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中国区域能源经济与环境规制
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摘要
能源和环境是可持续发展的重要基础。随着经济的快速增长,能源发展和环境保护已经成为我国区域经济社会可持续发展能力建设的首要任务和基本目标。实证分析表明,我国区域能源发展与环境保护存在诸多问题:一是我国能源消费呈快速增加趋势,中长期经济的快速增长需要能源消费的较快增长,能源短缺特别是优质能源资源短缺问题严重。从区域来看,国内富能省区趋于减少,缺能区能源自给率下降。到2005年,全国富能省区已从上世纪80年代的12个减少为7个;缺能区能源自给率下降,能源主要消费地区,如广东、江苏、浙江、上海、北京的能源自给率已不足30%;我国泛珠江三角洲、环渤海和长江三角洲已成为全国主要缺能区。三片区域能源需求将近全国的一半,自给率仅40%,占全国缺能省区缺能总量的四分之三。二是能源价格不断上涨,以能源消费价值量计算的能源经济效率低下,区域能源—经济统筹协调发展面临挑战。三是以化石燃料为主的能源结构导致的环境安全问题严重。从区域看,近年来全国三大区域二氧化硫(SO_2)排放量均呈先降后升态势,人均SO_2排放量也呈先降后升态势。
     从这些基本问题出发,围绕我国能源与经济增长的关系、区域能源及其环境问题、能源与环境的可持续发展,在总量分析的基础上进行结构研究。分析了能源需求增长的主要影响因素以及能源价格较快上升对能源消费弹性和能源经济效率的影响,研究了主要缺能区的能源消费、区域能源经济效率以及环境影响,探讨了“双重红利”假设与能源税改革的关系以及能源开发利用中环境规制的经济激励制度。研究发现:(1)我国工业化水平的提高从长期来看有利于提高能源效率。(2)全国工业总规模的增长是工业能源需求增长的诱因,而能源利用效率因素发挥了主要的节能作用。相比之下,通过有目的地调整工业结构,逐步用能源节约型工业代替高耗能工业,实现结构性节能,效果还不显著。1995-2005年间,全国因工业结构调整所实现的能源节约量只相当于提高能源利用效率产生的节能量的3.3%。(3)从我国改革开放以来能源消费看,能源消费增长率的下降都导致了国民收入增长率更大幅度的下降,从而使能源消费弹性系数上升。(4)能源价格上涨会导致基于投入系数的能源经济效率的下降。(5)区域能源消费需求受人文发展差异、市场化水平等因素的影响:由于人文发展的差异,欠发达地区人均能源消费明显低于发达地区水平;而市场化水平的提高从长期来看是有利于提高能源效率的。(6)随着西、中、东部地区人均收入水平的增加,边际SO_2排放趋于缩小。(7)就针对能源消费过程中排放的污染物征收的环境税而言,“双重红利”假设为能源税改革提供了更为广阔的空间。
     以上实证研究表明,现阶段我国在重视整体能源发展对经济增长和环境的改变的同时,必须重视区域能源发展差异对经济和环境的影响。为解决区域能源及其环境问题,首先,可借鉴世界主要国家能源战略取向,通过促进经济一体化缩小区域发展差异,以有利于能源、经济和环境的可持续发展。其次,可通过经济激励制度和能源税改革,实施环境友好的能源战略,促进能源节约。
Energy and environment are important basis of sustainable development. As the economy growing up continually, China's regional development is facing a greater concrete challenge from its energy supply and environmental protection. In recent years, many changes have taken place. First, Fossil fuel based Energy production and consumption causes air pollution problems, Coal is the dominating energy source for China's industries, China's industries presently is the cause of widespread air pollution problems. But China coal consumption is increasing rapidly and substantially; in recent years, non-energy departments have increased their energy consumption level. Secondly, the number of provinces riched in energy has decreased and the energy self-sufficiency of regions lacked energy has droped. The three big engines (Pan-Zhujiang River Delta, Bohai Sea Rim and Yangtze River delta) demand one half of the national energy demand and their energy self- sufficiency is only 40 percent. Thirdly, the effects of China's air pollution reduces China's economic output. Particles in air is the main cause, but SO_2 also contributes, SO_2 emission is one of main factors badly influencing sustainable and healthy economic growth in China, improvement of high concentration SO_2 emission is evident, but low-concentration SO_2 emissions worsened. The regions affected by acid rain remained constant, but acidity has increased in some areas.
