羊角月牙藻（Selenastrum capricornutum）对高环多环芳烃的降解行为研究
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摘要
多环芳烃（polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, PAHs）是环境中广泛分布的一类持久性有机污染物，具有致畸性、致突变性和致癌性。PAHs的环数越多，化学稳定性越强，毒性越大。微生物降解是环境中PAHs去除的最主要途径，主要包括细菌、真菌和微藻。目前，细菌和真菌对PAHs降解的相关研究较多，而微藻降解PAHs的研究还比较少。作为一类有效降解环境中PAHs的微生物，微藻受到人们越来越多的关注。羊角月牙藻（Selenastrum capricornutum）是一种淡水绿藻，因为其在环境中分布广泛、易于培养和具有降解PAHs的能力，成为本论文的研究对象。本文以羊角月牙藻对PAHs的降解为研究对象，研究重金属离子、光照条件等因素对PAHs吸附、降解和代谢的影响，同时研究了藻的活性成分、氧自由基的生成对PAHs降解的作用机制。本论文深入研究了羊角月牙藻对高环PAHs的降解行为，是对微生物降解PAHs的有力补充，为水环境中PAHs污染的生物修复提供理论与实践依据。主要研究成果如下：
1.对于低环的PAHs（芴、菲），重金属胁迫对PAHs的去除有显著的促进作用，在高浓度重金属（Cd2+：0.10mg L-1，Cu2+：1.0mg L-1，Ni2+：2.5mg L-1，Zn2+：1.0mg L-1）处理组中，经过7天的暴露后，培养基中高达99%的芴和89%的菲被去除。对于高环的PAHs（荧蒽、芘、苯并[a]芘），重金属对其在培养基中的去除效率没有影响。
2.重金属对芴的降解具有显著影响。随着重金属浓度的升高，9-芴酮和9-羟基芴的生成量逐渐升高，在高浓度重金属处理组中，9-羟基芴为主要代谢产物，占芴总代谢产物含量的92.4%。结果表明重金属诱导芴降解，是芴从水中去除的最主要原因。低浓度的重金属（Cd2+：0.05mg L-1，Cu2+：0.05mg L-1，Ni2+：0.5mg L-1，Zn2+：0.05mg L-1）促进菲的降解，单羟基菲的总生成量最高（8.78±0.87μg）。随着重金属浓度的升高，菲代谢产物的生成量反而有所下降，与高浓度重金属处理组中菲的最高去除率相反，推测菲进一步降解为1-羟基萘，因为1-羟基萘的生成量在高浓度重金属处理组中最高（3.33μg）,明显高于别的处理组（0.13-0.47μg）。因此，重金属的胁迫可以改变菲的降解途径。荧蒽、芘和苯并[a]芘这三种高环PAHs的代谢产物的种类及生成量，不受重金属胁迫的影响。
3.在活藻细胞中，黄光比白光更有利于PAHs的生物降解；在死藻细胞中，白光照射下的PAHs降解率显著高于黄光。在7种PAHs中，苯并[a]蒽和苯并[a]芘的光活性最强，在活藻与死藻细胞的处理中都有很高的降解率；苯并[b]荧蒽、苯并[k]荧蒽与茚苯[c, d]芘这3种PAHs在活藻中有很高的降解率，但是在死藻中几乎没有降解；二苯并[a, h]蒽和二萘嵌苯最稳定，难以被活藻和死藻细胞降解。除了苯并[b]荧蒽、苯并[k]荧蒽与茚苯[c, d]芘之外，其他PAHs在死藻细胞中的降解率均高于活藻细胞。
4.羊角月牙藻对苯并[a]芘（BaP）的降解效率高于小球藻（Chlorella sp.），经过七天的暴露，70.8%与27.6%的BaP分别被羊角月牙藻、小球藻的活藻细胞所降解；但是高达98.1%与100%的BaP分别被两者的死藻细胞所降解。死藻细胞比活藻细胞对BaP的降解效率更高，而且死藻细胞对BaP的高降解率与藻的种类无关，是由光照引起的光降解。BaP的降解效果与藻细胞的破坏程度相关，细胞破裂，胞内物质外泄是引起BaP降解的主要原因。从藻细胞中提取的叶绿素能促进BaP的降解，BaP在第4天的降解率为98%。表明叶绿素是死藻细胞中促进BaP降解的活性物质。121oC高温加热10min的叶绿素与光照分解的叶绿素依然能够促进BaP的降解，表明结构遭到破坏的叶绿素依然能起到光敏剂的作用。
5.在光照的条件下，羊角月牙藻的活藻与死藻细胞可以促进水中氧自由基的生成，本论文检测了羟基自由基与单线态氧在白光照射下的动态变化。死藻细胞培养基中的羟基自由基的生成量远高于活藻细胞，经过7天的光照，死藻细胞处理组中的羟基自由基含量比活藻细胞处理组高83.6%。单线态氧的生成也羟基自由基不同，其生成量显著高于羟基自由基，而且活藻细胞中单线态氧的的生成率高于死藻细胞。藻细胞催化生成的氧自由基会与BaP反应，导致检测到的自由基含量减少。氧自由基氧化性强，在水中与BaP反应，是死藻细胞促进BaP降解的原因。
6.羊角月牙藻对三环及四环的PAHs（芴、菲、荧蒽和芘）的代谢产物主要为单羟基化合物，对五环的BaP的主要代谢产物为双羟基化合物。说明羊角月牙藻细胞中既存在单加氧酶，也存在双加氧酶，对低环PAHs主要是采用单加氧酶系统进行代谢，对高环PAHs主要采用双加氧酶系统进行代谢。活藻细胞通过加氧酶系统对PAHs进行生物催化代谢，代谢产物为羟基类物质；死藻细胞中的叶绿素在光照下催化产生氧自由基，促进PAHs的光降解，降解产物为酮类和醌类物质。
