出版社,2001年版,第527页。Merriam-Webster’s Online Dictionary, http://aolsvc.merriam-webster.aol.com/dictionary/discourse, last visited on Apr. 13th, 2008.
①乔纳森·波特:《话语和社会心理学:超越态度和行为》,第5页。
②米歇尔·福柯:《知识考古学》(马月译),北京·生活·读书·新知出版社,2007年4月,第117-118页。
③乔纳森·波特:《话语和社会心理学:超越态度和行为》,第5页。
④James Der Derian & Michael J. Shapiro, International/ Intertextual Relations: Postmodern Readings of World Politics (Lexington: Lexington Books, 1989).
①Ferdinand de Saussure,“Third Course of Lectures on General Linguistics,”http://www.marxists.org/reference/subject/philosophy/works/fr/saussure.htm, Last visited on Aug. 24th, 2007.索绪尔:《普通语言学教程》(高明凯译),北京·商务印书馆,1996年版。
②索绪尔:《普通语言学教程》,第102页。
③索绪尔:《普通语言学教程》,第104页。
④索绪尔:《普通语言学教程》,第323页。
⑤Ronald Reagan,“Proclamation 4908 -- Afghanistan Day,”http://www.reagan.utexas.edu/archives/speeches/1982/31082c.htm, March 10th, 1982, last visited on Apr. 19th, 2008.
⑥Juan Cole,“Fisking the War on Terror,”http://www.juancole.com/2005/08/fisking-war-on-terror-once-upon-time.html, last visited on May 7th, 2008.
⑦William J. Clinton,“Executive Order 13129, July 4th, 1999,”http://www.wjopc.com/site/constitutional/execorders/Clinton.pdf, last visited on Apr. 19th, 2008.
①杨子娟:《剖析美国对塔利班政策的实质》,载《贵州师范大学学报》(社会科学版),2007年第6期,第36-40页。
③George W. Bush,“Presidential Address to the Nation,”Oct. 7th, 2001, http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2001/10/20011007-8.html, last visited on Apr. 19th, 2008.
④米歇尔·福柯:《疯癫与文明》(刘北成、杨远婴译),北京·生活·读书·新知出版社,2007年4月,前言第4-5页。
①关于文化对外交决策的影响的论述,可参见:Michael H. Hunt, Ideology and U.S. Foreign Policy (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1987).周琪:《意识形态与美国外交》,上海人民出版社,2006年版。
②江怡:《对语言哲学的批判:维特根斯坦与康德》,载《哲学研究》,1990年第5期,第96到100页。
③参见李慎之:《数量优势下的恐惧》,载《二十一世纪的忧思——李慎之文选》续一,香港:明报出版社,2003年版,第257页。
④王晓德:《关于美国对外关系的文化思考》,载《世界经济与政治》,1996年第12期,第56页。
⑤王缉思:《美国霸权的逻辑》,载《美国研究》,2003年第3期,第22页。
⑥George W. Bush,“President Honors Veterans at West Virginia Fourth of July Celebration,”http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2002/07/20020704-3.html, last visited on Sept. 11th, 2008.
①参见哈拉尔德·米勒:《文明的共存:对塞缪尔·亨廷顿“文明冲突论”的批判》(郦红等译),北京·新华出版社,2002年版,第21页。
②熊志勇:《美国公众舆论与战争──以朝鲜战争、越南战争和伊拉克战争为例》,载《外交学院学报》2004年9月第77期,第51页。
③参见熊志勇:《美国公众舆论与战争──以朝鲜战争、越南战争和伊拉克战争为例》,上引报刊。
①Jennifer W. See,“Ideology,”Encyclopedia of American Foreign Policy, Second Edition, volume II, eds. Alexander DeConde, Richard Dean Burns & Fredrik Logevall (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 2001), p.188.
②“In today’s pages: American Values and the Next President,”Los Angeles Times, Dec. 10th, 2007, http://opinion.latimes.com/opinionla/2007/12/in-todays-pag-5.html, last visited on July 8th, 2008.
①厄尔·弗赖伊:《可征服的美国:二十一世纪的美国对外政策》,转引自王晓德:《关于美国对外关系的文化思考》,载《世界经济与政治》,1996年第12期,第53页。
②Derek Chollet & Tod Lindberg,“A Moral Core for U.S. Foreign Policy,”Policy Review, December 2007 & January 2008. http://www.hoover.org/publications/policyreview/11832051.html, last visited on Sept. 12, 2008.
③资中筠:《二十世纪后半叶世界舞台上的美国》,载《资中筠集》,北京·中国社会科学出版社,2002年7月版,第123页。
④资中筠:《追根溯源:对美国对话政策(1945-1950)的再思考》,载《资中筠集》,第302页。
⑤任晓、沈丁立主编:《保守主义理念与美国的外交政策》,上海三联书店,2003年9月版,序第1-2页。
①Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr.,“Foreign Policy and the American Character,”Foreign Affairs, Fall 1983.
②参见小约瑟夫·奈:《理解国际冲突:理论与历史》(张小明译),上海世纪出版集团,2005年版,第24-25页。
③参见小约瑟夫·奈:《理解国际冲突:理论与历史》第24-35页。
④维特根斯坦:《哲学研究》(李步楼译),北京·商务印书馆,1996年,第201页。
②J.L. Austin, How to Do Things with Words (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1962).参见杨玉成:《奥斯汀论言和行》。
③转引自大卫·考恩:《布什的谎言》(李春怡等译),北京·东方出版社,2004年版,第174页。
④《旧金山纪事报》,2002年9月20日,转引自张善明、袁秀凡:《美国的贪欲──对世界的警示》,北京·经济管理出版社,2004年版,第142页。
⑤J.L. Austin: How to Do Things with Words (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1962).参见杨玉成:《奥斯汀论言和行》,http://philosophy.cass.cn/chuban/zxyj/yjgqml/04/0401/011.htm, last visited on Apr. 14th, 2008.
①乔纳森·波特:《话语和社会心理学:超越态度和行为》,第6页。
②罗伯特·杰维斯:《国际政治中的知觉与错误知觉》,《导言》第112页。
③罗伯特·杰维斯:《国际政治中的知觉与错误知觉》,《导言》第113页。
④罗伯特·杰维斯:《国际政治中的知觉与错误知觉》,《导言》第206页。
⑤泽乌丁·萨达尔等:《谁在恨美国》(袁征、朱琳、付宇译),北京·中国青年出版社,2004年版,第37页。
①维特根斯坦:《逻辑哲学论》(郭英译),北京·商务印书馆,1992年版。参见:江怡:《对语言哲学的批判:维特根斯坦与康德》,载《哲学研究》,1990年第5期,第96到100页。
②江怡:《维特根斯坦传》,石家庄·河北人民出版社,1998年版,第117-125页。
③George W. Bush,“Address to a Joint Session of Congress and the American People,”Sept. 20th, 2001, http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2001/09/20010920-8.html, last visited on Apr. 19th, 2008.
④米歇尔·福柯:《疯癫与文明》,前言第4-5页。
⑤米歇尔·福柯:《疯癫与文明》,前言第2页。
①亚历山大·温特:《国际政治社会理论》(秦亚青译),上海人民出版社,2000年版。
②亚历山大·温特:《国际政治社会理论》。
③参见David Campbell, Writing Security: United States Foreign Policy and the Politics of Identity (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1992).
②米歇尔·福柯:《疯癫与文明》,第31页。
①转引自张巨岩:《权力的声音:美国的媒体和战争》,北京·三联书店,2004年,第14页。
②Jeff Gerth,“Military's Information War Is Vast and Often Secretive,”New York Times, Dec. 11th, 2005, http://www.nytimes.com/2005/12/11/politics/11propaganda.html, last visited on Apr. 11th, 2008.
③James Dao & Eric Schmitt,“Pentagon Readies Efforts to Sway Sentiment Abroad,”New York Times, Feb. 19th, 2002, http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9c06efd71f3ff93aa25751c0a9649c8b63, last visited on Apr. 12th, 2008.
②参考约翰·朱迪斯对美国基督教理念的分析,总结出美国外交话语的规范。《上帝选择的国度:宗教对美国外交政策的影响》(文清译),原载于卡内基国际和平基金会《政策简讯》,第37期,载卡内基中文网http://www.carnegieendowment.org/programs/china/chinese/Research/ForeignPolicySecurity/ChosenNation.cfm, last visited on May 8th, 2008.
③转引自约翰·朱迪斯:《上帝选择的国度:宗教对美国外交政策的影响》(文清译),原载于卡内基国际和平基金会《政策简讯》,第37期,载卡内基中文网http://www.carnegieendowment.org/programs/china/chinese/Research/ForeignPolicySecurity/ChosenNation.cfm, last visited on May 8th, 2008.
①转引自王鸣鸣:《宗教信仰与美国对外政策》,载李慎明、王逸舟主编:《2005年:全球政治与安全报告》,北京·社科文献出版社,2004年版,第217-239页。
②转引自约翰·朱迪斯:《上帝选择的国度:宗教对美国外交政策的影响》
④Ronald Reagan,“The Evil Empire,”http://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/ronaldreaganevilempire.htm, last visited on Jan.20th, 2008.
①参考约翰·朱迪斯:《上帝选择的国度:宗教对美国外交政策的影响》。
②理查德·克罗卡特:《反美主义与全球秩序》(陈平译),北京·新华出版社,2004年版,前言第5页。
③天主教、东正教和新教统称为基督教。
④塞缪尔·亨廷顿:《我们是谁?──美国国家特性面临的挑战》(程克雄译),北京·新华出版社,2005年版,第80-83页。也可参见亨廷顿发表在《华尔街日报》上的文章“Under God: Michael Newdow is right. Atheists are outsiders in America,”Wall Street Journal, http://www.opinionjournal.com/editorial/feature.html?id=110005223, last visited on Feb. 20th, 2009.关于美国基督徒的统计数字也可参见Russell Ash, The Top 10 of Everything (New York: DK Publishing, Inc., 1997), pp. 160-161.该书认为美国有85%的人口是基督徒。维基百科上对美国人进行电话调查得出的统计数字表明1990年有88.3%的美国人自称基督徒,到2001年有79.8%的美国人认为自己是基督徒。http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographics_of_the_United_States#Religious_affiliation, last visited on Feb. 20th, 2009.
