汉森科学哲学思想研究
摘要
汉森是20世纪著名的美国科学哲学家。由于逻辑实证主义对观察和理论的分裂式讨论导致了在此问题上陷入困境。本文从逻辑实证主义的两个困难出发,逻辑实证主义的两个困难具体表现在：一是分析法造成观察和理论的对立；二是理论研究脱离科学史。汉森结合科学史的考察,对科学发现的模式进行了研究,他对观察和理论关系的解答是：观察渗透理论。这是一次哥白尼式的认识方法上的转变,从而开启了科学哲学历史学派研究的进路,汉森的名字也与“观察渗透理论”这一名词相联系了起来。
然而在对汉森的思想解读中存在着很多谬误,汉森的深层次的本真的科学哲学思想却并未被充分理解,有待澄清。本文首先力图展示一个汉森的思想全景,从汉森对观察、理论和发现的逻辑三个角度来进行详述。指出对汉森思想的全面理解应该把观察渗透理论和发现的逻辑结合起来。汉森认为观察渗透理论只是从具体观察出发,认为不存在“客观的”感觉材料。观察与观察者的背景理论与背景知识有极大的关系。并且汉森将溯因法作为其科学思想的工具和主要方法论。
在此基础上,介绍了科学心理学、科学认知学派、科学实践学派和国外学者马修·伦德对汉森的最新研究成果以及对汉森思想的转化延续,揭示出汉森思想的深度与广度,和时代意义。
科学认知学派把观察和理论问题转化为知觉和认知关系问题,以认知心理学和神经科学为依据,福多认为认识过程是一个心理信息模块加工的过程,而丘奇兰德则对福多的心理模块绝对性提出了反驳,认为视觉过程依赖更高的认知过程。两者各执一端,都具有片面性。对可观察的量和不可观察的量,科学认知到底是形式的还是非形式的应该辩证的看,不存在绝对的分界线。
科学实践哲学则把实践引入到观察和理论中来,倡导从传统的理论优位向实践优位进行转变。实践学派认为实验和理论的双螺旋生命之缠绕,才是科学实践的真实过程。
国外学者马修·伦德对汉森研究的最新成果。主要包括对观察概念的考察和发现逻辑的修正,如如可误性,路径多元化,受规则、程序引导等；认为类比在方法论上的启发性价值极高。
文章最后从哲学角度、语境论和方法论三个角度对汉森的科学哲学思想在现代的张力进行探讨。在哲学上梳理汉森对逻辑实证主义的承上,对历史学派的启下,以及对科学哲学历史学派的走向趋势做出了方向性的影响；同时指出汉森是一位语境论的先驱,已经在自觉的运用着语境论这一哲学概念；从方法论角度对汉森的溯因法模型特征,合理性以及溯因法的不足做出回应。
Norwood Russell Hanson is a famous American philosopher of science in20th century. The logical positivism's divisive discussion about observation and theory has led him trouble about the issue. Specifically, this article starts from two difficulties of logical positivism:first, the analysis method led to the opposition of observation and theory; second, the theory divorced from the history of science. Combining the examination of the history of science, Hansen made a research about the model of science discovery, and his answer about the relationship between observation and theory is:Theory-Laden. This is a Copernican change of recognizing method and opens a way for the school of history about science philosophy. Hansen's name also linked up with Theory-Landen.
However, the interpretation about Hansen's thoughts exists many mistakes, his deep-rooted philosophy of science has not been fully understood and need to be clarified. Firstly, in this article, we try to show a panoramic prospect about Hanson's thought, elaborate the thought from three aspects:observation, theory and the logic of discovery, and then conclude that a comprehensive understanding on the thought should combine Theory-Landen and the logic of discovery. Hanson thinks that Theory-Landen is just starting from the specific observation and there is no "objective" sense material, and observation is closely related with the observer's background theory and knowledge. Hansen considers abductive as his science thought's illustration tool and main methodology.
On this basis, I introduces scientific psychology, cognitive science school, school of scientific practice and foreign scholars Matthew Lund's latest research about Hanson, as well as the transformation and continuation about Hansen's thought, revealing the depth and breadth of thought Hanson' thought, and its significance.
Cognitive science school transfer the question about observation and theory to that about the relationship between perception and cognition,.Based on cognitive psychology and neuroscience, Fodor thinks that the process of cognition is a psychological process of processing information module, while Churchland refutes the absolute characteristics of Fodor's psychological model and thinks that the process of sight relies on more advanced process of acknowledge. Both at an end, have one-sidedness. As for the author in the article, observable and unobservable quantity amount, in the end is a form of cognitive science or non-dialectical form should look, there is no data on the boundary.