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are a class of ubiquitous environmentalpersistent organic pollutants. They are demonstrated to be mutagenic, teratogenic andcarcinogenic. PAHs with high molecular weights are chemically stable and theirtoxicity increases with their molecular weights. Microbial degradation is the mainway to get rid of PAHs in the environment, including bacteria, fungi and microalgae.Studies on the degradation of PAHs have mainly focused on bacteria and fungi, withless attention on microalgae. As an effective PAHs degradation microorganism,microalgae attract increasing attentions. Selenastrum capricornutum, a freshwatergreen microalga, was selected as the research object because of its wide distribution inthe environment, easy cultivation and has PAHs degradation ability. The aim of theresearch was to study the degradation of PAHs by S. capricornutum, including theeffect of heavy metals and different light irradiations. According to the activeingredients, reactive oxygen species and metabolites of benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) by liveand dead algal cells, the PAHs degradation mechanism by S. capricornutum wereinvestigated. The degradation of high molecular weight PAHs by S. capricornutumwas thoroughly studied, it provided an effective complement to microbiological degradation of PAHs, and had the potential to bioremediation of PAHs-pollutedaquatic environment. The results of this study were summarized as follows:
1. For low molecular weight PAHs (fluorene and phenanthrene), heavy metaldosage posed a significant, positive effect on their removal, in the treatment of thehighest dose of heavy metals (HM3, Cd2+:0.10mg L-1, Cu2+:1.0mg L-1, Ni2+:2.5mgL-1, Zn2+:1.0mg L-1), with up to99%of fluorene and89%of phenanthrene wereremoved from the medium in7days, which was mainly due to the cellulardegradation induced by heavy metal stress. For high molecular weight PAHs(fluoranthene, pyrene and benzo[a]pyrene), the presence of heavy metals did notaffect the removal efficiency.
