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贵族与宪法
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摘要
瑞典是西方发达国家之一,有独特而发达的宪法和宪政制度,但目前各国对瑞典宪法史研究的角度、深度和广度尚有待拓宽。本文认为,瑞典贵族对瑞典宪法的产生和发展发挥了决定性的、巨大的和非常积极的推动性作用。
     古代瑞典人奉行日耳曼原始民主制,国王由上层贵族选举产生,贵族势力强大,通过与国王达成契约,在政治、军事、行政、经济等各方面与王权分享国家统治权。但在同时,贵族亦努力维护王权的存续,以昭示王权与贵族在国家权力结构中应该共存以及王权应受到贵族制约的原则。在这种背景下,瑞典历史上王权的产生及统治并非依赖于王的武力征服。王权自其肇始即为贵族集团出于统治需要而主动设置和努力维护的象征性权力机构。这为后来瑞典的贵族等级能够长期而有效地制约王权提供了观念和制度基础。在这些基础上,瑞典逐渐产生了以“亭”为代表的各类地方自治机构和区域,并由此演化出地方性和全国性议会,且这些议会由具有实力的贵族把持和主导。因此,无论从瑞典王权产生的原因和产生的方式的角度观之,还是从瑞典王权产生后参与国家权力运行的范围和程度的角度来审视,瑞典的王权其实在国家权力机构的设置理念、组织构成以及权力的实施这三个层面,都直接或间接地受到贵族的有力制约。这种国家权力的构成模式,实质上是一种二元化模式的国家权力机构——即贵族和王权并存且互相制约的权力构成机制。
     在上述基础上,瑞典早在12世纪就出现了旨在昭示王权和贵族等级之间平等性的、契约性关系的宪法性文件,并在此后陆续出现了其他类似的法律文件,包括《韦斯特耶特兰法》、《兰德斯拉法》、《卡尔玛条约》、《克里斯托弗法》、《哈尔姆斯塔德条约》、《佛斯特罗斯条例》等。瑞典贵族通过这些法律文件,逐步在国家政治生活中确立起贵族必须而且能够与王权分享国家统治权的原则和观念。当然,在这一时期以及此后的时期不时出现过王权专制。然而,瑞典贵族并未采取推翻王权的手段来达到其分享政权的目的,而是通过与王权持续性的博弈、妥协甚至合作,使贵族在国家统治结构中的地位和作用不断得到认可和强化,从而推动了1634年宪法和1720年宪法的出现,使瑞典于18世纪早期进入完全在贵族主导下的、议会主义的“自由时代”时代,结果是瑞典贵族的统治能力及实力达到了历史上最强盛的时期。然而,极端的议会主义最终导致物极必反的效果,导致18世纪晚期的瑞典出现君主专制。但是,正是由于君主专制的出现及其与贵族自古所推崇的立宪主义的冲突,接下来又导致了瑞典1809年的贵族政变以及在贵族的领导下制定了瑞典第一部现代化宪法——1809年宪法。在此后的1866年,在西方资产阶级革命的影响下,瑞典贵族又顺应大势,以和平的方式推动了贵族民主制向资产阶级民主制度的改革,为瑞典贵族在瑞典宪法史中所发挥的一系列不可磨灭的作用画上了圆满的句号。
     如果将瑞典、英国、德国和法国贵族与宪法的关系作一比较,我们可以看到,瑞典与英国的情形更为相似,即:在历史上,两国的贵族都与王权保持了一种动态的均势;贵族既是王权的维护者,同时又是王权的制衡者;贵族既努力保持自己的特权统治地位,同时又能够与时俱进,适时地团结甚至接纳新生的资产阶级力量来巩固自己的统治地位。在这一过程中,两国的贵族都在客观上发挥了社会矛盾缓冲地带的功能。其结果,就是在经过统治阶级的内部博弈和统治阶级与新生资产阶级的博弈后,最终确立了君主立宪政体。相对而言,法国和德国的情形却是两个极端。法国贵族因其相对于王权的明显式微和对资产阶级的敌视,导致其在资产阶级革命中上被淘汰出权力舞台,并因此导致极端革命性的资产阶级宪法的产生。而在德国,则是因长期以来其上层贵族在政治、军事方面相对于王权的绝对优势,导致德意志直到19世纪中期才出现由高度保守的上层贵族制定的、自上而下的全国性宪法,尽管这种宪法的发展史是和平而稳健的。
     通过上述的分析和比较,本文得出结论,认为瑞典贵族是瑞典宪法形成和发展的核心推动力。综合各方面考量,瑞典贵族与宪法的关系与英国贵族与宪法的关系最为相似,二者都既制约王权又兼具保王传统,且能够与王权保持长期动态而和平的博弈,这为两国皆发展出堪称为典范的宪法提供了最为重要的条件。
The present study of foreign constitutional history of China has been focusing on constitutional histories of major developd countries including the USA, the UK, Germany, France and Japan. The study of the constitutional history of non-mainstream developed countries, i.e., those not in the leading position in international politics, economy, military affairs and cultural affairs, e.g., Sweden, is not sufficient. However, this implies that there is a great space for the academic community to explore in this field. As such, the auhthor believes that the constitutional history of Sweden is worth studying.