Philosophy of Scientific Practice put practice into observation and theory, it advocates change from the traditional theory-dominated to practice practice-dominated. School of practice thinks that experiments and theoretical practice the double helix of life wound, is the true process of scientific practice.
Foreign scholars Matthew Lund's latest research about Hanson includes the concept of study and observation discovery logic corrections such as fallibility, path diversity, by the rules, procedures, guidance, etc.; he thinks that analogy in the methodology enlightening high value.
Finally, from a philosophical point of view, Contextualism and Methodology, Hansen's philosophy of science in the modern tension were discussed. In philosophy, this article describes the logical positivism Hanson influence and impact on the historical school, and discuss his historical school of philosophy of science; article also pointed out that Hanson is a pioneer in the context of his has been in the context of self-conscious use of the philosophical concepts; Finally, from a methodological point of view, the author makes a respond to Hanson's model features of abductive method, rationality and the lack of abductive method.
然而在对汉森的思想解读中存在着很多谬误,汉森的深层次的本真的科学哲学思想却并未被充分理解,有待澄清。本文首先力图展示一个汉森的思想全景,从汉森对观察、理论和发现的逻辑三个角度来进行详述。指出对汉森思想的全面理解应该把观察渗透理论和发现的逻辑结合起来。汉森认为观察渗透理论只是从具体观察出发,认为不存在“客观的”感觉材料。观察与观察者的背景理论与背景知识有极大的关系。并且汉森将溯因法作为其科学思想的工具和主要方法论。
在此基础上,介绍了科学心理学、科学认知学派、科学实践学派和国外学者马修·伦德对汉森的最新研究成果以及对汉森思想的转化延续,揭示出汉森思想的深度与广度,和时代意义。
科学认知学派把观察和理论问题转化为知觉和认知关系问题,以认知心理学和神经科学为依据,福多认为认识过程是一个心理信息模块加工的过程,而丘奇兰德则对福多的心理模块绝对性提出了反驳,认为视觉过程依赖更高的认知过程。两者各执一端,都具有片面性。对可观察的量和不可观察的量,科学认知到底是形式的还是非形式的应该辩证的看,不存在绝对的分界线。
科学实践哲学则把实践引入到观察和理论中来,倡导从传统的理论优位向实践优位进行转变。实践学派认为实验和理论的双螺旋生命之缠绕,才是科学实践的真实过程。
国外学者马修·伦德对汉森研究的最新成果。主要包括对观察概念的考察和发现逻辑的修正,如如可误性,路径多元化,受规则、程序引导等；认为类比在方法论上的启发性价值极高。
文章最后从哲学角度、语境论和方法论三个角度对汉森的科学哲学思想在现代的张力进行探讨。在哲学上梳理汉森对逻辑实证主义的承上,对历史学派的启下,以及对科学哲学历史学派的走向趋势做出了方向性的影响；同时指出汉森是一位语境论的先驱,已经在自觉的运用着语境论这一哲学概念；从方法论角度对汉森的溯因法模型特征,合理性以及溯因法的不足做出回应。
Norwood Russell Hanson is a famous American philosopher of science in20th century. The logical positivism's divisive discussion about observation and theory has led him trouble about the issue. Specifically, this article starts from two difficulties of logical positivism:first, the analysis method led to the opposition of observation and theory; second, the theory divorced from the history of science. Combining the examination of the history of science, Hansen made a research about the model of science discovery, and his answer about the relationship between observation and theory is:Theory-Laden. This is a Copernican change of recognizing method and opens a way for the school of history about science philosophy. Hansen's name also linked up with Theory-Landen.
However, the interpretation about Hansen's thoughts exists many mistakes, his deep-rooted philosophy of science has not been fully understood and need to be clarified. Firstly, in this article, we try to show a panoramic prospect about Hanson's thought, elaborate the thought from three aspects:observation, theory and the logic of discovery, and then conclude that a comprehensive understanding on the thought should combine Theory-Landen and the logic of discovery. Hanson thinks that Theory-Landen is just starting from the specific observation and there is no "objective" sense material, and observation is closely related with the observer's background theory and knowledge. Hansen considers abductive as his science thought's illustration tool and main methodology.