2. The addition of heavy metals had significant effect on the degradation offluorene. The metabolites of9-fluorenone and9-hydroxy fluorene were increasedwith the concentration of heavy metals. Exposure of the algal cells to the highest doseof heavy metals (HM3) resulted in the highest amounts of fluorene metabolites:9-hydroxy fluorene was the main metabolite, accounted for92.4%of total fluorenemetabolites. It was suggested that cellular degradation induced by heavy metals maybe the most important contributor to the degradation of fluorene. For phenanthrene,the low does of heavy metals (Cd2+:0.05mg L-1, Cu2+:0.05mg L-1, Ni2+:0.5mg L-1,Zn2+:0.05mg L-1) accelerated the degradation with highest level ofmonohydroxylated phenanthrene (8.78±0.87μg). Its removal was significantlyenhanced in HM3treatment but there was no corresponding increase in phenanthreneintermediates, implying that phenanthrene might have been further degraded to otherintermediates. One possible intermediate might be1-hydroxynaphthalene, which wasdetected in much higher quantity in HM3samples (3.33μg)) than in the other samples(0.13-0.47μg). The stress of heavy metals changed the degradation pathway ofphenanthrene. The metabolism of fluoranthene, pyrene and benzo[a]pyrene were notaffected by heavy metals.
3. Gold light irradiation was more effective on the biodegradation of theselected PAHs in live algal cells than white light irradiation, but white light was moreeffective on PAHs photodegradation in dead cells. The degradation efficiency of seven PAHs, as well as the difference between live and dead microalgal cells, wasPAH compound-dependent. benz[a]anthracene (BaA) and benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) werehighly transformed in both cells and dead cells, benzo[b]fluoranthene (BbF),benzo[k]fluoranthene (BkF) and indeno[1,2,3-c,d]pyrene (IP) were transformed onlyin live cells, while dibenzo[a,h]anthracene (DA) and benzo[g,h,i]perylene (BghiP)were the most stable and recalcitrant compounds with least degradation in either liveor dead cells. Besides of BbF, BkF and IP, the degradation of the other4PAHs in deadalgal cells were more effective than live cells.
4. Live cells of Chlorella sp. was less effective in degradation of BaP underwhite light irradiation, with only27.6%of BaP being degraded at Day7, than S.capricornutum which had70.8%of BaP degradation. The dead cells of both specieshad higher capabilities to transform BaP than live cells, and the degradationpercentages of BaP by S. capricornutum and Chlorella sp. were100%and98.1%,respectively at the end of7days of exposure. It suggested that the degradation of BaPin dead cells was photodegradation, which was algal species independent. BaPdegradation efficiency was correlative with the damage of algal cells. Hightemperature killed and freeze-thawed dead algal cells can promote thephotodegradation of BaP. The leakage of cellular contents from broken cells causedBaP degradation under irradiation. Chlorophyll extracted from algal cells canpromoted the degradation of BaP,98%of BaP was degraded on Day4, suggestingthat chlorophyll was the photodegradation active substance. Both the chlorophylldestroyed by heating in121oC for10min and irradiating under white light for4days,could also accelerate the BaP degradation, illustrating that chlorophyll with structuredestruction could still acted as photosensitizer.
5. Hydroxyl radical and singlet oxygen were generated in live and dead algalcells of S. capricornutum. The production of hydroxyl radical in dead algal cells was83.6%more than live cells after4days exposure. The production of singlet oxygenwas higher than hydroxyl radical, live algal cells were more effective to generatesinglet oxygen. The spiked of BaP would consume some reactive oxygen species,leading to the reduction of hydroxyl radical and singlet oxygen. Reactive oxygen species have strong oxidizability, reactived with BaP in aquatic environment.