⑤Kwame Anthony Appiah,“The Multiculturist Misunderstanding,”New York Review of Books, Oct. 9th, 1997, p.31.转引自塞缪尔·亨廷顿:《我们是谁?──美国国家特性面临的挑战》,第83页。
①塞缪尔·亨廷顿:《我们是谁?──美国国家特性面临的挑战》,第69-71页。
②丁一凡:《美国批判:自由帝国扩张的悖论》,北京出版社,2006年版,第166页。
③邱晓军:《美国的宗教对其社会意识形态的影响》,载《科教文汇》2007年1月,第149页。
④邱晓军:《美国的宗教对其社会意识形态的影响》,上引报刊,第149页。
⑤《“民主自由”的美国为何侵略成性》,载《联合早报》2007年6月15日, http://www.zaobao.com/special/forum/pages5/forum_us070615.html, last visited on May 23rd, 2008.
⑥邱晓军:《美国的宗教对其社会意识形态的影响》,上引报刊,第149页。
①塞缪尔·亨廷顿:《我们是谁?──美国国家特性面临的挑战》,第69-71页。
②艾伦·赫茨克:《在华盛顿代表上帝》,上海世纪出版集团,2003年1月版。
①根据董小川:《美国总统教会取向》制表,见董小川:《20世纪美国宗教与政治》,北京·人民出版社,2002年版,第38页。
②翟立明、姜天明:《宗教与美国大选》,载《辽宁大学学报》, http://www.wyzxsx.com/Article/Class20/200702/15153.html, last visited on May 22nd, 2008.
③Richard V. Pierard & Robert D. Linder, Civil Religion and the Presidency (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 1988), p.70.
④Paul Kengor, God and Ronald Reagan: A Spiritual Life (New York: Harper, 2004).
⑤Ronald Reagan:“The Evil Empire,”http://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/ronaldreaganevilempire.htm, last visited on Jan.20th, 2008.
②刘建飞:《美国的保守主义趋势》,载《现代国际关系》2004年第11期,第11页。
③翟立明、姜天明:《宗教与美国大选》,载《辽宁大学学报》, http://www.wyzxsx.com/Article/Class20/200702/15153.html, last visited on May 22nd, 2008.
④“God and George W. Bush,”http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/5748598/, last visited on Jan.29th, 2008.
⑤除了God以外,布什还使用the Author of Liberty, Providence等说法,可以参考后面的分析。
⑥“President George W. Bush’s Inaugural Address,”http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/inaugural-address.html, last visited on Feb. 13th, 2008.
①根据白宫网站上的《国情咨文》原文,笔者使用Concordance软件创建语料库统计。
②Abraham McLaughlin,“Bush’s Two Tasks: Lead, Heal Nation,”Christian Science Monitor, Sept. 14th, 2001.
④Alan Dershowitz, Supreme Injustice: How the High Court Hijacked Election 2000 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001).
⑤Melissa August, et al.“One Year Ago In Time,”Monday, Dec. 31st, 2001, Times, http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1001541,00.html, last visited on May 1st, 2008.
⑥“Address to a Joint Session of Congress and the American People,”http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2001/09/20010920-8.html, last visited on Feb. 16th, 2008.
①“President Bush Announces Major Combat Operations in Iraq Have Ended,”http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2003/05/20030501-15.html, last visited on Feb.23rd, 2008.
②Frank Rich,“On‘Fixed Ideas’Since September 11,”New York Review of Books, Volume L, NumberIV, March 13th, 2003. http://www.nybooks.com/articles/article-preview?article_id=16119, last visited on May 1st, 2008.
③Alex Johnson,“God on the ballot,”http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/5819171/, last visited on Jan. 29th, 2008.
④“President Delivers‘State of the Union’,”http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2003/01/20030128-19.html, last visited on Feb. 16th, 2008.
⑤“President Sworn-In to Second Term,”http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2005/01/20050120-1.html, last visited on Feb. 13th, 2008.
①“President Bush Announces Major Combat Operations in Iraq Have Ended,”http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2003/05/20030501-15.html, last visited on Feb.23rd, 2008.
②“President Speaks to the United Nations General Assembly,”http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2004/09/20040921-3.html, last visited on Feb. 13th, 2008.
③George W. Bush,“President Delivers State of the Union Address,”http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2002/01/print/20020129-11.html, last visited on May 1st, 2008.
④Thomas B. Byer,“A City upon a Hill, American Literature and the Ideology of Exceptionalism,”Marks of distinction, American Exceptionalism Revisited, ed. Dale Carter (Aarthurs: Aarhus University Press, 2001), pp.52-53.
⑤Jr. Arthur M. Schlesinger, The Cycles of American History (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1976), p.15.
⑥“President Delivers‘State of the Union’,”http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2003/01/print/20030128-19.html, last visited on Mar. 8th, 2008.
⑦“President Delivers State of the Union Address,”http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2002/01/print/20020129-11.html, last visited on May 23rd, 2008.
⑧“President Delivers‘State of the Union’,”http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2003/01/print/20030128-19.html, last visited on Mar. 8th, 2008.
②George W. Bush,“Address to a Joint Session of Congress and the American People,”http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2001/09/20010920-8.html, last visited on Jan. 29th, 2008.
③于歌:《美国的本质》,北京·当代中国出版社,2006年版,第140页。
④约翰·朱迪斯:《上帝选择的国度:宗教对美国外交政策的影响》
①Alex Johnson,“Bush—Born Again, or Not?”http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/6115719/, last visited on Jan. 26th, 2008.
②麦克·希尔:《布什的启示录情结》,见Counterpunch January, 2003.转引自于歌:《美国的本质》,北京·当代中国出版社,2006年版,第143页。
③栗林辉夫:《布什的上帝与上帝之国美利坚》,日本基督教出版局,第24页。转引自于歌:《美国的本质》,第142页。
④“President George W. Bush's Inaugural Address,”http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/inaugural-address.html, last visited on Feb. 15th, 2008.
⑤“好心的撒玛利亚人”这个典故来自《圣经·路加福音10》(LUKE 10)“好心的撒玛利亚人的比喻(”The Parable of the Good Samaritan)。传说有一个商人从耶路撒冷到耶利哥,不幸在路上被强盗抢光所有的财物,扒光所有的衣服,赤身裸体,并且被打得遍体鳞伤。一位祭祀的人路过,但是他假装没看见离开了。一个利末人也从他的身边走过。就在他奄奄一息的时候,好心的撒玛利亚人路过,把他救起,放在自己的驴背上,并带他到一家小旅店给他养伤。当撒玛利亚人要离开的时候,还不忘给店主银子,拜托他帮忙照顾这位受伤的人。www.az1314.com/ReadNews.asp?NewsID=1059, last visited on Feb.15th, 2008.
⑥“President Delivers "State of the Union",”http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2003/01/20030128-19.html, last visited on Feb.15th, 2008.
⑦原文是There is pow’r, pow’r, wonder working pow’r In the blood of the Lamb.这种说法来源于赞美诗:意识是“这里有一种力量,力量,一种创造奇迹的力量,在羔羊的血液中”。《赞美诗:289》, http://www.digitalhymnal.org/zip/HymnWords.txt, last visited on May 20th, 2008.
⑧相关评论参见David L. Greene,“Bush Turns Increasingly to Language of Religion,”http://www.commondreams.org/headlines03/0210-06.htm, last visited on Feb. 15th, 2008.
⑨相关评论参见James Heflin,“Wonder-Working Power,”http://www.alternet.org/story/15667/, last visited on May 20th, 2008.
①“Religion, Rhetoric, and the Presidency: A Conversation with Michael Gerson,”http://pewforum.org/events/?EventID=67, last visited on May 6th, 2008.
②《圣经·路加福音6》的原文是“Why do you see the speck in your neighbor's eye, but do not notice the log in your own eye? Or how can you say to your neighbor, "Friend, let me take the speck out of your eye," when you yourself do not see the log in your own eye? You hypocrite, first take the log out of your own eye, and then you will see clearly to take the speck out of your neighbor's eye.”http://www.near-death.com/experiences/origen045.html, last visited on Feb. 16th, 2008.
③Michael Gerson,“The Danger for America Is Not Theocracy,”(address delivered in The Ethics and Public Policy Center semi-annual conference on religion and public life in 2004), http://www.beliefnet.com/story/159/story_15943.html, last visited on Feb. 13th, 2008.
⑤“Statement by the President in His Address to the Nation,”http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2001/09/20010911-16.html, last visited on feb.11th, 2008.来自Psalm 23:4, http://bible.cc/psalms/23-4.htm, last visited on Feb.12th, 2008.
⑥参见www.biblegateway.com/passage/?book_id=29&chapter=49&version=22, last visited on Feb.22nd, 2008.
①所谓“重生”的经验,被视为是一个福音派(evangelical Protestants)教徒身份的一个重要特征它是指一个人在与“圣灵”,通常是耶稣基督的交流中进行了心灵的对话,有了脱胎换骨的变化。在《圣经·诗篇》All my fresh springs shall be in Thee. (PSALM 1XXXVii. P. B.V.)就描述了这种体验,相关评论可以参考Oswald Chambers, My Utmost For His Highest (Westwood: Barbour and Company, Inc. 1963).也可参见http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/6115719/, last visited on Jan.20th, 2008.
②布什在书中有这样的描述“比利·格雷厄姆牧师(Reverend Billy Graham)到他缅因州的家中作客。一天晚上,在布什家族的聚会中,比利·格雷汉姆牧师坐在火边回答大家的提问。他所说的话、他因为深受上帝的影响所展现出来的慈善使布什的内心深受感染。后来布什和格雷汉姆牧师的谈话更是在他灵魂深处播下了芥末种子(a mustard seed)。第二年,这颗种子成长起来”。George W. Bush, A Charge To Keep: My Journey to the White House (New York: Easton Press, 1999). P.136.
③在《圣经》《马修书》(Matthew 13:31-32)中,认为芥末籽尽管是最小的一种种子,但是也可以长成参天大树。因此,在《福音书》(the Gospels)经常把“芥末籽”和“重生”的经验联系在一起。参见http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/6115719/, last visited on Jan.20th, 2008.