On this basis, I introduces scientific psychology, cognitive science school, school of scientific practice and foreign scholars Matthew Lund's latest research about Hanson, as well as the transformation and continuation about Hansen's thought, revealing the depth and breadth of thought Hanson' thought, and its significance.
Cognitive science school transfer the question about observation and theory to that about the relationship between perception and cognition,.Based on cognitive psychology and neuroscience, Fodor thinks that the process of cognition is a psychological process of processing information module, while Churchland refutes the absolute characteristics of Fodor's psychological model and thinks that the process of sight relies on more advanced process of acknowledge. Both at an end, have one-sidedness. As for the author in the article, observable and unobservable quantity amount, in the end is a form of cognitive science or non-dialectical form should look, there is no data on the boundary.
Philosophy of Scientific Practice put practice into observation and theory, it advocates change from the traditional theory-dominated to practice practice-dominated. School of practice thinks that experiments and theoretical practice the double helix of life wound, is the true process of scientific practice.
Foreign scholars Matthew Lund's latest research about Hanson includes the concept of study and observation discovery logic corrections such as fallibility, path diversity, by the rules, procedures, guidance, etc.; he thinks that analogy in the methodology enlightening high value.
Finally, from a philosophical point of view, Contextualism and Methodology, Hansen's philosophy of science in the modern tension were discussed. In philosophy, this article describes the logical positivism Hanson influence and impact on the historical school, and discuss his historical school of philosophy of science; article also pointed out that Hanson is a pioneer in the context of his has been in the context of self-conscious use of the philosophical concepts; Finally, from a methodological point of view, the author makes a respond to Hanson's model features of abductive method, rationality and the lack of abductive method.
引文
① Hanson:History and Philosophy of Science in an Undergraduate Physics Course, Physics Today 8(1955):7.
② Hanson:History and Philosophy of Science in an Undergraduate Physics Course, Physics Today 8(1955):8.
① N.R.Hanson:Patterns of Discovery, Combridge at the university press,1958, p.2.
② 汉森同时精通科学理论、哲学、科学史,这在他那个时代算是空前的。更有甚者,汉森在音乐、绘画、飞行特技、拳击、掷铁饼以及投铅球这些互不搭界的圈子里也显示出了他卓越的才能。
① John Ziman:"Homage to Norwood Russell Hanson," in Proceedings of the Boston Colloquium for the Philosophy of science 1964-1966,ed,Robert S.Cohen and Marx W. Wartofsky (Dordrecht:Reidel,1967),p.XLII.
① 江天骥,《逻辑经验主义认识论》,武汉：武汉大学出版社,2006年,3-6页。
② Critical Praise for Matthew D. Lund:Observation, Discovery, and Scientific Change.
③ 这是哈雷写的《伊萨克牛顿与赞颂》。本文转引自[法]亚历山大.科瓦雷《牛顿研究》,北京大学出版社,2006年版,12页。
① N.R.Hanson:Patterns of Discovery,The Cambridge University Press,1958,P.71
② 江天骥：《逻辑经验主义认识论》,武汉大学出版社,2006年,23页。
① 李创同：《科学哲学思想的流变》,北京：高等教育出版社,2006年,149页。
② Norwood Russell Hanson:Patterns of Discovery, Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1965,p.1.
③ Norwood.Russell.Hanson:Perception and Discovery, California:Freeman, Cooper & Company,1969. P.15.
① Norwood.Russell.Hanson:Patterns of Discovery, The Cambridge University Press,1958.P.26.
② Norwood.Russell.Hanson:Patterns of Discovery, The Cambridge University Press,1958.P.27.
① Norwood.Russell.Hanson:Patterns of Discovery, The Cambridge University Press,1958,P.28.
② Norwood.Russell.Hanson:Patterns of Discovery, The Cambridge University Press,1958,P.28-29.
① Norwood.Russell.Hanson:Perception and Discovery, California:Freeman, Cooper & Company,1969.p10.
② Norwood.Russell.Hanson:Perception and Discovery, California:Freeman, Cooper & Company,1969. p9.
③ Norwood.Russell.Hanson:Perception and Discovery, California:Freeman, Cooper & Company,1969.p9.
Norwood.Russell.Hanson:Perception and Discovery, California:Freeman, Cooper & Company,1969, p3.
Norwood.Russell.Hanson:Perception and Discovery, California:Freeman, Cooper & Company,1969, p11.
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Norwood.Russell.Hanson:Perception and Discovery, California:Freeman, Cooper & Company,1969.p14.