     Being one of the developed western countries, Sweden has a unique constitution and constitutional system which are drawing increasing attention from the international academic community. This is attributable to the following main characteristics of the Swedish constitution:one, it has a time-honored history; two, its development has been continuous and steady; three, Sweden has a unique constitutional cultural; and four, the evolution of the Swedish constitution is rooted in a unique social structure. In the study, the author came to know that the main reason that the Swedish constitution has such characterirtics is that since the very ancient times Sweden has had a highly stable and powerful nobility class. The chronical strife between raoyalty and nobility is the basic reason of the above-mentioned characteristics of the Swedish constitutional history.
     The emergence of the royal power manifests a strong characteristic of the primitive Germanic democracy institution, i.e., the royalty was elected by the upper tier aristocrats. The aristocrats dominated the elections. In the Middle Ages, the demand of wars gave rise to Fralse, a privileged nobility class. Later, the Swedish nobility acquired growing powers in military, economic and political spheres. Eventually the nobility and the royalty arrived at a state of dynamic but constant check and balance with each other. The formation of such balance of power provided a foundation as well as basic conditions for the early emergence and steady evolution of Swedish constitutions, and enabled Swedish constitutions to mature and develop in the course of struggles bewteen nobility and royal power. During this process, the political tradition of maining royal power of the Swedish nobility safeguarded the existence of the royal power; in the mean time, the nobility also tried to assert its privileged position by mainitaining the royal power and the king election tradition. Such tradition secured that the conflict between the nobility and the royal power had always been kept within an appropriate extent, even when the nobility was an orligarchy and the royal power was rather weak. With such a political culture and in the context of such evolutionary process of the constitution, in1809the Swedish nobility promulgated the1809constitution which is both progressive and concervative. From then on the Swedish constitution was ranked in modern constitutions. Another character of the Swedish nobility is that they can always strike an appropriate balance between progress and conservatism. This directly led to the drastic but peaceful struggle between the nobility and other classes in1866. The result of this struggle was the adoption of the reform plan of the Swedish parliament and termination of the social hierarchical system. Sweden entered into the age of general sufferage and the era of modern democracy.
     Comparing the relations between the Swedish nobility and the Swedish constitutional history and that in the UK, Germany and France, one can see that there is a similarity between the case of Sweden and that of the UK. Specifically, in history both their nobilities maintained a dynamic balance of power with their royal powers. In such relations, the nobility acted both as a guardian and as a checker of the royal power; it tried to maintain its privileged status while also learning to collaborate with the newly emerging bourgeois clsess in order to reinfornce its ruling status. In this sense the nobility of these two coutries both served as a buffer zone for class conflict. As a result, in both countries constitutional democracy was established. The situations in France and Germany are two extremes. The French nobility was wiped out of the political arena of France due to its weakness before the royal power and its hostility toward the bourgeois class, hence resulting in a highly revolutionary and unstable constitution. In Germany, on the contrary, as a result of the nobility's lasting prevelance over the royalty in political and military aspects, the nobility class was highly conservative during the bourgeois revolutionary era in the19th century. As a result, only by mid-19th century did Germany promulgate a nationa-wide constitution under the dominance of the nobility.
     The conclusion of the author is that the Swedish nobility had played a pivotal role in the formation of Sweden's constitutional culsture and constitutional history.
引文
1Roger D. Congleton, Improving Democracy Through Constituional Reform-Some Swedish Lessons, Kluwer Academic Pusblishsers,2003, p.2.
    1邢来顺:《德国贵族文化史》,人民出版社,2006年,北京,第1页。
    2Philip Line, Kingship and State Formation in Sweden1130-1290, Birll, Leiden and Bodton,2007, p.45.
    1Guy Halsall, Warfare and Society in the Barbarian West,450-900, Routledge,2003, London, p.89, and N. Lund, If the Vikings Knew a Leding-What Was It Like? in Bjorn Ambrosiani and Helen Clarke (eds.), Developments around the Baltic and the North Sea in the Viking Age, Birka Studies3, Riksantikvarieambetet and Statens Historiska Museer, Stockholm,1994, pp.98-105, and Philip Line, Kingship and State Formation in Sweden1130-1290, Birll, Leiden and Bodton,2007, p.241etel.