④重生的基督徒(born again Christian)是美国当代基督教右翼势力福音派的主要组成人员。“重生”教徒认为《圣经》是确实可靠的真理。他们在同性恋权利、堕胎和学校祈祷这些问题上的观点更加保守。托马斯·帕特森:《美国政治文化》(顾肃、吕建高译),北京·东方出版社,2007年版,第213页。所谓的“福音派”则更多是指一种宗教风格或倾向。把基督教右翼说成是福音派是一种政治上常用的表述,但是实际上支持基督教右翼的除了福音派,还有非福音派新教徒、天主教徒、犹太教徒和一些非教徒的保守人士。肯尼思·D·沃尔德、段琦:《宗教团体对中美关系进展的影响》,载《世界宗教研究》,1999年第1期,第136页。
⑤埃里克·洛朗:《布什的秘密世界》(贾宗谊译),北京·新华出版社,2005年版,第17页。
⑦这首诗是布什就任州长时,他的父亲老布什写在纸上交给他的。这首诗来自基督教新教经典《亨利·马太圣经注释》,是亨利·马太对《利未记》中上帝吩咐祭司要“遵守耶和华的吩咐“的感想。我有本分当尽,我有上主当尊,我有宝贵灵魂当救,引领他进天庭。我愿听候主命,服事现今世代,竭尽一切能力才智,殷勤成就主工。求主使我谨慎,活在主面光中,使你仆人常做准备,面陈所做事工。助我警醒祷告,凡事靠主引导,持守真道不违托付,忠心至见主面。George W. Bush, p.45.中文译文来自斯蒂芬·曼斯菲尔德:《活出使命:布什总统的信仰》(林淑真译),北京·中国档案出版社,2006年版,载新浪读书: http://book.sina.com.cn/nzt/cha/bushidexinyang/10.shtml, last visited on May 20th, 2008.
①画中一个看起来奋勇无畏的牛仔形象似乎是小布什的自画像。牛仔在恶劣的天气中、在崎岖的路面上、在大批敌人的追赶下勇敢地向前。布什认为这幅画反映了一个19世纪在美国西部传教的传教士不畏险阻的精神,而这种服务于上帝的精神,也给他和他的幕僚指引了方向,也就是要努力服务于自己的信仰,传播自己的信仰。George W. Bush, p.45.
②有人对这幅画和这幅画的作者进行了一番研究,结果发现这幅画反映的实际是一个盗马贼努力逃脱的场面。Scott Horton,“The Illustrated President,”http://harpers.org/archive/2008/01/hbc-90002237, last visited on Jan.28th, 2008.
③转引自Paul Harris,“Bush says God chose him to lead his nation,”http://observer.guardian.co.uk/international/story/0,6903,1075950,00.html, last visited on Jan. 29th, 2008.也可参见该书的节选,http://www.bookschina.com/2569539.htm, last visited on Dec. 20th, 2007。
④“President George W. Bush's Inaugural Address,”January 20th, 2001, http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/inaugural-address.html, last visited on May 11th, 2008.
⑤塞缪尔·亨廷顿:《我们是谁?美国国家特性面临的挑战》,第283-291页。
①朱易:《保守派犹豫、麦肯恩根基不稳》,2008年2月13日《联合早报》,http://www.zaobao.com/yl/tx080213_501.shtml, last visited on Feb. 13th, 2008.
②Chris Jansing,“For which candidate is the bell tolling,”http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/6056604/, last visited on Jan. 24th, 2008.
③Alex Johnson,“God on the ballot”, http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/5819171/, last visited on Jan. 29th, 2008.
④Ibid.
⑤Alex Johnson,“For Bush, a hunt for the right voters”, http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/6011114/, last visited on Jan. 28th, 2008.
⑥塞缪尔·亨廷顿:《我们是谁?美国国家特性面临的挑战》,第283-291页。
①Alex Johnson,“God on the ballot,”http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/5819171/, last visited on Jan. 29th, 2008.
②根据MSNBC的网上调查,在43656人中有58%的人认为布什政府领导下的美国政府在跨越政教分离的界限方面有很大问题。http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/6115719/, last visited on Jan.26th, 2008.
③Alex Johnson,“Bush—born again, or not?”http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/6115719/, last visited on Jan.26th, 2008.
④根据http://www.sourcewatch.org/index.php?title=Evil-doers上搜集的布什从2001年9月14日到2002年4月9日的演讲,笔者使用Concordance软件创建语料库统计。
①Collins Cobuild English Dictionary,上海外语教育出版社,2003年版,第569页。
②《圣经旧约·创世记》第三章,http://www.icysoul.org/article/bible/Gen_3.html, last visited on 14th, 2006.
③《圣经新约·彼得前书》,第三章,http://www.icysoul.org/article/bible/1Pe_3.html, last visited on Nov. 14th, 2006.
④“What Do‘Good’&‘Evil’Mean?”http://theroadtoemmaus.org/RdLb/21PbAr/Eth/Good&Evil.htm, last visited on Nov. 14th, 2006.
⑤比如:布什把伊朗、伊拉克和朝鲜称作“邪恶轴心”(the Axis of Evil) ,如果单从这个说法来分析,似乎伊朗、伊拉克和朝鲜联合在了一起,准备策划或发动针对世界的行动。但是,实际上伊朗和伊拉克是多年的宿敌,也没有任何情报表明这三个国家结成了联盟,而且正如阿富汗总统卡尔扎伊指出,伊朗多年以来一直帮助削弱塔利班和基地组织。即使很多美国人也很难理解“邪恶轴心”(the Axis of Evil)到底是什么意思。很难相信布什真的相信这三个国家正在联合在一起,酝酿针对世界的阴谋。http://www.irregulartimes.com/axisanagram.html, last visited on Nov. 15th, 2006.
①瓦西利斯·福斯卡斯等:《新美帝国主义:布什的反恐战争和以血换石油》(薛颖译),北京·世界知识出版社,2006年版,第88页。
②George W. Bush,“President Delivers State of the Union Address,”http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2002/01/print/20020129-11.html, last visited on Dec. 26th, 2008.本译文引自美国大使馆官方网站。http://chinese.usembassy-china.org.cn/2002speech.html, last visited on Dec. 26th, 2008.
①泽乌丁·萨达尔等:《谁在恨美国》(袁征、朱琳、付宇译),北京·中国青年出版社,2004年版,第37页。
②George W. Bush,“President Delivers State of the Union Address,”http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2002/01/print/20020129-11.html, last visited on Dec. 26th, 2008.如非特别指出,本文引用的布什《国情咨文》的中文译文均来自美国大使馆官方网站。本译文引自http://chinese.usembassy-china.org.cn/2002speech.html, last visited on Dec. 26th, 2008.
③Sandra Silberstein, War of Words: Language, Politics and 9/11 (London: Routledge, 2002), p.xii.
④关于美国外交话语中的此类用法可以参见张庆冰:《美国政治话语中的隐喻研究》,载《语言政治理论》,第28-29页。
⑤Crenshaw Martha, ed., Terrorism, Legitimacy, and Power: The Consequences of Political Violence (Scranton:Wesleyan University Press, 1983), p.91.
①George W. Bush,“President Delivers State of the Union Address”, http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2002/01/print/20020129-11.html, last visited on Dec. 26th, 2008.本译文引自美国大使馆官方网站。http://chinese.usembassy-china.org.cn/2002speech.html, last visited on Dec. 26th, 2008.
②瓦西利斯·福斯卡斯等:《新美帝国主义:布什的反恐战争和以血换石油》,第88页。
③www.einaudi.cornell.edu/iew, last visited on May 21st, 2007
①“9.11”爆发的原因,参见泽乌丁·萨达尔等:《谁在恨美国》,第57页。
②Mohsin Hamid,“Why Do They Hate Us?”http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/07/20/AR2007072001806.html, last visited on Oct. 11th, 2007.
④参见康奈尔大学网站www.einaudi.cornell.edu/iew, last visited on May 21st, 2007
①巴巴拉·冈纳尔:《寻求掩饰:邪恶回来了》,2002年2月11日《新政治家》。转引自泽乌丁·萨达尔等:《谁在恨美国》,第56页。
③维森特·戴维斯和莫里斯·伊斯特:《美国外交政策中的意识形态──洛克自由主义范例》,转引自张宏毅:《美国政治价值观与世界霸权》,载《理论前沿》2004年第4期,第11页。
④比尔·克林顿:《希望与历史之间》(金灿荣译),海口·海南出版社,1997年版,第116页。
⑤George H. W. Bush,“State of the Union Address, Envisioning One Thousand Points of Light,”http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0900156.html, last visited on Mar. 2nd, 2009.
①Robert Schlesinger, White House Ghosts: Presidents and Their Speechwriters (New York: Simon & Schuster, Inc. 2008), p.47.
②Siobhan McEvoy-Levy, American Exceptionalism and US Foreign policy: Public diplomacy at the End of the Cold War (London: Palgrave, 2001), pp. 31-32.
③相关论述可参见门洪华:《美国输出民主战略浅析》,载《国际政治研究》,1999年第1期,第22到23页。
④参见大英百科在线, http://www.britannica.com/presidents/article-214232, last visited on Mar.3rd, 2009.
⑤George H. W. Bush,“Address to the Nation on Panama Invasion,”http://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/ghwbushpanamainvasion.htm, last visited on Mar. 3rd, 2009.
⑥George H. W. Bush,“Address to the Nation on Invasion of Iraq,”http://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/ghwbushiraqinvasion.htm, last visited on Mar. 3rd, 2009.
⑦Syed Abdul Siraj & Jyotika Ramaprasad,“Image of Pakistan in Elite US Newspapers: Exploring News Framing,”http://www.issi.org.pk/journal/2007_files/no_4/article/a1.htm, last visited on Mar. 3rd, 2009.
①刘国平:《美国民主制度输出》,北京·社会科学文献出版社,2006年版,第1页。本文将制度也看作社会文化价值观念的一部分,因为制度会深刻地影响思想和文化,美国的民主制度和民主观念更加密不可分。
②丹尼尔·布尔斯廷:《美国人:开拓历程》,北京·美国大使馆文化处,1987年版,第3页。
③刘国平:《美国民主制度输出》,第1页。
④J·斯帕尼尔:《第二次世界大战后美国的外交政策》(段若石译),北京·商务印书馆,1992年版,第431页。
⑤詹姆斯·B·莫特雷:《美国的非常规冲突政策和战略》,载中国现代国际关系研究所选编:《冷战后的美国与世界》,北京·时事出版社,1991年版,第97页。
⑥约瑟夫·奈:《美国霸权的困惑──为什么美国不能独断专行》(郑志国等译),北京·世界知识出版社,2002年版,第142-143页。
⑦沃尔特·拉塞尔·米德:《美国外交政策及其如何影响了世界》(曹化银译),北京·中信出版社,2003年版,第174页。
⑧刘国平认为“美国民主体制包括:两党制,代议选举制,国会、总统和司法三权分立制衡,联邦的地方分权等”,“如果接受了美国宪法,也就接受了这种民主体制”。刘国平:《美国民主制度输出》,北京·社会科学文献出版社,2006年版,第113页。
①刘国平:《美国民主制度输出》,北京·社会科学文献出版社,2006年版,第1页。
②沃尔特·拉塞尔·米德:《美国外交政策及其如何影响了世界》,第171页。
③沃尔特·拉塞尔·米德:《美国外交政策及其如何影响了世界》,第152页。
④沃尔特·拉塞尔·米德:《美国外交政策及其如何影响了世界》,第152页。
①陆建德:《永不停息的叛逆者——代序》,见诺姆·乔姆斯基著:《恐怖主义文化》(张鲲,郎丽璇),上海译文出版社,2006年版。
②沃尔特·拉塞尔·米德:《美国外交政策及其如何影响了世界》,第174页。
③《国务卿赖斯强调推行转型外交促进民主》,载《美国参考》,转引自美国大使馆网站, http://chinese.usembassy-china.org.cn/011806speech.html, last visited on May 8th, 2008.