① 李创同,《科学哲学思想的流变》,高等教育出版社,2006年,150页。
Norwood.Russell.Hanson:Patterns of Discovery, The Cambridge University Press,1958,P.71.
① 这里指玩牌中的叫主。
② Norwood.Russell.Hanson:Patterns of Discovery, The Cambridge University Press,1958,P.6.
③ Norwood.Russell.Hanson:Patterns of Discovery, The Cambridge University Press,1958.P.7.
① Norwood.Russell.Hanson:Patterns of Discovery, The Cambridge University Press,1958,P.30.
① Norwood.Russell.Hanson:Patterns of Discovery, The Cambridge University Press,1958,P.19.
① Norwood.Russell.Hanson:Patterns of Discovery, The Cambridge University Press,1958,P12.
② Norwood.Russell.Hanson:Patterns of Discovery, The Cambridge University Press,1958,P.31.
① Norwood.Russell.Hanson:Patterns of Discovery, The Cambridge University Press,1958,P.40.
② Norwood.Russell.Hanson:Patterns of Discovery, The Cambridge University Press,1958,P.64.
③ Norwood.Russell.Hanson:Patterns of Discovery, The Cambridge University Press,1958,P.60
④ Norwood.Russell.Hanson:Patterns of Discovery, The Cambridge University Press,1958,P.50.
① Norwood.Russell.Hanson:Patterns of Discovery, The Cambridge University Press,1958,P.54.
② Norwood.Russell.Hanson:Patterns of Discovery, The Cambridge University Press,1958,P.60.
① Norwood.Russell.Hanson:Patterns of Discovery, The Cambridge University Press,1958,P.70-71.
② Norwood.Russell.Hanson:Patterns of Discovery, The Cambridge University Press,1958,P.71-72.
① Hanson: Logical Positivism and the Interpretation of Scientific Theories, In Legacy of Logical Positivism,edited by Peter Achinstein and Stephen F.Barker,Baltimore:Johns Hopkins Press,1969.P82.
② 这些文章有：Logical Positivism and Interpretation of Scientific Theories以及两篇同名异质文章：A picture Theory of Theory Meaning。
① Hanson:Logical Positivism and the Interpretation of Scientific Theories, In Legacy of Logical Positivism,edited by Peter Achinstein and Stephen F.Barker,Baltimore:Johns Hopkins Press,1969.p.83.
① Reichenbach,H.:Experience and Prediction. Chicago, The University of Chicago Press,1938,P.403.
① Norwood.Russell.Hanson:Patterns of Discovery, The Cambridge University Press,1958,P86.
② Norwood.Russell.Hanson:Patterns of Discovery, The Cambridge University Press,1958.P86.
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② Norwood.Russell.Hanson:Patterns of Discovery, The Cambridge University Press,1958, p1.
③ Norwood.Russell.Hanson:Patterns of Discovery, The Cambridge University Press,1958, p8.
④ Norwood.Russell.Hanson:Patterns of Discovery, The Cambridge University Press,1958, p.6.
⑤ Norwood.Russell.Hanson:Patterns of Discovery, The Cambridge University Press,1958, p19.
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② Fodor. Jerry, Modularity of Mind,Cambridge,M.I.T.Press,1983.p38.
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① Anna Estany:The thesis of theory-laden observation in the light of cognitive psychology, Philosophy of Science,2001,P207.
② Anna Estany:The thesis of theory-laden observation in the light of cognitive psychology, Philosophy of Science,2001,P208.
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55.周燕,“理论渗透观察”论题的认知解读,自然辨证法研究,2008年1月.
② Hanson:History and Philosophy of Science in an Undergraduate Physics Course, Physics Today 8(1955):8.
① N.R.Hanson:Patterns of Discovery, Combridge at the university press,1958, p.2.
② 汉森同时精通科学理论、哲学、科学史,这在他那个时代算是空前的。更有甚者,汉森在音乐、绘画、飞行特技、拳击、掷铁饼以及投铅球这些互不搭界的圈子里也显示出了他卓越的才能。
① John Ziman:"Homage to Norwood Russell Hanson," in Proceedings of the Boston Colloquium for the Philosophy of science 1964-1966,ed,Robert S.Cohen and Marx W. Wartofsky (Dordrecht:Reidel,1967),p.XLII.
① 江天骥,《逻辑经验主义认识论》,武汉：武汉大学出版社,2006年,3-6页。
② Critical Praise for Matthew D. Lund:Observation, Discovery, and Scientific Change.