     Based on methods such as cointegration test, factor analysis, stochastic front production function, price index and input-output analysis, this paper discovered:(1) The industrialization help increase the energy efficiency in China.(2)The output growth is the mam cause of the growth of energy consumption in industry in China, but the increasing in energy using efficiency has played the main role in energy conservation.(3)There are inverse correlations between energy intensity and technical efficiency in the economy.(4)In mid-west area, the technical efficiency is low due to higher energy intensity.(5)Technical Choice Index has remarkable influence on energy intensity.(6)Regional energy demand level is influenced by human development level and the Index of Economic Freedom.(7)Cost-benefit analysis, integration between sciences and technology innovation, and perfect incentive ecological compensation don't exist in China so that environmental protection policies don't satisfy with conditions of perfect-implementation mechanism.
     Finally, this paper reviews the implementation status of air pollution policy, then gives policy suggestions to SO_2 policy after analyzing successful experience on air pollution reduction in developed countries. On the one hand, good practices show the goals of both air pollution reduction and economic growth could be achieved synchronously; on the other hand, it is a hard job to reduce SO_2 emission under current situation in China. Except optimization of economic and energy structure, policies should focus more on energy efficiency promotion. It is very important to extent environment investment, expand demand and encourage the development of environmental industry.
引文
版礼① 2004年我国农村非商品能源沼气、秸杆和薪柴消费量分别为 398.85 万吨标准煤(tcc)、14579.87万tce 和12043.45万tce,相当于当年全国能源统计资料中能源消费总量的13.93%。
    ② 多种能源的经济行为不尽相同。化石燃料(也称矿物燃料,主要指煤、石油、天然气)是世界能源结构的主体。在中国,化石燃料占能源需求量的90%以上。
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    ② ORANI-E 能源模型是以国际著名的澳大利亚莫纳什大学(Monash University)政策研究中心 (Centre of Policy Studies,简称 CoPS) 的可计算一般均衡分析(简称ORANI-CGE)模型为基础,在化石能源部门与电力部门作更进一步的细分(disaggregation).根据能源供需与环境经济等特征开发成功的单国模型,目前已广泛应用于澳大利亚能源政策的影响评估及温室气体减量政策工具的仿真分析。ORANI-E 能源模型除了可进行静态的分析比较之外,由于其包含 ORANI-F 动态预测的机制,所以也可用作动态预测的分析。
    ③ MESSAGE(the Model for Energy Supply Systems Alternative)模型是研究中长期能源系统规划、能源政策分析和情景发展的动态线性规划模型。研究方法主要是运筹学的线性规划理论和混合整数规划方法。SabineMessner 等研究了两个独立的模型自动联接的方法,并以MESSAGE-MACRO模型为例分析两种不同情景下,GDP、能源供应、需求和价格的变化。C.O.Wene 讨论并论证了宏观经济模型与系统工程模型联接的优越性,实践表明联接模型有助于更详尽的能源经济分析。
    ④ MAGICC(Model for the Assessment of Greenhouse gas Induced Climate Change)模型是评价气候影响模型(Tom Wigley, Sarah Raper, Mike Salmon and Tim Osborn,1987),是在 ESCAPE(the Evaluation of Strategies to Address Climate Change by Adapting to and Preventing Emissions)模型基础上发展起来的,主要是用来评价碳排放量、大气中碳的浓度、强制性减排对气候的影响。