    2尽管如此,莱顿制作为一种古已有之的税制的理论并不是没有反对者,参见Philip Line, Kingship and State Formation in Sweden1130-1290, Birll, Leiden and Bodton,2007, p.251.
    3Philip Line, Kingship and State Formation in Sweden1130-1290, Birll, Leiden and Bodton,2007, p.252.
    4Philip Line, Kingship and State Formation in Sweden1130-1290, Birll, Leiden and Bodton,2007, pp.254-255.
    5与雅尔意思相近的词语还有“赫提(Hertig)",意指军队首领,参见Philip Line, Kingship and State Formation in Sweden1130-1290, Birll, Leiden and Bodton,2007, p.184etel.
    1A. Schiick, Fran, Viby till Bjalbo:Studier I Sveriges historia under1100-talets senare halft, Fv.46,1951, P.214, andH. Fleetwood, Medeltida svenska kungasigill1-3, Stockholm,1947, pp.9-12.
    2Philip Line, Kingship and State Formation in Sweden1130-1290, Birll, Leiden and Bodton,2007, p.181.
    3Philip Line, Kingship and State Formation in Sweden1130-1290, Birll, Leiden and Bodton,2007, pp.182-183.
    4Philip Line, Kingship and State Formation in Sweden1130-1290, Birll, Leiden and Bodton,2007, pp.195-196.
    5David Abulafia (ed.), The New Cambridge Medieval History:Volume5, C.1198-C.1300, Cambridge University Press,1999, p.724andp.730.
    1Philip Line, Kingship and State Formation in Sweden1130-1290, Birll, Leiden and Bodton,2007, p.257etel.
    2一有说1280年前后,参见David Abulafia (ed.), The New Cambridge Medieval History:Volume5, C.1198-C.1300, Cambridge University Press,1999, p.730.
    3[英]梅特兰(Maitland, F.W.)等:《欧陆法律史概览》,屈文生等译,上海人民出版社,2008,第404页。
    4有学者认为,弗雷尔塞的出现并非意味着创造了一个阶级,而是界定了一个阶级,参见Birgit Sawyer and Peter Sawyer, Medieval Scandinavia from Conversion to Reformation, circa800-1500, University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, London,1993, p.96.
    5当时这一称谓所代表的阶级里的成员还包括教士。
    6Birgit Sawyer and Peter Sawyer, Medieval Scandinavia from Conversion to Reformation, circa800-1500, University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, London,1993, p.96.
    1[英]梅特兰(Maitland, F.W.)等:《欧陆法律史概览》,屈文生等译,上海人民出版社,2008,第408页。
    2Neander N. Cronholm, A History of Sweden, From the Earliest Times to the Present Day (Vol. I), Chicago, New York and London,1902, p.155.
    1Eli F. Heckscher, An Economic History of Sweden, Harvard University Press,1954, Cambridge, Massachusetts p.31.
    2Philip Line, Kingship and State Formation in Sweden1130-1290, Birll, Leiden and Bodton,2007, p.70.
    1Wikipedia, Swedish nobility, at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swedish_nobility, July10,2012.
    1Philip Line, Kingship and State Formation in Sweden1130-1290, Birll, Leiden and Bodton,2007, p.74.
    2Philip Line, Kingship and State Formation in Sweden1130-1290, Birll, Leiden and Bodton,2007, pp.74-75.
    3Philip Line, Kingship and State Formation in Sweden1130-1290, Birll, Leiden and Bodton,2007, p.73.
    4Philip Line, Kingship and State Formation in Sweden1130-1290, Birll, Leiden and Bodton,2007, p.180.
    1Philip Line, Kingship and State Formation in Sweden1130-1290, Birll, Leiden and Bodton,2007, p.185.
    2Philip Line, Kingship and State Formation in Sweden1130-1290, Birll, Leiden and Bodton,2007, p.187.
    1Eli F. Heckscher, An Economic History of Sweden, Harvard University Press,1954, Cambridge, Massachusetts, pp.36-38.
    1[英]霍布斯:《论公民》,应星、冯克利译,贵州人民出版社,2003,第19页。
    2[英]霍布斯:《论公民》,应星、冯克利译,贵州人民出版社,2003,第35页。
    1FranklinD. Scott, Sweden-the Nation's History, University of Minnesota Press,1977, p.58etseg.
    1Ivan Svalenius, Gustav Vasa, Wahlstrmom&Widstrand,1950, Stockholm, p.122.
    2FranklinD. Scott, Sweden-the Nation's History, University of Minnesota Press,1977, p.65.
    3谢维雁:(走向平衡的宪政),法律出版社,2007,第95页。
    1David Abulafia (ed.), The New Cambridge Medieval History:Volume5, C.1198-C.1300, Cambridge University Press,1999, p.730.