6. For3-ring to4-ring PAHs (fluorene, phenanthren, fluoranthene and pyrene),most of the PAH metabolites by S. capricornutum were monohydroxylated PAHs. For5-ring PAH (BaP), dihydroxylated PAHs were the main metabolites. It was suggestedthat both monooxygenase and dioxygenase were existed in S. capricornutum. Themetabolism of low molecular weight PAHs was mianly by monooxygenase system,while via a dioxygenase pathway to metabolize high molecular weight PAHs. PAHshad biodegradation in live algal cell via oxygenase system, with hydroxylated PAHsas the main metabolites. PAHs had photodegradation in dead algal cells, the processwas that chlorophyll had photocatalytic generation of reactive oxygen species andthen had oxidation reaction with PAHs. The photodegradation products of PAHs wereketone and quinone compounds.
1.对于低环的PAHs（芴、菲），重金属胁迫对PAHs的去除有显著的促进作用，在高浓度重金属（Cd2+：0.10mg L-1，Cu2+：1.0mg L-1，Ni2+：2.5mg L-1，Zn2+：1.0mg L-1）处理组中，经过7天的暴露后，培养基中高达99%的芴和89%的菲被去除。对于高环的PAHs（荧蒽、芘、苯并[a]芘），重金属对其在培养基中的去除效率没有影响。
2.重金属对芴的降解具有显著影响。随着重金属浓度的升高，9-芴酮和9-羟基芴的生成量逐渐升高，在高浓度重金属处理组中，9-羟基芴为主要代谢产物，占芴总代谢产物含量的92.4%。结果表明重金属诱导芴降解，是芴从水中去除的最主要原因。低浓度的重金属（Cd2+：0.05mg L-1，Cu2+：0.05mg L-1，Ni2+：0.5mg L-1，Zn2+：0.05mg L-1）促进菲的降解，单羟基菲的总生成量最高（8.78±0.87μg）。随着重金属浓度的升高，菲代谢产物的生成量反而有所下降，与高浓度重金属处理组中菲的最高去除率相反，推测菲进一步降解为1-羟基萘，因为1-羟基萘的生成量在高浓度重金属处理组中最高（3.33μg）,明显高于别的处理组（0.13-0.47μg）。因此，重金属的胁迫可以改变菲的降解途径。荧蒽、芘和苯并[a]芘这三种高环PAHs的代谢产物的种类及生成量，不受重金属胁迫的影响。
3.在活藻细胞中，黄光比白光更有利于PAHs的生物降解；在死藻细胞中，白光照射下的PAHs降解率显著高于黄光。在7种PAHs中，苯并[a]蒽和苯并[a]芘的光活性最强，在活藻与死藻细胞的处理中都有很高的降解率；苯并[b]荧蒽、苯并[k]荧蒽与茚苯[c, d]芘这3种PAHs在活藻中有很高的降解率，但是在死藻中几乎没有降解；二苯并[a, h]蒽和二萘嵌苯最稳定，难以被活藻和死藻细胞降解。除了苯并[b]荧蒽、苯并[k]荧蒽与茚苯[c, d]芘之外，其他PAHs在死藻细胞中的降解率均高于活藻细胞。
4.羊角月牙藻对苯并[a]芘（BaP）的降解效率高于小球藻（Chlorella sp.），经过七天的暴露，70.8%与27.6%的BaP分别被羊角月牙藻、小球藻的活藻细胞所降解；但是高达98.1%与100%的BaP分别被两者的死藻细胞所降解。死藻细胞比活藻细胞对BaP的降解效率更高，而且死藻细胞对BaP的高降解率与藻的种类无关，是由光照引起的光降解。BaP的降解效果与藻细胞的破坏程度相关，细胞破裂，胞内物质外泄是引起BaP降解的主要原因。从藻细胞中提取的叶绿素能促进BaP的降解，BaP在第4天的降解率为98%。表明叶绿素是死藻细胞中促进BaP降解的活性物质。121oC高温加热10min的叶绿素与光照分解的叶绿素依然能够促进BaP的降解，表明结构遭到破坏的叶绿素依然能起到光敏剂的作用。
5.在光照的条件下，羊角月牙藻的活藻与死藻细胞可以促进水中氧自由基的生成，本论文检测了羟基自由基与单线态氧在白光照射下的动态变化。死藻细胞培养基中的羟基自由基的生成量远高于活藻细胞，经过7天的光照，死藻细胞处理组中的羟基自由基含量比活藻细胞处理组高83.6%。单线态氧的生成也羟基自由基不同，其生成量显著高于羟基自由基，而且活藻细胞中单线态氧的的生成率高于死藻细胞。藻细胞催化生成的氧自由基会与BaP反应，导致检测到的自由基含量减少。氧自由基氧化性强，在水中与BaP反应，是死藻细胞促进BaP降解的原因。
6.羊角月牙藻对三环及四环的PAHs（芴、菲、荧蒽和芘）的代谢产物主要为单羟基化合物，对五环的BaP的主要代谢产物为双羟基化合物。说明羊角月牙藻细胞中既存在单加氧酶，也存在双加氧酶，对低环PAHs主要是采用单加氧酶系统进行代谢，对高环PAHs主要采用双加氧酶系统进行代谢。活藻细胞通过加氧酶系统对PAHs进行生物催化代谢，代谢产物为羟基类物质；死藻细胞中的叶绿素在光照下催化产生氧自由基，促进PAHs的光降解，降解产物为酮类和醌类物质。