③ 这是哈雷写的《伊萨克牛顿与赞颂》。本文转引自[法]亚历山大.科瓦雷《牛顿研究》,北京大学出版社,2006年版,12页。
① N.R.Hanson:Patterns of Discovery,The Cambridge University Press,1958,P.71
② 江天骥：《逻辑经验主义认识论》,武汉大学出版社,2006年,23页。
① 李创同：《科学哲学思想的流变》,北京：高等教育出版社,2006年,149页。
② Norwood Russell Hanson:Patterns of Discovery, Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1965,p.1.
③ Norwood.Russell.Hanson:Perception and Discovery, California:Freeman, Cooper & Company,1969. P.15.
① Norwood.Russell.Hanson:Patterns of Discovery, The Cambridge University Press,1958.P.26.
② Norwood.Russell.Hanson:Patterns of Discovery, The Cambridge University Press,1958.P.27.
① Norwood.Russell.Hanson:Patterns of Discovery, The Cambridge University Press,1958,P.28.
② Norwood.Russell.Hanson:Patterns of Discovery, The Cambridge University Press,1958,P.28-29.
① Norwood.Russell.Hanson:Perception and Discovery, California:Freeman, Cooper & Company,1969.p10.
② Norwood.Russell.Hanson:Perception and Discovery, California:Freeman, Cooper & Company,1969. p9.
③ Norwood.Russell.Hanson:Perception and Discovery, California:Freeman, Cooper & Company,1969.p9.
Norwood.Russell.Hanson:Perception and Discovery, California:Freeman, Cooper & Company,1969, p3.
Norwood.Russell.Hanson:Perception and Discovery, California:Freeman, Cooper & Company,1969, p11.
[英]W.C.丹皮尔：科学史,李珩译,广西师范大学出版社,2001年,280页。
Norwood.Russell.Hanson:Perception and Discovery, California:Freeman, Cooper & Company,1969.p14.
① 李创同,《科学哲学思想的流变》,高等教育出版社,2006年,150页。
Norwood.Russell.Hanson:Patterns of Discovery, The Cambridge University Press,1958,P.71.
① 这里指玩牌中的叫主。
② Norwood.Russell.Hanson:Patterns of Discovery, The Cambridge University Press,1958,P.6.
③ Norwood.Russell.Hanson:Patterns of Discovery, The Cambridge University Press,1958.P.7.
① Norwood.Russell.Hanson:Patterns of Discovery, The Cambridge University Press,1958,P.30.
① Norwood.Russell.Hanson:Patterns of Discovery, The Cambridge University Press,1958,P.19.
① Norwood.Russell.Hanson:Patterns of Discovery, The Cambridge University Press,1958,P12.
② Norwood.Russell.Hanson:Patterns of Discovery, The Cambridge University Press,1958,P.31.
① Norwood.Russell.Hanson:Patterns of Discovery, The Cambridge University Press,1958,P.40.
② Norwood.Russell.Hanson:Patterns of Discovery, The Cambridge University Press,1958,P.64.
③ Norwood.Russell.Hanson:Patterns of Discovery, The Cambridge University Press,1958,P.60
④ Norwood.Russell.Hanson:Patterns of Discovery, The Cambridge University Press,1958,P.50.
① Norwood.Russell.Hanson:Patterns of Discovery, The Cambridge University Press,1958,P.54.
② Norwood.Russell.Hanson:Patterns of Discovery, The Cambridge University Press,1958,P.60.
① Norwood.Russell.Hanson:Patterns of Discovery, The Cambridge University Press,1958,P.70-71.
② Norwood.Russell.Hanson:Patterns of Discovery, The Cambridge University Press,1958,P.71-72.
① Hanson: Logical Positivism and the Interpretation of Scientific Theories, In Legacy of Logical Positivism,edited by Peter Achinstein and Stephen F.Barker,Baltimore:Johns Hopkins Press,1969.P82.
② 这些文章有：Logical Positivism and Interpretation of Scientific Theories以及两篇同名异质文章：A picture Theory of Theory Meaning。
① Hanson:Logical Positivism and the Interpretation of Scientific Theories, In Legacy of Logical Positivism,edited by Peter Achinstein and Stephen F.Barker,Baltimore:Johns Hopkins Press,1969.p.83.
① Reichenbach,H.:Experience and Prediction. Chicago, The University of Chicago Press,1938,P.403.
① Norwood.Russell.Hanson:Patterns of Discovery, The Cambridge University Press,1958,P86.