    ⑤ 该模型的核心部分是 MEDEE-s 模型。它是建立在对一定时期内社会经济、人口、经济、技术的一系列假设基础上,通过对能源需求变化的仿真来预测各部门的能源需求,模型中把能源系统划分为工业、交通运输、居民消费、服务业和农业5个部门,现已被欧盟各成员国广泛应用于能源需求规划方面的研究。Bruno Lapillonne 应用 MEDEE 模型分3种情景预测美国1985~2000年的能源需求。Michael Messenger 应用MEDEE 模型研究了未来西欧能源消费结构和能源强度的改变主要是因为实际能源价格的上涨。B.Lapillonne等首先介绍了 MEDEE 模型的方法及其发展体系,然后应用 MEDEE 模型预测了未来的能源需求。O.Bahn等详细介绍了MEDEE模型在数学方法和对实际问题处理上的优越性。
    ① 该模型认为应从政策、规划的层次来协调能源发展与环境、经济的关系,并提供了一种解决此类问题的新决策手段和规划手段,通过评价使能源规划、能源政策替代方案、积累影响、附加影响、地区性或全球性影响以及非工程性影响可在早期的政策、规划阶段得到充分考虑。SEA 方法被认为是一种从政策、规划层次协调能源与环境、经济关系的决策方法。
    ② 该模型通过生产函数来描述能源消费、资金、劳动力和经济产出 GDP 的关系,模型的目标函数是寻求总的能源折现效用最大,模型最大的效用函数决定了一系列最优储备、投资、消费的结果。Yorgos E.Papatheodorou应用 MACRO 模型中的生产函数、能源需求函数以及能源价格分析了能源在希腊经济中的作用。
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    ① 即使一个国家的能源工业没有很多相互串谋的企业,但是如果世界市场存在的不完全性把价格提高到竞争价格水平之上,那么它的能源产区也会得到垄断租金。一个国家的能源产区可以分享由国外卡特尔或扭曲的政策所产生的垄断利润。对于一个拥有能源资源的个人来说,能源租金可能是他所能得到的收入中的很重要的一部分。
    ② 这些直接影响可能纯粹是理论假设,因为如果消费者和生产者都很快作出调整的话,那么这个直接影响是很短暂的。
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    ① 生态税(Ecological Tax),也称为“绿色税收” (Green Tax),和以往所说的环境税意思基本相同,是近几年使用较为频繁的词汇。
    ② 碳税的研究主要可分为下列几项,碳税取代扭曲性租税研究 (Ballard et al, 1985;Whalley and Wigle,1990;Jorgenson and Yun, 1990;Shan and Larsen, 1992;Nordhaus, 1993);最适碳税研究(Nordhaus, 1991,1992;Cline, 1992;Falk and Mendelsohn, 1993;Nordhaus, 1993);碳税对经济影响研究(Agostini et al, 1992;Proost et al, 1992;Manne and Richels, 1992;Jorgenson and Wilcoxen, 1995;Ekins, 1994;Smith et al,1995);跨期一般均衡模型(Goulder, 1995);碳税循环利用(Jorgenson and Wilcoxen, 1995;Jaeger, 1995);能源与劳动之间替代弹性(Welsch, 1996)与二阶段利益(secondary benefit)(Ayres and Walter, 1991) .
    ③ Bosello, F., C. Carraro, and M. Galeotti.The Double Dividend Issue: Modeling Strategies and Empirical Findings. FEEM Discussion Paper No. 81.98, December 1998.
    ④ Christiansen, V. "Green Taxes " A Note on the Double Dividend and the Optimum Tax Rate.CES Working Paper, 1996.No. 107. University of Munich.
    ⑤ 生态税的内容主要包括:1)能源税,包括能源消费税和能源—环境税;2)各种排污税和废品税;3)资源税—在使用水、土地、森林以及野生动植物等各种自然资源时征收的税种。
    ① 史丹,我国能源经济的总体特征、问题及对策.中国社会科学院经济学部《中国经济研究报告》,2007,1.
    ①“十五”时期是我国电力供需关系较为紧张的一个时期,对经济发展尤其是对一些能源资源匮乏、经济发展水平较高的地区的经济发展造成较大的负面影响。例如,2003年华东电网全年拉闸限电损失电量达到42.6亿千瓦时,上海电网缺口约为200万千瓦,江苏错峰让电达到389万千瓦。江苏省特别是苏州和无锡己出现全年性、持续性缺电。浙江是全国缺电最为严重的省份,拉限电达到35.85万条次,损失电量34.09亿千瓦时,在错峰让电140万千瓦的情况下,电力缺口仍然较大。其他地区缺电虽然没有华东地区那么严重,但是也出现拉闸限电的现象。如华中电网(含川渝)拉闸7.14万条次,限电5.93亿千瓦时。
    ② 史丹.我国能源经济的总体特征、问题及对策.中国社会科学院经济学部《中国经济研究报告》,2007.1.
    ③ 改革开放以来,中国能源消费弹性系数在长达15年(1978~2002)的时间里稳定在1以下(1981、1997、1998
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    ① 除西藏外,2005年西部11省能源消费占全国的23.71%。
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    ② 李国璋教授(1995)的软投入理论认为,软投入即非物质形态的投入,包括综合政策投入、综合科技投入和劳动者积极性投入三大类,其中,科技投入和教育投入以及管理投入中用科技手段进行管理的部分属于科技型软投入,体制和政策投入、劳动者积极性投入以及管理投入中不属于科技型的那部分属于非科技型软投入;软投入作用于硬投入(各种物质投入)就形成了投入组合;投入组合的质量是由软投入的质量决定的,即在硬投入数量不变的情况下,产出的数量是由软投入的质量决定的:综合政策投入、综合科技投入和劳动者积极性投入是产出的放大器,其中,综合政策投入是最重要的放大器。增加软投入可提高经济效率,减少产出缺失。
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