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are a class of ubiquitous environmentalpersistent organic pollutants. They are demonstrated to be mutagenic, teratogenic andcarcinogenic. PAHs with high molecular weights are chemically stable and theirtoxicity increases with their molecular weights. Microbial degradation is the mainway to get rid of PAHs in the environment, including bacteria, fungi and microalgae.Studies on the degradation of PAHs have mainly focused on bacteria and fungi, withless attention on microalgae. As an effective PAHs degradation microorganism,microalgae attract increasing attentions. Selenastrum capricornutum, a freshwatergreen microalga, was selected as the research object because of its wide distribution inthe environment, easy cultivation and has PAHs degradation ability. The aim of theresearch was to study the degradation of PAHs by S. capricornutum, including theeffect of heavy metals and different light irradiations. According to the activeingredients, reactive oxygen species and metabolites of benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) by liveand dead algal cells, the PAHs degradation mechanism by S. capricornutum wereinvestigated. The degradation of high molecular weight PAHs by S. capricornutumwas thoroughly studied, it provided an effective complement to microbiological degradation of PAHs, and had the potential to bioremediation of PAHs-pollutedaquatic environment. The results of this study were summarized as follows:
1. For low molecular weight PAHs (fluorene and phenanthrene), heavy metaldosage posed a significant, positive effect on their removal, in the treatment of thehighest dose of heavy metals (HM3, Cd2+:0.10mg L-1, Cu2+:1.0mg L-1, Ni2+:2.5mgL-1, Zn2+:1.0mg L-1), with up to99%of fluorene and89%of phenanthrene wereremoved from the medium in7days, which was mainly due to the cellulardegradation induced by heavy metal stress. For high molecular weight PAHs(fluoranthene, pyrene and benzo[a]pyrene), the presence of heavy metals did notaffect the removal efficiency.
2. The addition of heavy metals had significant effect on the degradation offluorene. The metabolites of9-fluorenone and9-hydroxy fluorene were increasedwith the concentration of heavy metals. Exposure of the algal cells to the highest doseof heavy metals (HM3) resulted in the highest amounts of fluorene metabolites:9-hydroxy fluorene was the main metabolite, accounted for92.4%of total fluorenemetabolites. It was suggested that cellular degradation induced by heavy metals maybe the most important contributor to the degradation of fluorene. For phenanthrene,the low does of heavy metals (Cd2+:0.05mg L-1, Cu2+:0.05mg L-1, Ni2+:0.5mg L-1,Zn2+:0.05mg L-1) accelerated the degradation with highest level ofmonohydroxylated phenanthrene (8.78±0.87μg). Its removal was significantlyenhanced in HM3treatment but there was no corresponding increase in phenanthreneintermediates, implying that phenanthrene might have been further degraded to otherintermediates. One possible intermediate might be1-hydroxynaphthalene, which wasdetected in much higher quantity in HM3samples (3.33μg)) than in the other samples(0.13-0.47μg). The stress of heavy metals changed the degradation pathway ofphenanthrene. The metabolism of fluoranthene, pyrene and benzo[a]pyrene were notaffected by heavy metals.