④郭宪纲:《美国输出“民主”的第三部曲──评布什政府酝酿改造大中东的计划》,载《国际问题研究》2004年第4期,第41页。
⑤沃尔特·拉塞尔·米德:《美国外交政策及其如何影响了世界》,第177页。
①参见Michael Moore, Fahrenheit 9/11, Lions Gate Entertainment, IFC Films (theatrical) & Sony Pictures Home Entertainment, 2004.
②比如:在推翻萨达姆之后,美国并没有在伊拉克实行直接选举,因为美国担心与伊朗关系密切的什叶派会在选举中获胜。郭宪纲:《美国输出“民主”的第三部曲──评布什政府酝酿改造大中东的计划》,载《国际问题研究》2004年第4期,第43页。
③比如:在智利,民选总统阿连德致力于用“第三条道路”来实现智利的经济发展,也就是将智利的民主与某些社会主义的因素结合。为了实现经济发展,他努力提高某些关键领域的国有化程度,特别是美国企业投资巨大的铜业。他的改革触动了美国的利益。尼克松政府以威胁美国安全为名,支持军事独裁者皮诺切特推翻了阿连德。从此,皮诺切特的独裁一直持续到冷战结束,美国转而支持“亲民主”的派别,迫使他下台。Mary Fran T. Malone,“Can the United States Export Democracy,”A University Dialogue on Democracy, University of New Hampshire, 2007-2008.
④Thomas Carothers, Critical Mission: Essays on Democracy Promotion (Washington, DC: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 2004).
⑤沃尔特·拉塞尔·米德:《美国外交政策及其如何影响了世界》,第180页。
②吕国欣:《“民主”──美国颠覆他国的工具》,载《太平洋论坛》2005年第3期,第3期。
③“The National Security Strategy”, September 2002, http://www.whitehouse.gov/nsc/nss/2002/index.html, last visited on May 8th, 2008.
④郭宪纲:《美国输出“民主”的第三部曲──评布什政府酝酿改造大中东的计划》,上引报刊,第41页。
①“President Bush Discusses Freedom in Iraq and Middle East,”http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2003/11/20031106-2.html, last visited on Feb. 4th, 2008.
②“President George W. Bush's Inaugural Address,”January 20th, 2001, http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/inaugural-address.html, last visited on May 11th, 2008.
③刘国平:《美国民主制度输出》,第155页。
④George W. Bush,“President Bush Delivers State of the Union Address,”http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2007/01/print/20070123-2.html, last visited on May 26th, 2008.
⑤George W. Bush,“STATE OF THE UNION ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT,”http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2007/01/print/20070123-2.html, last visited on May 26th, 2008.
⑥“State of the Union Address,”http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2004/01/print/20040120-7.html, last visited on May 28th, 2008. http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2005/02/print/20050202-11.html, last visited on Mar. 9th, 2008.
⑦“STATE OF THE UNION ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT,”http://www.whitehouse.gov/stateoftheunion/2006/print/index.html, last visited on Mar. 9th, 2008.
⑧“Text: President Bush's Acceptance Speech to the Republican National Convention,”http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A57466-2004Sep2.html, last visited on Feb. 23rd, 2008.
①“State of the Union Address,”http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2004/01/print/20040120-7.html, last visited on May 28th, 2008. http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2005/02/print/20050202-11.html, last visited on Mar. 9th, 2008.
②“President Delivers State of the Union Address,”http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2002/01/print/20020129-11.html, last visited on Mar. 8th, 2008.
③“The National Security Strategy,”September 2002, http://www.whitehouse.gov/nsc/nss/2002/index.html, last visited on May 8th, 2008.
①George W. Bush,“President Sworn-In to Second Term,”January 20th, 2005, http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2005/01/20050120-1.html, last visited on May 16th, 2008.
②“The National Security Strategy,”September 2002, http://www.whitehouse.gov/nsc/nss/2002/index.html, last visited on May 8th, 2008.
④郭宪纲:《美国输出“民主”的第三部曲──评布什政府酝酿改造大中东的计划》,上引报刊,第42页。
⑤George W. Bush,“President Delivers‘State of the Union’”, http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2004/01/print/20040120-7.html, last visited on May 11th, 2008.
⑥郭宪纲:《美国输出“民主”的第三部曲──评布什政府酝酿改造大中东的计划》,上引报刊,第41页。
⑦去掉applause,因为该词是原文中表示现场听众鼓掌的意思。去掉American,因为该词可以具有形容词意义。去掉years和year,因为这两个词表示时间,不符合此处的分析目的。去掉help,因为该词具有动词意义。
⑧使用concordance软件对布什《国情咨文》进行统计,《国情咨文》原文选自白宫网站。
①“President Bush Delivers Graduation Speech at West Point”, www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2007/08/20070828-2.html, last visited on Jan.1st, 2008.
①布什2003年2月在全国宗教广播电台大会的讲话。转引自王鸣鸣:《宗教信仰与美国对外政策》,上引编著,第217-239页。
②George W. Bush,“President Delivers‘State of the Union’,”http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2003/01/print/20030128-19.html, last visited on Mar. 8th, 2008.
③吕国欣:《“民主”──美国颠覆他国的工具》,载《太平洋论坛》2005年第3期,第3页。
①张善明、袁秀凡:《美国的贪欲──对世界的警示》,北京·经济管理出版社,2004年版,第141页。
②约瑟夫·西林乔恩:《满口谎言》,原载《原子科学家会刊》2005年1/2月刊,转载于卡内基中文网,http://www.carnegieendowment.org/programs/china/chinese/Research/ForeignPolicySecurity/NoClaimTrue.cfm, last visited on May 24th, 2008.
③“Complete 9/11 Commission Report”可以在http://www.9-11commission.gov/report/index.htm下载。
④Peter Beaumont & Joanna Walters,“Greenspan admits Iraq was about oil, as deaths put at 1.2m,”http://observer.guardian.co.uk/world/story/0,,2170237,00.html, last visited on Jan. 16th, 2008.
⑤Vassilis K. Fouskas & Bülent G?kay, The New American Imperialism: Bush's War on Terror and Blood for Oil (Westport: Praeger, 2005).
⑥相关的讨论参见沃尔特·拉塞尔·米德:《美国外交政策及其如何影响了世界》,第47─58页。
①Jennifer L. Windsor,“Promoting Democratization Can Combat Terrorism,”Washington Quarterly (summer 2003), pp.46-47.
②James Philips,“After the Elections: The Road to Political Stability in Iraq,”December 16th, 2005, http://www.heritage.org/Research/Iraq/wm945.cfm, last visited on May 19th, 2008.
③James Hider & Richard Beeston,“Democracy, Bush's biggest export, faces its first reality check in Iraq,”The Times, January 22nd, 2005, http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/iraq/article504962.ece?print=yes&randnum=1211268862228, last visited on May 19th, 2008.
④Paula J. Dobriansky,“Democracy Promotion,”Foreign Affairs (May/June 2003), http://www.foreignaffairs.org/20030501faresponse11226/paula-j-dobriansky-thomas-carothers/democracy-promotion.html, last visited on Feb. 1st, 2008.
⑤Thomas Carothers,“Promoting Democracy and Fighting Terror,”Foreign Affairs, (January/February, 2003), http://www.foreignaffairs.org/20030101faessay10224/thomas-carothers/promoting-democracy-and-fighting-terror.html, last visited on Jan. 31st, 2008.
⑥George W. Bush,“President Bush Discusses Freedom in Iraq and Middle East: Remarks by the President at the 20th Anniversary of the National Endowment for Democracy,”November 6th, 2003, http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2003/11/20031106-2.html, last visited on May 19th, 2008.
①“President Bush Delivers State of the Union Address”, http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2008/01/print/20080128-13.html, last visited on Mar. 9th, 2008.
②George W. Bush,“Address to a Joint Session of Congress and the American People”, September 20th, 2001, http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2001/09/20010920-8.html, last visited on May 11th, 2008.
③使用Concordance软件进行统计,《国情咨文》参见白宫网站。
②“President Delivers State of the Union Address,”http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2002/01/print/20020129-11.html, last visited on May 21st, 2008.
②Ibid, last visited on Mar. 8th, 2008.
③George W. Bush,“President Bush Addresses the Nation,”http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2003/03/20030319-17.html, last visited on May 18th, 2008.
④George Lakoff,“Nailing the frames of the Republican National Convention: President Bush's acceptance speech,”http://www.berkeley.edu/news/media/releases/2004/09/03_lakoff_gop4.shtml, last visited on Feb. 22nd, 2008.
①使用Concordance软件进行统计。原文见“Text: President Bush's Acceptance Speech to the Republican National Convention,”http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A57466-2004Sep2.html, last visited on Feb. 23rd, 2008.
②“President Outlines Steps to Help Iraq Achieve Democracy and Freedom,”http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2004/05/20040524-10.html, last visited on Feb.4th, 2008.
③“President Bush Delivers State of the Union Address,”http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2008/01/print/20080128-13.html, last visited on Mar. 9th, 2008.
④Richard E. Neustadt, Presidential Power: The politics of Leadership from FDR to Carter (New York: John Wiley, 1980), p.10.
①转引自王鸣鸣:《宗教信仰与美国对外政策》,上引编著,第217-239页。
②熊志勇:《美国公众舆论与战争──以朝鲜战争、越南战争和伊拉克战争为例》,上引报刊,第49页。
③在2003年1月和4月盖勒普国际进行了两项调查。在一月份的调查中,当被问到“是否支持无条件地;在联合国制裁的情况下;或美国和盟友单方面发动伊拉克战争时”,在包括20个欧洲国家在内的36个国家中没有一个国家的多数民众赞同无条件发动对伊拉克的战争。赞成在联合国制裁的情况下或美国和盟友单方面发动伊拉克战争的比例也非常低。在4月份的调查中,当被问到“如果发动对伊拉克的军事行动,你是否认为你的国家应该支持这一行动?”在包括欧洲国家在内的38个国家中有34个反对自己的国家支持这一行动。“American popular opinion on invasion of Iraq”, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_popular_opinion_on_invasion_of_Iraq, last visited on Apr. 3rd, 2008.