② Norwood.Russell.Hanson:Patterns of Discovery, The Cambridge University Press,1958.P86.
① 培根：《新工具》,许宝骙译,北京：商务印书馆,1984年,32页。
② Norwood.Russell.Hanson:Patterns of Discovery, The Cambridge University Press,1958, p1.
③ Norwood.Russell.Hanson:Patterns of Discovery, The Cambridge University Press,1958, p8.
④ Norwood.Russell.Hanson:Patterns of Discovery, The Cambridge University Press,1958, p.6.
⑤ Norwood.Russell.Hanson:Patterns of Discovery, The Cambridge University Press,1958, p19.
① J.A.福多：《心理模块性》,李丽译,华东师范大学出版社,2002年,45页。
② J.A.福多：《心理模块性》,李丽译,华东师范大学出版社,2002年,45-97页。
③ J.A.福多：《心理模块性》,李丽译,华东师范大学出版社,2002年,8页。
④ J.A.福多：《心理模块性》,李丽译,华东师范大学出版社,2002年,8页。
③ Anna Estany:The thesis of theory-laden observation in the light of cognitive psychology, Philosophy of Science P206.
① JA福多：《心理模块性》,李丽译,华东师范大学出版社,2002年,68页。
② Fodor. Jerry, Modularity of Mind,Cambridge,M.I.T.Press,1983.p38.
① Churchland. Paul M. (1989),A Neurocomputional Perspective. The Nature of Mind and the Structure of Science, Combridge.The MIT Press.P267.
② 保罗·M·丘奇兰德著：《科学实在论与心灵的可塑性》,中国人民大学出版社,2008年,2页。
① 保罗·M·丘奇兰德著：《科学实在论与心灵的可塑性》,北京：中国人民大学出版社,2008年,17页。
① Anna Estany:The thesis of theory-laden observation in the light of cognitive psychology, Philosophy of Science,2001,P207.
② Anna Estany:The thesis of theory-laden observation in the light of cognitive psychology, Philosophy of Science,2001,P208.
① Rao,Rajesh P.N and Dana H. Ballard(1995), "An active Vision Architecture Based on Iconic Representations",Artificial lntelligence,78:461-505.
① 卡尔纳普等：《科学哲学和科学方法论》,江天骥主编,华夏出版社,1990年,237页。
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① 江天骥主编：《科学哲学和科学方法论》,华夏出版社,1990年,237页。
② G. Maxwell, The ontological status of theoretical entities, Minnesota Studies in the Phliosophy of Science,1962,3:3-27.
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① 江天骥：《科学合理性：形式的还是非形式的?》载《自然辩证法研究》1986年第2期,18-19页。
① 江天骥：《科学合理性：形式的还是非形式的?》载《自然辩证法研究》1986年第2期,20页。
② 任晓明、桂起权：《非经典逻辑系统发生学研究——兼论逻辑哲学的中心问题》,南开大学出版社,2011年版,15页。
③ 桂起权：《当代数学哲学与逻辑哲学入门》,上海：华东师范大学出版社,1991年版,117-134页。
④ 玛格丽特·博登：《人工智能哲学》,上海：上海译文出版社,2001年,17页。
① 根据学者研究,科学实践学派可以分为三个进路,科学解释学、新实验主义和认知科学三条进路,认知科学已经在上一章讨论过了,本章不在纠缠,本章所论述的实践主要是在新实验主义者意义上来谈论。如果谈到实践也是在作为实验背景意义上来谈。
② 吴彤等著：复归科学实践——一种科学哲学的新反思,清华大学出版社,2010年。2页。
① [美]西奥多.夏兹金、卡琳.诺尔.塞蒂纳、[德]埃克·冯·萨维尼主编,当代理论的实践转向,苏州大学出版社,107页。
② 亚历山大·柯瓦雷著：从封闭世界到无限宇宙,北京大学出版社,2008年,前言。
③ 亚历山大·柯瓦雷著：牛顿研究,北京大学出版社,2003年。2页。
④ 吴彤等著：复归科学实践——一种科学哲学的新反思,清华大学出版社,2010年。290页。
① Norwood.Russell.Hanson:Patterns of Discovery, The Cambridge University Press,1958, p 20.