3. Gold light irradiation was more effective on the biodegradation of theselected PAHs in live algal cells than white light irradiation, but white light was moreeffective on PAHs photodegradation in dead cells. The degradation efficiency of seven PAHs, as well as the difference between live and dead microalgal cells, wasPAH compound-dependent. benz[a]anthracene (BaA) and benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) werehighly transformed in both cells and dead cells, benzo[b]fluoranthene (BbF),benzo[k]fluoranthene (BkF) and indeno[1,2,3-c,d]pyrene (IP) were transformed onlyin live cells, while dibenzo[a,h]anthracene (DA) and benzo[g,h,i]perylene (BghiP)were the most stable and recalcitrant compounds with least degradation in either liveor dead cells. Besides of BbF, BkF and IP, the degradation of the other4PAHs in deadalgal cells were more effective than live cells.
4. Live cells of Chlorella sp. was less effective in degradation of BaP underwhite light irradiation, with only27.6%of BaP being degraded at Day7, than S.capricornutum which had70.8%of BaP degradation. The dead cells of both specieshad higher capabilities to transform BaP than live cells, and the degradationpercentages of BaP by S. capricornutum and Chlorella sp. were100%and98.1%,respectively at the end of7days of exposure. It suggested that the degradation of BaPin dead cells was photodegradation, which was algal species independent. BaPdegradation efficiency was correlative with the damage of algal cells. Hightemperature killed and freeze-thawed dead algal cells can promote thephotodegradation of BaP. The leakage of cellular contents from broken cells causedBaP degradation under irradiation. Chlorophyll extracted from algal cells canpromoted the degradation of BaP,98%of BaP was degraded on Day4, suggestingthat chlorophyll was the photodegradation active substance. Both the chlorophylldestroyed by heating in121oC for10min and irradiating under white light for4days,could also accelerate the BaP degradation, illustrating that chlorophyll with structuredestruction could still acted as photosensitizer.
5. Hydroxyl radical and singlet oxygen were generated in live and dead algalcells of S. capricornutum. The production of hydroxyl radical in dead algal cells was83.6%more than live cells after4days exposure. The production of singlet oxygenwas higher than hydroxyl radical, live algal cells were more effective to generatesinglet oxygen. The spiked of BaP would consume some reactive oxygen species,leading to the reduction of hydroxyl radical and singlet oxygen. Reactive oxygen species have strong oxidizability, reactived with BaP in aquatic environment.
6. For3-ring to4-ring PAHs (fluorene, phenanthren, fluoranthene and pyrene),most of the PAH metabolites by S. capricornutum were monohydroxylated PAHs. For5-ring PAH (BaP), dihydroxylated PAHs were the main metabolites. It was suggestedthat both monooxygenase and dioxygenase were existed in S. capricornutum. Themetabolism of low molecular weight PAHs was mianly by monooxygenase system,while via a dioxygenase pathway to metabolize high molecular weight PAHs. PAHshad biodegradation in live algal cell via oxygenase system, with hydroxylated PAHsas the main metabolites. PAHs had photodegradation in dead algal cells, the processwas that chlorophyll had photocatalytic generation of reactive oxygen species andthen had oxidation reaction with PAHs. The photodegradation products of PAHs wereketone and quinone compounds.
引文
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