④熊志勇:《美国公众舆论与战争──以朝鲜战争、越南战争和伊拉克战争为例》,上引报刊,第49页。
⑤THE PIPA/KNOWLEDGE NETWORKS POLLL, www.pipa.org/OnlineReports/ForeignAid/WorldPoverty_Jun05/WorldPoverty_Jun05_rpt.pdf, last visited on Apr. 31st, 2008.
⑥“NBC News/Wall Street Journal Poll conducted by the polling organizations of Peter Hart (D) and Bill McInturff (R). March 7th-10th, 2008.”http://www.pollingreport.com/iraq.htm, last visited on May 1st, 2008.
⑦“Pew Research Center for the People & the Press survey conducted by Princeton Survey Research Associates International. Feb. 20th-24th, 2008.”http://www.pollingreport.com/iraq.htm, last visited on May 1st, 2008.
⑧熊志勇:《美国公众舆论与战争──以朝鲜战争、越南战争和伊拉克战争为例》,上引报刊,第51页。
⑨Dana Milband & Mike Allen,“U.S. Effort Aims to Improve Opinions About Iraq Conflict”, Washington Post, Thursday, Sept. 30th, 2004, page A20, http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn/A60725-2004Sep29?language=printer, last visited on May 24th, 2008.
⑩Richard W. Stevenson & Janet Elder,“support for War Is Down Sharply, Poll Concludes,”Washington Post, April 29th, 2004. http://www.nytimes.com/2004/04/29/politics/29POLL.html?ex=1211860800&en=bdee21e28b4a7a41&ei=5070,last visited on May 28th, 2008.
①关于保守主义的外交主张可以参见刘军宁:《保守主义》,北京·中国社会科学出版社,1998年版。周琪主编:《意识形态与美国外交》,上海人民出版社,第263-325页。任晓、沈丁立主编:《保守主义理念与美国的外交政策》。但是,所有的学者都认为保守主义的主张难以概括,但存在基本原则。
②参见George Lakoff, Moral Politics: How Liberals and Conservatives Think (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2002); Moral Politics: What Conservatives Know That Liberals Don’t ( Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1996); George Lakoff & Mark Turner, More Than Cool reason, (Chicago:University of Chicago Press, 1980); George Lakoff & Mark Johnson, Metaphors We Live By (Chicago:University of Chicago Press, 1980).
①所有《国情咨文》的原文的电子版见维基百科http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_of_the_Union, last visited on April 5th, 2008.
②参见:约翰·米尔斯海默:《大国政治的悲剧》(王义桅、唐小松译),上海人民出版社,第48─49页。
③对保守派钟情的外交政策的分析,参见周琪:《意识形态与美国外交》,第284-317页。
①George Lakoff, Moral Politics: What Conservatives Know That Liberals Don’t (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1996);也可参见George Lakoff,“Metaphor, Morality, and Politics, Or, Why Conservatives Have Left Liberals In the Dust”, http://www.wwcd.org/issues/Lakoff.html, last visited on Jan.4th, 2007.
①对保守派话语规范的分析,参见George Lakoff, Moral Politics: What Conservatives Know That Liberals Don’t ( Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1996);也可参见George Lakoff,“Linguistics professor George Lakoff dissects the‘war on terror’and other conservative catchphrases”, http://berkeley.edu/news/media/releases/2004/08/25_lakoff.shtml, last visited on Jan.4th, 2007.
②关于保守主义的不同定义参见刘军宁:《保守主义》。
③J.S.McClelland, ed., The French Right from de Maistre to Maurras (New York: Harper, 1970).转引自郝雨凡:《“9.11”事件与美国保守主义》,载《美国研究》2002年第2期,第8页。
①郝雨凡:《“9.11”事件与美国保守主义》,上载报刊,第7-10页。
②刘建飞:《美国的保守主义趋势》,上载报刊,第10-12页。
③郝雨凡:《“9.11”事件与美国保守主义》,上载报刊,第13页。
④Ronald Reagan:“The Evil Empire,”http://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/ronaldreaganevilempire.htm, last visited on Jan.20th, 2008.
⑤周琪:《意识形态与美国外交》,第298页。
①郝雨凡:《“9.11”事件与美国保守主义》,上载报刊,第13-15页。
②刘建飞:《美国的保守主义趋势》,上载报刊,第11页。
③George W. Bush, p. 235.
④刘建飞:《美国的保守主义趋势》,上载报刊,第11页。
⑤储昭根:《从中期选举看美国保守主义》,载《国际观察》2007年第4期,第62页。
⑥储昭根:《从中期选举看美国保守主义》,上载报刊,第61-63页。
⑦“Bush; McCain a‘true conservative’’, http://www.usatoday.com/news/washington/2008-02-10-bushmccain_N.htm, last visited on Feb.13th, 2008.
①George Lakoff, Moral Politics: How Liberals and Conservatives Think (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2002).
②周琪:《意识形态与美国外交》,第268页。
③周琪:《意识形态与美国外交》,第298页。
④周琪:《意识形态与美国外交》,第298页。
⑤潘锐:《论新保守主义与小布什政府国家安全战略》,载《美国问题研究》第四辑(倪世雄、刘永涛主编),时事出版社,2005年版,第280-281页。
⑥徐大同:《当代西方政治思潮:70年代以来》,天津人民出版社,2000年版,第60页。
⑦Max Boot,“Think Again: Neocons,”Foreign Policy, January/February 2004.
⑧转引自: http://www.conservapedia.com/Neo-conservatism, last visited on Feb. 10th, 2008.
⑨Max Boot, January/February 2004.
①钱乘旦主编:《美国的新保守主义》,南京·江苏人民出版社,2004年版,第119-141页。
②孙逊:《论新保守主义思潮对冷战后美国外交政策的影响》,载《战略研究》,第58-59页。
③William Kristol & Robert Kagan,“Toward a Neo-Reaganite Foreign Policy, Foreign Affairs, July/August, 1996, pp.15-32.
④周琪:《意识形态与美国外交》,第297-298页。
⑤李志东、梅仁毅:《新保守主义在美国的复兴》,载《国际论坛》2006年9月第8卷第5期,第67页。
⑥王联合:《论新保守主义及其外交影响》,载《现代国际关系》2003年第4期,第34-41页。
⑦钱乘旦主编:《美国的新保守主义》,第104页。
⑧Mark Gerson, The Neoconservative Vision: From the Cold War to the Culture Wars. (Lanham and London: Madison Books, 1997).
①钱乘旦主编:《美国的新保守主义》,第149-151页。
②李志东、梅仁毅:《新保守主义在美国的复兴》,上载报刊,第68页。
③参见张睿壮:《也谈美国保守主义的外交思想及其对美国对华政策的影响》,载《国际问题研究》,第44页。
④Donald Kagan,“Strength and Will: A Historical Perspective,”Present Dangers: Crisis and Opportunity in American foreign and Defense Policy eds., Robert Kagan (San Francisco: Encounter Books, 2000), p.339.
⑤Charles William Maynes,“Contending Schools,”The National Interest, Spring 2001, p.52.
⑥潘锐:《论新保守主义与小布什政府国家安全战略》,载《美国问题研究》第四辑(倪世雄、刘永涛主编),北京·时事出版社,2005年版,第281页。
⑦张睿壮:《也谈美国保守主义的外交思想及其对美国对华政策的影响》,载《国际问题研究》,第45-47页。
①参见Irving Kristol,“Foreign Policy in an Age of Ideology,”The National Interest, Fall 1985, pp. 13-14.转引自李志东、梅仁毅:《新保守主义在美国的复兴》,上载报刊,第68页。
②Irving Kristol, pp.13-14.
③孙逊:《论新保守主义思潮对冷战后美国外交政策的影响》,上载报刊,第59页。
④张睿壮:《也谈美国保守主义的外交思想及其对美国对华政策的影响》,上载报刊,第48页。
⑤布什反恐话语的运作方式及其中新保守派的影响将在第五、第六章予以论述。
⑥布什2001年2月27日的演讲不属于《国情咨文》,但媒体和公众认为该演讲可被看作布什的第一个《国情咨文》。该演讲的原文及评价参见http://www.usa-presidents.info/union/gwbush-1.html, last visited on April 17th, 2009.其他演讲的原文可以参见http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/sou.php, last visited on April 17th, 2009.
①该软件的在线版本参见http://www.style.org/stateoftheunion/, last visited on April 17th, 2009.
①参见周琪:《意识形态与美国外交》,第303-304页。
②Richard Perle,“We made mistakes in Iraq, but war was just,”http://www.telegraph.co.uk/opinion/main.ghtml?xml=/opinion/2008/03/16/do1612.xml, last visted May 31st, 2008
③Joshua Micah Marshall,“Bomb Saddam? How the obsession of a few neocon hawks became the center goal of U.S. foreign policy,”http://www.washingtonmonthly.com/features/2001/0206.marshall.html, last visited on May 28th, 2008.
①参见周琪:《意识形态与美国外交》,第305-307页。
②William Kristol,“Taking the War beyong Terrorism,”The Washington Post, Thursday, January 31st, 2002, http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn/A64993-2002Jan30?language=printer, last visited on May 30th, 2008.
①George Lakoff, Moral Politics: What Conservatives Know That Liberals Don’t ( Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1996);也可参见George Lakoff,“Metaphor, Morality, and Politics, Or, Why Conservatives Have Left Liberals In the Dust”, http://www.wwcd.org/issues/Lakoff.html, last visited on Jan.4th, 2007.
②周琪:《意识形态与美国外交》,第268页。
③亨利·基辛格:《大外交》(顾淑馨、林添贵译),海南人民出版社,1998年版,第682页。
④参见刘建飞:《美国的保守主义趋势》,上载报刊,第10-12页。储昭根:《从中期选举看美国保守主义》,载《国际观察》2007年第4期,第61-67页。郝雨凡:《“9.11”事件与美国保守主义》,上载报刊,第7-30页。
①George Lakoff, Moral Politics: What Conservatives Know That Liberals Don’t (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996).
③Bonnie Azab Powell,“Framing the issue: UC Berkeley professor George Lakoff tells how conservatives use language to dominate politics,”http://www.berkeley.edu/news/media/releases/2003/10/27_lakoff.shtml, last visited on Jan.10th, 2008.
④周琪:《意识形态与美国外交》,第303页。
⑤Bonnie Azab Powell,“Framing the issue: UC Berkeley professor George Lakoff tells how conservatives use language to dominate politics,”http://www.berkeley.edu/news/media/releases/2003/10/27_lakoff.shtml, last visited on Jan.10th, 2008.