② 徐长福：论亚里士多德的实践概念——兼及与马克思实践思想的关联,吉林大学社会科学学报,2004年第一期,59页。
① [古希腊]亚里士多德著：廖申白译,尼各马可伦理学[M],北京：商务印书馆,2003,171。
① [克罗地亚]斯丹尔·勒拉斯著：科学与现代性——整体科学理论,商务印书馆,2011年,332页。
① [美]约瑟夫·劳斯著：知识与权力——走向科学的政治哲学,北京大学出版社,2004年,23-24页。
② [美]约瑟夫·劳斯著：知识与权力——走向科学的政治哲学,北京大学出版社,2004年,152页。
③ [加]伊恩·哈金著：表征与干预——自然科学哲学主题导论,科学出版社,2011年,127页。
① 吴彤：《复归科学实践——一种科学哲学的新反思》,北京：清华大学出版社,2010年版,15页。
① 江天骥：《当代西方科学哲学》,武汉大学出版社,2006年,294页.
① 罗文大学成立于1923年,位于南新泽西州中心地带格拉斯堡市,1992年实业家亨利·罗文为该校捐助一亿美金,他唯一的条件是打造一流的理工学院,所以1997年3月21日,该校更名为罗文大学。
② Hanson:"Observation and Interpretation," Voice of America Forum Lectures:Philosophy of Science Series 9.p.1
① Hanson:"Observation and Interpretation," Voice of America Forum Lectures:Philosophy of Science Series 9.p.1.
② Matthew. D.Lund:New Directions in Scientific Observation:Theories, Concepts,Objectivity and the Analogic of Discovery.Chicago:2004.p.35.
③ Matthew. D.Lund:New Directions in Scientific Observation:Theories, Concepts,Objectivity and the Analogic of Discovery.Chicago:2004.p35.
① Matthew D.Lund:Observation, Discovery, and Scientific Change, New York:Humanity Books,p.77.
① Israel Scheffler, Science and Subjectivity, Indianapolis:Hackett,1982,p.15.
② Matthew D.Lund:Observation, Discovery, and Scientific Change, New York:Humanity Books,p.79.
③ Matthew. D.Lund:New Directions in Scientific Observation:Theories, Concepts,Objectivity and the Analogic of Discovery. Chicago:2004.p.92.
① Hanson:Observation and Explanation:A Guide to the Philosophy of Science, New York:Harper & Row,1971,p.8.
② Matthew D.Lund:Observation, Discovery, and Scientific Change, New York:Humanity Books,p.80.
① Norwood.Russell.Hanson:Patterns of Discovery, The Cambridge University Press,1958,P.18-19.
② 张巨青主编；科学逻辑,吉林人民出版社,1984年,89页。
③ 张巨青主编：《科学逻辑》,吉林人民出版社,1984年,89页。
① Norwood.Russell.Hanson:Patterns of Discovery, The Cambridge University Press,1958,p.86.
② Norwood.Russell.Hanson:Perception and Discovery, California:Freeman, Cooper & Company,1969,p.138.
③ Norwood.Russell.Hanson:Perception and Discovery, California:Freeman, Cooper & Company,1969,p.20-21.
[美]R.K.莫顿著：科学社会学,鲁旭东,林聚任译,商务印书馆,2004年,365页。
① [美]R.K.莫顿著：科学社会学,鲁旭东,林聚任译,商务印书馆,2004年,365页。
② [美]R.K.莫顿著：科学社会学,鲁旭东,林聚任译,商务印书馆,2004年,376页。
③ Matthew D.Lund:Observation, Discovery, and Scientific Change, New York:Humanity Books,p.210.
① Matthew D.Lund:Observation. Discovery, and Scientific Change, New York:Humanity Books,p214.
① Norwood.Russell.Hanson:Patterns of Discovery, The Cambridge University Press,1958,p2.
① Norwood.Russell.Hanson:Is there a Logic of Discovery? In Current Issues in the Philosophy of Science, ed. Herbert Feigel and Grover Maxwell,p.30-31.
② Hanson:Is there a Logic of Discovery? P.31.
① Hanson:The Logic of Discovery, p.1077.
① Hanson:The Logic of Discovery,P.1079.
② Laudan, "Why was the Logic of Discovery Abandoned?" in Scientific Discovery,Logic, and Rationality, ed. Thomas Nickles,1980,pp.173-183.
① Matthew D. Lund:Observation, Discovery, and Scientific Change,2010, p.119.
① Matthew D. Lund:Observation, Discovery, and Scientific Change,2010, p.123.