①转引自徐薇薇、胡祥云:《试论新保守派与基督教右翼的联盟及其主导下的美国中东战略》,载《国际关系学院学报》2006年第6期,第6页。
②Max Boot,“Think Again: Neocons,”Foreign Policy, January/February 2004.
③也有一些学者认为施特劳斯和新保守派没有关系。参见Ivo H. Daalder & James M. Lindsay, America Unbound: The Bush Revolution in Foreign Policy (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press, 2003), pp.46-48.
④徐薇薇、胡祥云:《试论新保守派与基督教右翼的联盟及其主导下的美国中东战略》,上载报刊,第6页。
⑤参见冯春凤:《美国宗教与政治关系现状》,载《世界宗教研究》,2003年第3期,第111页。
①转引自:瓦西利斯·福斯卡斯:《新美帝国主义:布什的反恐战争和以血换石油》,第94页。
②参见瓦西利斯·福斯卡斯:《新美帝国主义:布什的反恐战争和以血换石油》,第94页。
③布什2001年2月27日的演讲原文及评价参见http://www.usa-presidents.info/union/gwbush-1.html, last visited on April 17th, 2009.其他演讲的原文可以参见http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/sou.php, last visited on April 17th, 2009.
①相关分析参见Bonnie Azab Powell,“Linguistics professor George Lakoff dissects the‘war on terror’and other conservative catchphrases,”http://berkeley.edu/news/media/releases/2004/08/25_lakoff.shtml; George Lakoff, “Nailing the frames of the Republican National Convention,”http://berkeley.edu/news/media/releases/2004/08/31_lakoff_gop1.shtml, last visited on May 26th, 2008.
①“President Bush Reaffirms Resolve to War on Terror, Iraq and Afghanistan,”http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2004/03/20040319-3.html, last visited on Feb. 21st, 2008.
②转引自大卫·考恩:《布什的谎言》,第119页。
③Filed by Raw Story,“Bush:‘Cut and run’rhetoric result of less‘sophisticated vocabulary’,”http://www.rawstory.com/printstory.php?story=3524, last visited on Feb. 19th, 2008.
①“Lesson 285 - run like clockwork / cut and run / dry run,”http://www.unsv.com/voanews/american/idioms/lessons/2004/10/11/285/, last visited on Feb. 19th, 2008.
②Ibid.
③“Cut and Run,”http://language.chinadaily.com.cn/words.shtml?from=1&id=3042, last visited on Feb. 19th, 2008.
④“Bush: U.S. Will Not Cut and Run in Iraq,”http://www.foxnews.com/printer_friendly_story/0,3566,103216,00.html, last visited on Feb. 18th, 2008.
⑤“ABC,CBS,CNN aired Bush’s‘cut and run’attack on Democrats, ignored Democratic response,”http://mediamatters.org/items/200609290009, last visited on Feb. 18th, 2008.
①George Lakoff,“Occupation: The Inconvenient Truth About Iraq,”http://www.huffingtonpost.com/george-lakoff/occupation-the-inconveni_b_24410.html, last visited on Feb. 22nd, 2008.
②“ABC,CBS,CNN aired Bush’s‘cut and run’attack on Democrats, ignored Democratic response,”http://mediamatters.org/items/200609290009, last visited on Feb. 18th, 2008.
③cut and run的中文意思,如前段所述。但是,鉴于共和党(保守派)和民主党(自由派)对此有不同解读,此处不再翻译。
④Dana Milbank,“It’s time to cut and run from‘cut and run’”, http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/06/20/AR2006062001343.html, last visited on Jan. 15th, 2008.
③Bob Burnett,“Bush Prepares to Cut and Run in Afghanistan,”http://www.commondreams.org/cgi-bin/print.cgi?file=/views06/0524-34.htm, last visited on Feb. 18th, 2008.
①支持共和党的州被称作“红色州”,支持“民主党”的州被称作“蓝色州”(blue state)。
②Lt. Gen. William E. Odom,“Cut and Run? You Bet,”http://www.foreignpolicy.com/story/cms.php?story_id=3430, last visited on Jan.15th, 2008.
③The editors,“Democrats and the War,”The Nation, November 9th, 2005, http://www.thenation.com/doc/20051128/editors, last visited on May 28th, 2008.
④George W. Bush,“State of the Union Address (2004),”http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2004/01/20040120-7.html, last visited on Feb. 22nd, 2008.
⑤“President Delivers‘State of the Union’,”http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2003/01/print/20030128-19.html, last visited on Mar. 8th, 2008.
①“Declassified Key Judgments of the National Intelligence Estimate,”www.dni.gov/press_releases/Declassified_NIE_Key_Judgments.pdf, last visited on Feb. 19th, 2008.
②“CNN/Opinion Research Corporation Poll. April 28-30, 2008. N=1,008 adults nationwide. MoE±3.”http://www.pollingreport.com/iraq.htm, last visited on May 30th, 2008.
③参见麦凯恩竞选网站:http://www.johnmccain.com/Informing/Issues/fdeb03a7-30b0-4ece-8e34-4c7ea83f11d8.htm, last visited on May 29th, 2008.
④参见奥巴马竞选网站:http://www.barackobama.com/issues/iraq/, last visited on May 29th, 2008.
⑤参见希拉里竞选网站:http://www.hillaryclinton.com/issues/iraq/, last visited on May 29th, 2008.
⑥熊志勇:《美国公众舆论──以朝鲜战争、越南战争和伊拉克战争为例》,上载报刊,第51页。
②也有一些学者认为施特劳斯和新保守派没有关系。参见Ivo H. Daalder & James M. Lindsay, America Unbound: The Bush Revolution in Foreign Policy (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press, 2003), pp.46-48.
③参见Shadia Drury, Leo Strauss and the American Right (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 1999)
④Anne Norton, Leo Strauss and the Politics of American Empire (New Haven: Yale University press, 2004), p.39.
⑤Leo Strauss, On Tyranny (New York: Free Press, 1991), p.70.
⑥参见Sheldon Rampton & John Stauber, Weapons of Mass Deception: the uses of propaganda in Bush’s war on Iraq (Los Angeles: Tarcher / Penguin, 2003)
①“Power of Nightmare”,可以从http://www.informationclearinghouse.info/video1037.htm下载,last visited on Mar. 4, 2008.
②参见Renana Brooks,“A Nation of Victims”, The Nation Magazine, (June, 2003). http://www.thenation.com/doc/20030630/brooks, last visited on Feb. 22, 2008. Renana Brooks,“It’s the language, stupid!”—The Frightening Secret to Bush’s Success”, http://www.sommetinstitute.org/publication_itsthelanguage.html, last visited on Feb. 23, 2008.
③按照该软件的定义,破折号也被包括在词的范围。
④使用Concordance软件统计,演讲原文参见所有《国情咨文》的原文的电子版见维基百科http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_of_the_Union, last visited on April 5, 2008.
①使用Concordance软件统计,演讲原文参见所有《国情咨文》的原文的电子版见维基百科http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_of_the_Union, last visited on April 5, 2008.
②美国总统的语言有两种风格:一种被称作激励式,强调光明的前景,以积极的方式谈论现实。另一种被称作说教式,强调现实的残酷。Roderick P. Hart, Verbal Style and the Presidency: A Computer-Based Analysis, (Orlando: academic Press, 1984), pp.42-44.
③原文为:The pictures of airplanes flying into buildings, fires burning, huge structures collapsing, have filled us with disbelief, terrible sadness, and a quiet, unyielding anger. George W. Bush,“Statement by the President in His Address to the Nation”, http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2001/09/20010911-16.html, last visited on May 30, 2008.也可参见http://www.famousquotes.me.uk/speeches/George_W_Bush/, last visited on April 18, 2009.
①原文为: These acts of mass murder were intended to frighten our nation into chaos and retreat. But they have failed; our country is strong. A great people has been moved to defend a great nation. Terrorist attacks can shake the foundations of our biggest buildings, but they cannot touch the foundation of America. These acts shattered steel, but they cannot dent the steel of American resolve. George W. Bush,“Statement by the President in His Address to the Nation”, http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2001/09/20010911-16.html, last visited on May 30, 2008.
②关于“9.11”之后布什政府发动反恐战争的决策情况,参见Bob Woodward, Bush at War (New York:Simon & Schuster, 2002).
③George W. Bush,“Radio Address of the President to the Nation”, http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2001/09/20010915.html, last visited on Feb. 23, 2008.
①George W. Bush,“Radio Address of the President to the Nation”, http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2001/09/20010915.html, last visited on Feb. 23, 2008.
②Renana Brooks是认知心理学家、为包括布什在内的多个美国政要提供心理咨询。她对布什语言的分析,参见专门研究美国政治中语言使用技巧的The Sommet Institute的网站,http://www.sommetinstitute.org/index.html, last visited on Feb. 24, 2008.
③参见Renana Brooks,“A Nation of Victims”, The Nation Magazine, (June, 2003). http://www.thenation.com/doc/20030630/brooks, last visited on Feb. 22, 2008. Renana Brooks,“It’s the language, stupid!”—The Frightening Secret to Bush’s Success”, http://www.sommetinstitute.org/publication_itsthelanguage.html, last visited on Feb. 23, 2008.
④George W. Bush,“Radio Address of the President to the Nation”, http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2001/09/20010915.html, last visited on Feb. 23, 2008.
①George W. Bush,“Remarks by the President After Two Planes Crash Into World Trade Center”, http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2001/09/20010911.html, last visited on Feb. 25, 2008.也可参见http://avalon.law.yale.edu/sept11/president_008.asp, last visited on April 21,2009.
②相关分析参见Sandra Silberstein, War of Words: Language, Politics and 9/11 (New York: Routledge, 2002), p. 4.阿什克里夫特的原文是“Crime scenes have been established…The full resources of…are being deployed to investigate these crimes and to assist survivors and victim families.”
③该软件的在线版本参见http://www.style.org/stateoftheunion/, last visited on April 17, 2009.
①George W. Bush,“Remarks by the President Upon Arrival at Barksdale Air Force Base”, http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2001/09/20010911-1.html, last visited on Feb. 25, 2008.
②参见Renana Brooks,“A Nation of Victims”, The Nation Magazine, (June, 2003). http://www.thenation.com/doc/20030630/brooks, last visited on Feb. 22, 2008. Renana Brooks,“It’s the language, stupid!”—The Frightening Secret to Bush’s Success”, http://www.sommetinstitute.org/publication_itsthelanguage.html, last visited on Feb. 23, 2008.
③参见Sandra Silberstein, War of Words: Language, Politics and 9/11 (New York: Routledge, 2002), pp.39-60.
①Karlyn Campbell & Kathleen Jamieson, Deeds Done in Words: Presidential Rhetoric and Genres of Governance (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990), p.118.转引自Sandra Silberstein, War of Words: Language, Politics and 9/11 (New York: Routledge, 2002), p.11.
②参见Sandra Silberstein, War of Words: Language, Politics and 9/11 (New York: Routledge, 2002), 10.
③Karlyn Campbell & Kathleen Jamieson, Deeds Done in Words: Presidential Rhetoric and Genres of Governance (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990), p.105.转引自Sandra Silberstein, War of Words: Language, Politics and 9/11 (New York: Routledge, 2002), pp.10-11.
④George W. Bush,“Address to a Joint Session of Congress and the American People,”http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2001/09/20010920-8.html, last visited on May 30, 2008.
①George W. Bush,“Address to a Joint Session of Congress and the American People,”http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2001/09/20010920-8.html, last visited on May 30, 2008.
②George W. Bush,“Address to a Joint Session of Congress and the American People,”http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2001/09/20010920-8.html, last visited on May 30, 2008.
③原文见George W. Bush,“Address to a Joint Session of Congress and the American People,”http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2001/09/20010920-8.html, last visited on May 30, 2008.
④关于布什的语言对美国公众心理的影响,参见Renana Brooks,“A Nation of Victims”, The Nation Magazine, (June, 2003). http://www.thenation.com/doc/20030630/brooks, last visited on Feb. 22, 2008. Renana Brooks,“It’s the language, stupid!”—The Frightening Secret to Bush’s Success”, http://www.sommetinstitute.org/publication_itsthelanguage.html, last visited on Feb. 23, 2008.
①原文见George W. Bush,“Address to a Joint Session of Congress and the American People,”http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2001/09/20010920-8.html, last visited on May 30, 2008.
②原文见George W. Bush,“Address to a Joint Session of Congress and the American People,”http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2001/09/20010920-8.html, last visited on May 30, 2008.
③原文见George W. Bush,“Address to a Joint Session of Congress and the American People,”http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2001/09/20010920-8.html, last visited on May 30, 2008.
④详细分析参见第五章第一节。
⑤参见大卫·考恩:《布什的谎言》,北京·东方出版社,2004年版,第114—148页,第231-266页。
①大卫·考恩:《布什的谎言》,北京·东方出版社,2004年版,第114页。
②鲍勃·伍德沃德:《布什的战争》(孙康琦译),上海译文出版社,2003年版。
③大卫·考恩:《布什的谎言》,北京·东方出版社,2004年版,第114—148页,第231-266页。
④Steve Perry,“The Bush Administration’s Top 40 Lies about War and Terrorism”, http://www.commondreams.org/views03/0730-06.htm, last visited on Mar. 1, 2008.
⑤转引自大卫·考恩:《布什的谎言》,北京·东方出版社,2004年版,第115页。
①彼得·卑尔根:《圣战组织──走进本·拉登的秘密世界》,转引自大卫·考恩:《布什的谎言》,北京·东方出版社,2004年版,第117页。
②National Strategy for Combating Terrorism, p.2, p.29.英文文本可以在白宫网站上找到。http://www.whitehouse.gov/nsc/nsct/2006/, last visited on Mar. 6, 2008.
①转引自大卫·考恩:《布什的谎言》,北京·东方出版社,2004年版,第131页。
②转引自大卫·考恩:《布什的谎言》,北京·东方出版社,2004年版,第134页。
①参见大卫·考恩:《布什的谎言》,北京·东方出版社,2004年版,第114—148页,第231-266页。
②转引自大卫·考恩:《布什的谎言》,北京·东方出版社,2004年版,第174页。
③“President Delivers‘State of the Union’”, http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2003/01/print/20030128-19.html, last visited on Mar. 8, 2008.
④“President Bush Outlines Iraqi Threat”, http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2002/10/20021007-8.html, last visited on Mar. 11, 2008.
①“President Delivers‘State of the Union’”, http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2003/01/print/20030128-19.html, last visited on Mar. 8, 2008.
②《旧金山纪事报》,2002年9月20日,转引自张善明、袁秀凡:《美国的贪欲──对世界的警示》,北京·经济管理出版社,2004年版,第142页。
③“Complete 9/11 Commission Report”可以在http://www.9-11commission.gov/report/index.htm下载。
④“President George Bush Discusses Iraq in National Press Conference”, http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2003/03/20030306-8.html, last visited on May 30, 2008.
⑤“Complete 9/11 Commission Report”可以在http://www.9-11commission.gov/report/index.htm下载。
①“Nazi propaganda by Joseph Goebbels”, http://www.calvin.edu/academic/cas/gpa/goebmain.htm, last visited on May 30, 2008.
②Nancy Snow, Information War: American Propaganda, Free Speech and Opinion Control since 9-11, (New York: Seven Stories Press, 2003), p.61.
②参见邵文光:《美国政府与新闻媒体的关系》,载《国际新闻界》1998年5-6月刊,第28-33页。
④参见邵文光:《美国政府与新闻媒体的关系》,上引报刊,第28-33页。
①参见邵文光:《美国政府与新闻媒体的关系》,上引报刊,第28-33页。
②孙瑛、罗宇凡:《伊拉克战争中的美国传媒控制政策透视》,载《中山大学学报论丛》2006年第26卷第11期,第155页。
③“The US propaganda machine: Oh, what a lovely war,”http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/the-us-propaganda-machine-oh-what-a-lovely-war-472002.html, last visited on Apr. 7, 2008.
④“The US propaganda machine: Oh, what a lovely war,”http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/the-us-propaganda-machine-oh-what-a-lovely-war-472002.html, last visited on Apr. 7, 2008.
⑤Jeff Gerth,“Military's Information War Is Vast and Often Secretive,”New York Times, Dec. 11, 2005. http://www.nytimes.com/2005/12/11/politics/11propaganda.html, last visited on Apr. 11, 2008.
⑥Jeff Gerth,“Military's Information War Is Vast and Often Secretive,”New York Times, Dec. 11, 2005. http://www.nytimes.com/2005/12/11/politics/11propaganda.html, last visited on Apr. 11, 2008. Jeff Gerth,“Military's Information War Is Vast and Often Secretive,”New York Times, Dec. 11, 2005. http://www.nytimes.com/2005/12/11/politics/11propaganda.html, last visited on Apr. 11, 2008.
①Nancy Snow, p.48.
②Jeff Gerth,“Military's Information War Is Vast and Often Secretive,”New York Times, Dec. 11, 2005. http://www.nytimes.com/2005/12/11/politics/11propaganda.html, last visited on Apr. 11, 2008.
⑤James Dao & Eric Schmitt,“Pentagon Readies Efforts to Sway Sentiment Abroad,”New York Times, Feb. 19, 2002. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9c06efd71f3ff93aa25751c0a9649c8b63, last visited on Apr.12, 2008.
①“The Truth About Jessica,”The Guardian, Thursday May 15, 2003, special report.
②Nancy Snow, p.46.
③转引自Source Watch Encyclopedia, http://www.sourcewatch.org/index.php?title=Jessica_Lynch, last visited on Apr. 12, 1008.
①参见美国国防部网站,http://www.defenselink.mil/news/Feb2003/d20030228pag.pdf, last visited on Mar. 20, 2008.
③孙瑛、罗宇凡:《伊拉克战争中的美国传媒控制政策透视》,载《中山大学学报论丛》2006年第26卷第11期,第156-157页。
④孙瑛、罗宇凡:《伊拉克战争中的美国传媒控制政策透视》,上引报刊,第156-157页。
⑤David Hoffman,“Beyond Public Diplomacy,”Foreign Affairs, Vol. 81, No. 2, March/April 2002, p.1.
①Nancy Snow, p.47.
②罗伯特·海曼等:《公平报道的美国经验》(郭虹等译),汕头大学出版社,2003年版,第8页。
③五个w包括where, when, who, what, why。
④参见[美]新闻自由委员会:《一个自由而负责的新闻界》(展江等译),北京·中国人民大学出版社,2004年版。
①张志君:《美国媒体自由的本质》,载《电视研究》2003年第六期,第27页。
②Michael Massing,“Now They Tell Us,”http://www.nybooks.com/articles/16922, last visited on Mar. 28, 2008.
③Nancy Snow, p.47.
①商娜红:《制度视野中的媒介伦理:职业主义与英美新闻自律》,济南·山东人民出版社,2006年版,第182页。
②毕竟、范旭:《从福克斯现象看美国媒体偏见》,载《当代传播》2005年第1期。
③Nancy Snow, p.40.
①陈小枚:《论<纽约时报>的新闻平衡──以2003年美伊战争专题报道为例》,载《广州大学学报(社会科学版)》2004年第3卷,第29页。
②陈小枚:《论<纽约时报>的新闻平衡──以2003年美伊战争专题报道为例》,上引报刊,第29页。
①陈小枚:《论<纽约时报>的新闻平衡──以2003年美伊战争专题报道为例》,上引报刊,第29页。
②From the editors,“The Times and Iraq: A Sample of the Coverage”, New York Times, May 26, 2004, http://www.nytimes.com/ref/international/middleeast/20040526CRITIQUE.html, last visited on Apr. 4, 2004.
③陈小枚:《论<纽约时报>的新闻平衡──以2003年美伊战争专题报道为例》,上引报刊,第28页。
①Franklin Foer,“The Source of the Trouble”, New York Magazine, http://www.nymag.com/nymetro/news/media/features/9226/index.html, last visited on Apr. 4, 2008.
②Katharine Q. Seelye,“Times and Reporter Reach Agreement on Her Departure”, New York Times, Nov. 9, 2005, http://www.nytimes.com/2005/11/09/business/09cnd-miller.html, last visited on Apr. 2, 2008.
③Franklin Foer,“The Source of the Trouble”, New York Magazine, http://www.nymag.com/nymetro/news/media/features/9226/index.html, last visited on Apr. 4, 2008.
④Judith Miller,“AFTEREFFECTS: ILLICIT ARMS; U.S. Aides Say Iraqi Truck Could Be a Germ-War Lab,”New York Times, May 8, 2003, http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9A02E5DE163FF93BA35756C0A9659C8B63, last visited on Mar. 29, 2008.
⑤Judith Miller,“AFTEREFFECTS: THE HUNT FOR EVIDENCE; Trailer is a Mobile Lab Capable of Turning Out Bioweapons, a Team Says,”New York Times, May 11, 2003, http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9A02E5DE163FF93BA35756C0A9659C8B63, last visited on Mar. 29, 2008.
①Michael Massing,“Now They Tell Us,”The New York Review of Books, (Feb. 26, 2004), Vol. 51, No. 3. http://www.nybooks.com/articles/16922, last visited on Mar. 29, 2008.