① 迪昂：《物理学理论的目的和结构》,李醒民译,北京：华夏出版社,1999年,247页。
① S. Toulmin:Aspects of Science-Rediscoverying History in Encounter,36,January 1971,P.53转引于李创同著：《论库恩的沉浮》,上海人民出版社,2006年,p72-73页.
① A.F.查尔默斯著：《科学究竟是什么?》鲁旭东译,商务印书馆,2007年,4页。
② K. Popper, The Logic of Scientific Discovery, London:Hutchinso,1959,p.31.
③ T. Nickles (ed.),Scientific Discovery, Logic, and Rationality,Dorrecht:Kluwer,1980,p.173.
① [德]汉斯·波塞尔：科学：什么是科学?李文渊译,上海三联书店,2002年,93页。
② [英]伊姆雷·拉卡托斯：科学研究纲领方法论,兰征译,上海译文出版,2005年,5页。
① 托马斯·库恩.是发现的逻辑还是研究的心理学?伊姆雷·拉卡托斯,艾兰·马斯格雷夫著,周昌忠译：《批判与知识的增长》,华夏出版社,1987.1.
② 保罗·法伊尔阿本德著：反对方法,上海译文出版社,2007年,31页。
① 李创同：《论库恩的沉浮》,上海：上海人民出版社,44页。
② Hanson:"A Note on Kuhn's Method," Dialogue 4(1965):371-375.
③ Hanson:"A Note on Kuhn's Method,"p.371.
由库恩：《哥白尼的革命》,转引自李创同《论库恩的沉浮》,上海人民出版社,2006年版,34页。
① 郭贵春：语境论的魅力以及历史意义,2011年2月,2页。
② 魏屹东：语境论与科学哲学的重建(上),北京师范大学出版社,2012年9月,2页。
③ Norwood.Russell.Hanson:Patterns of Discovery, The Cambridge University Press,1958, p.18.
Norwood.Russell.Hanson:Patterns of Discovery, The Cambridge University Press,1958, p18.
① Norwood.Russell.Hanson:Patterns of Discovery, The Cambridge University Press,1958, p16-17.
② Norwood.Russell.Hanson:Patterns of Discovery, The Cambridge University Press,1958,p19.
③ Norwood.Russell.Hanson:Patterns of Discovery, The Cambridge University Press.1958,p59.
④ Norwood.Russell.Hanson:Patterns of Discovery, The Cambridge University Press,1958,p23.
⑤ Norwood.Russell.Hanson:Patterns of Discovery, The Cambridge University Press,1958,p.23.
⑥ Norwood.Russell.Hanson:Patterns of Discovery, The Cambridge University Press,1958,p.24.
⑦ Norwood.Russell.Hanson:Patterns of Discovery, The Cambridge University Press,1958,,p.21.
⑧ Norwood.Russell.Hanson:Patterns of Discovery, The Cambridge University Press,1958,p.21.
① Norwood.Russell.Hanson:Patterns of Discovery, The Cambridge University Press,1958,p.22.
② Norwood.Russell.Hanson:Patterns of Discovery, The Cambridge University Press,1958,p.22.
③ Norwood.Russell.Hanson:Patterns of Discovery, The Cambridge University Press,1958,p.22.
④ Norwood.Russell.Hanson:Patterns of Discovery, The Cambridge University Press,1958,p.86.
① 张大松主编：《科学思维的艺术》,北京：科学出版社,2008年,117页。
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① Norwood.Russell.Hanson:Patterns of Discovery, The Cambridge University Press,1958,p.90.
① 参见Achinstein,P.:1970,Inference to Scientific Laws.In R.H.Stuwer (ed.),Minnesota Studies in the Phlilosophy of Science,Vol.5.87-111. Achinstein,P.:1971,Law and Explanation. An Essay in The Philosophy of Science.Oxford:Clarendon Press. Achinstein,P.:1987.Scientific Discovery and Maxwell's Kinetic Theory, Philosophy of Science 54:409-434. Sami Paavola:Abduction As A Logic and Methodology of Discovery, Foundations of Science 9,2004.267-283.
② Sami Paavola:Abduction As A Logic and Methodology of Discovery, Foundations of Science 9,2004.269.
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① Peirce, C., S.,1931-1958, Collected Papers of Charles Sanders Peirce, vols.5, Hartshorne, C. and Weiss, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass.181.
② Sami Paavola:Abduction As A Logic and Methodology of Discovery, Foundations of Science 9.2004.272-273.
③ Barlow, D. R.:The Autobiography of Charles Darwin, St James's Place, London:Collins.1958.pp.118-119.
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