②Judith Miller,“Judith Miller’s Farewell,”New York Times, Nov. 10, 2005, http://www.nytimes.com/2005/11/10/opinion/l10miller.html, last visited on Apr. 2, 2008.
③《华盛顿邮报》记者伍德沃德根据“神秘人物”提供的线索揭露了尼克松窃听民主党总部的丑闻。尽管受到美国法院的传讯,伍德沃德也没有透露线人的身份。这个秘密保守了30年,直到2005年才“深喉”才浮出水面,证实是联邦调查局的高级官员马克·菲尔特。
④覃里雯:《新闻业遭遇新时代下被利用的英雄们》,载中华人民共和国新闻出版总署网站,2005年8月2日, http://press.gapp.gov.cn/news/wen.php?val=news&aid=3013, last visited on Apr. 2, 2008.
⑤参见Russ Baker,“‘Scoops’and Truth at the Times,”The Nation (June 2003), http://www.thenation.com/doc/20030623/baker, last visited on Mar. 29, 2008.
①转引自Antony Loewenstein,“Engineering consent: The New York Times' role in promoting war on Iraq,”Sydney morning Herald (March 23, 2004), http://www.informationclearinghouse.info/article5931.htm, last visited on Mar. 29, 2008.
②转引自Franklin Foer,“The Source of the Trouble,”New York Magazine, http://www.nymag.com/nymetro/news/media/features/9226/index.html, last visited on Apr. 4, 2008.
③Thomas Friedman,“Because We Could,”New York Times, http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C00E2D91030F937A35755C0A9659C8B63, last visited on Mar. 27, 2008.
④转引自《今日美国》,http://www.usatoday.com/news/world/iraq/2003-05-30-wolfowitz-iraq_x.htm, last visited on Mar.27, 2008.
①Thomas L. Friedman,“A War for Oil? ,”New York Times, http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9802E4D91F3FF936A35752C0A9659C8B63, last visited on Mar. 27, 2008.
③Thomas Friedman,“Because We Could ,”New York Times, http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C00E2D91030F937A35755C0A9659C8B63, last visited on Mar. 27, 2008.
①Thomas L. Friedman,“A War for Oil? ,”New York Times, http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9802E4D91F3FF936A35752C0A9659C8B63, last visited on Mar. 27, 2008.
②Thomas Friedman,“Because We Could ,”New York Times, http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C00E2D91030F937A35755C0A9659C8B63, last visited on Mar. 27, 2008.
③Thomas L. Friedman,“‘Sodom’Hussein’s Iraq’,”New York Times, http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=990DE1D91038F932A35751C1A9649C8B63&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=2, last visited on Mar. 28, 2008.
①Thomas Friedman,“Because We Could ,”New York Times, http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C00E2D91030F937A35755C0A9659C8B63, last visited on Mar. 27, 2008.
②David Sanger & John O’Neil,“Political Season Opens With Focus on Security,”New York Times, Sept.5, 2006.
③转引自Robert Kagan,“It Wasn't Just Miller's Story ,”Washington Post, Oct. 25, 2005, P.A21. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/10/24/AR2005102401405.html, last visited on Apr. 4, 2008.
②Franklin Foer,“The Source of the Trouble,”New York Magazine, http://www.nymag.com/nymetro/news/media/features/9226/index.html, last visited on Apr. 4, 2008.
①Franklin Foer,“The Source of the Trouble,”New York Magazine, http://www.nymag.com/nymetro/news/media/features/9226/index.html, last visited on Apr. 4, 2008.
②Judith Miller,“Judith Miller’s Farewell,”New York Times, Nov. 10, 2005, http://www.nytimes.com/2005/11/10/opinion/l10miller.html, last visited on Apr. 2, 2008.
③From the editors,“The Times and Iraq,”New York Times, May 26, 2004, http://www.nytimes.com/2004/05/26/international/middleeast/26FTE_NOTE.html?ei=5007&en=94c17fcffad92ca9&ex=1400990400&partner=USERLAND&pagewanted=print&position=, last visited on Apr. 4, 2008.
②From the editors,“The Times and Iraq,”New York Times, May 26, 2004, http://www.nytimes.com/2004/05/26/international/middleeast/26FTE_NOTE.html?ei=5007&en=94c17fcffad92ca9&ex=1400990400&partner=USERLAND&pagewanted=print&position=, last visited on Apr. 4, 2008.
③尽管此前在很多媒体都出现了类似的“指控”,但是,因为威尔逊如他自己所说,是最后一个会见萨达姆的美国外交官,当年积极主张美国将萨达姆逐出科威特,还曾经担任老布什政府驻加蓬大使,在克林顿政府时期帮助国家安全委员会制定对非洲政策。尤其是曾经受命于2002年1月末向中央情报局调查尼日利亚是否向伊拉克出售铀。他还承认自己是很多“情报”中引用的“赴尼日利亚特别大使”。他声明自己的调查表明没有发现尼日利亚向伊拉克出售铀。但是,在2002年9月英国政府的《白皮书》中,英国政府用伊拉克试图向非洲购买铀来作为论证萨达姆拥有大规模杀伤性武器的例证。布什引用这种说法,反复指控伊拉克试图从非洲购买铀。参见Joseph C. Wilson 4th,“What I Didn’t Find in Africa,”New York Times, July 6, 2003, http://www.nytimes.com/2003/07/06/opinion/06WILS.html?ex=1372824000&en=6c6aeb1ce960dec0&ei=5007, last visited on Apr. 2, 2008.
①Michael Elliott,“So, What Went Wrong ,”Time ,Monday,Oct. 06,2003, http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1005814,00.html
②From the editors,“The Times and Iraq,”New York Times, May 26, 2004, http://www.nytimes.com/2004/05/26/international/middleeast/26FTE_NOTE.html?ei=5007&en=94c17fcffad92ca9&ex=1400990400&partner=USERLAND&pagewanted=print&position=, last visited on Apr. 4, 2008.
③From the editors,“The Times and Iraq: A Sample of the Coverage,”New York Times, May 26, 2004, http://www.nytimes.com/ref/international/middleeast/20040526CRITIQUE.html, last visited on Apr. 4, 2004.
①Barton Gellman,“U.S. Suspects Al Qaeda Got Nerve Agent From Iraqis Analysts: Chemical May Be VX, And Was Smuggled Via Turkey,”Washington Post, Dec. 12, 2002, Page A1. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/06/12/AR2006061200701.html, last visited on Mar. 31, 2008.
②Jack Shafer,“The Right To Be Wrong: And the elephant in the New York Times newsroom,”The Slate, April 28, 2004, http://www.slate.com/id/2099617/, last visited on Mar. 31, 2008.
③Michael Getler,“Here’s some news, but be careful,”Washington Post, Dec. 22, 2002, Page B06. http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn/A20351-2002Dec20?language=printer, last visited on Mar. 31, 2008.
④Barton Gellman,“Iraq's Arsenal Was Only on Paper: Since Gulf War, Nonconventional Weapons Never Got Past the Planning Stage,”Washington Post, Jan. 7, 2004, Page A01. http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn/A60340-2004Jan6?language=printer, last visited on Apr. 1, 2008.
①Seth Ackerman,“The most biased name in news,”Fair, July/August 2001, http://www.fair.org/index.php?page=1067, last visited on Apr. 12, 2008.
②参见美国议员Bernie Sanders的分析, http://bernie.house.gov/, last visited on Apr. 12, 2008.
③参见美国议员Bernie Sanders的分析, http://bernie.house.gov/, last visited on Apr. 12, 2008.
②关于福克斯的不实报道,参见“Fox News Channel Controversies,”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fox_News_Channel_controversies, last visited on April 23, 2009.
③Seth Ackerman,“The most biased name in news,”Fair, July/August 2001, http://www.fair.org/index.php?page=1067, last visited on Apr. 12, 2008.
②“Fox News Channel Controversies,”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fox_News_Channel_controversies, last visited on April 23, 2009.
③以下对福克斯新闻节目的分析参见美国议员Bernie Sanders的分析。http://bernie.house.gov/, last visited on Apr. 12, 2008.
①参见周小普:《全球化媒介的奇观:默多克新闻集团解读》,北京·中国社会科学出版社,2006年版。Scott Collins, Crazy Like a Fox: The Inside Story of How Fox News Beat CNN, (New York: Portfolio Hardcover, 2004).
②毕竟,范旭:《从福克斯现象看美国媒体偏见》,上引报刊,第44-46页。
③Michael Getler,“Here’s some news, but be careful,”Washington Post, Dec. 22, 2002, Page B06. http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn/A20351-2002Dec20?language=printer, last visited on Mar. 31, 2008.
①关于福克斯新闻频道的详细分析,参见“Fox News Channel Controversies,”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fox_News_Channel_controversies, last visited on April 23, 2009.
②参见Knowledge Network网站,http://www.knowledgenetworks.com/ganp/, last visited on Mar. 17, 2008.
③参见“Polls and Surveys,”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fox_News_Channel_controversies#Polls_and_surveys, last visited on April 23, 2009.
④Dana Milbank and Jim VandeHei ,“No Political Fallout for Bush on Weapons,”Washington Post Saturday, May 17, 2003; Page A01.
⑤“American popular opinion on invasion of Iraq,”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_popular_opinion_of_invasion_of_Iraq#March_2003,last visited on May 30, 2008.
①Megan Thee,“Poll: U.S. support for Iraq Invasion Inches Up,”New York Times, June 3 2008, http://thecaucus.blogs.nytimes.com/2007/07/23/poll-american-support-for-war-inches-up/, last visited on May 30.
②“Poll: Steady Support For Action Against Iraq”,Fox News,March 13, 2003 Http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,81023,00.html , last visited on May 20, 2008.
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丁一凡:《美国批判:自由帝国扩张的悖论》,北京出版社,2006年版。
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哈贝马斯:《包容他者》,上海人民出版社,2002年版。
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李慎之:《数量优势下的恐惧》,载《二十一世纪的忧思--李慎之文选(续一)》(香港:明报出版社,2003)。
理查德·克罗卡特:《反美主义与全球秩序》(陈平译),北京·新华出版社,2004年版。
刘国平:《美国民主制度输出》,北京·社会科学文献出版社,2006年版。
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罗伯特·海曼等:《公平报道的美国经验》(郭虹等译),汕头大学出版社,2003年版。
[美]新闻自由委员会:《一个自由而负责的新闻界》(展江等译),北京·中国人民大学出版社,2004年版。
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米歇尔·福柯[法]:《疯癫与文明》,(刘北成、杨远婴译),北京·生活·读书·新知出版社,2007年版。
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