    2[瑞典]安德生:《瑞典史》,苏公隽译,商务印书馆,1963,第57页。
    3David Abulafia (ed.), The New Cambridge Medieval History:Volume5, c.1198-c.1300, Cambridge University Press,1999, pp.724and730.
    4David Abulafia (ed.), The New Cambridge Medieval History:Volume5, c.1198-c.1300, Cambridge University Press,1999, pp.724and731.
    1Elof Hellquist, Svensk Etymologisk ordbok1-2, C. W. K. Gleerups Forlag, Lund,1957, pp.496-498, and Peterson Lena, Svenskt runordsregister. Runron:Runologiska bidrag utgvna av Institutionen for nordiska sprak vid Uppsala universitet2, Uppsala,1994, p.28.
    2FranklinD. Scott, Sweden-the Nation's History, University of Minnesota Press,1977, p.25.
    1Richard Hall, Epxloring the World of the Vikings, Thames&Hudson, London,2007, p.33.
    2Neander Nicolas Cronholm, A History of Sweden, From the Earliest Times to the Present Day (Vol. I), Neander Nicolas Cronholm, Chicago, New York and London,1902, pp.28-29.
    1Birgit Sawyer and Peter Sawyer, Medieval Scandinavia from Conversion to Reformation, circa800-1500, University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, London,1993, p.84.
    2Birgit Sawyer and Peter Sawyer, Medieval Scandinavia from Conversion to Reformation, circa800-1500, University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, London,1993, pp.58-60.
    3Philip Line, Kingship and State Formation in Sweden1130-1290, Birll, Leiden and Bodton,2007, pp.201-202.
    1Byron J. Nordstrom, The History of Sweden, Greenwood Press, London,2002, p.26.
    2李秀清:《日尔曼法研究》,商务印书馆,2005,北京,第451-456页;何勤华主编:《外国法制史》,法律出版社,北京,2007年,第2页。
    3Paul Henri Mallet, Northern Antiquities:or, A Historical Account of The Manners, Customs, Religion and Laws, Maritime Expeditions and Discoveries, Language and Literature of the Ancient Scandinavians, translated by Bishop Percy, AMS Press, Inc.,1968, New York, pp.122-123.
    4Birgit Sawyer and Peter Sawyer, Medieval Scandinavia from Conversion to Reformation, circa800-1500, University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, London,1993, p.82.
    1何勤华主编:《外国法制史》,法律出版社,北京,2007年,第86页。
    2Birgit Sawyer and Peter Sawyer, Medieval Scandinavia from Conversion to Reformation, circa800-1500, University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, London,1993, p.82.
    3Peter Sawyer, Nar Sverige blev Sverige, Alingsas, Sweden, Viktoria Bokforlag,1991.
    1Birgit Sawyer and Peter Sawyer, Medieval Scandinavia from Conversion to Reformation, circa800-1500, University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, London,1993, P.89.
    2Eric Christiansen, Norsemen in the Viking Age, Wiley-Blackwell,2002, P.164.
    1Philip Line, Kingship and State Formation in Sweden1130-1290, Birll, Leiden and Bodton,2007, P.60.
    2不过,瑞典全国性疆域的永久性统一是在12世纪实现的,参见Birgit Sawyer and Peter Sawyer, Medieval Scandinavia from Conversion to Reformation, circa800-1500, University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, London,1993, p.90.
    3Birgit Sawyer and Peter Sawyer, Medieval Scandinavia from Conversion to Reformation, circa800-1500, University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, London,1993, p.90.
    4Birgit Sawyer and Peter Sawyer, Medieval Scandinavia from Conversion to Reformation, circa800-1500, University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, London,1993, p.101.
    5Philip Line, Kingship and State Formation in Sweden1130-1290, Birll, Leiden and Bodton,2007, p.275.
    1Philip Line, Kingship and State Formation in Sweden1130-1290, Birll, Leiden and Bodton,2007, p.51.
    2Byron J. Nordstrom, The History of Sweden, Greenwood Press, London,2002, p.26.
    1Stig Hadenius, The Riksdag in Focus-Swedish History in a Parlaimentary Perspective, Sveriges Riksdag,1997, p.23.
    3亦有称"Harad"或者"Hundred者,都是由联系紧密的部落或者家庭形成的规模较大的社区。
    4[英]梅特兰(Maitland, F.W.)等:《欧陆法律史概览》,屈文生等译,上海人民出版社,2008,第402页。
    1Stefan Brink, Law and Legal Customs in Viking Age Scandinavia, The Scandinavians from the Vendel Period to the Tenth Century-An Ethnographic Perspective, The Boydell Press Center for Interdisciplinary Research on Social Stress, Woodbridge,2002, p.91.
    2陈欣新:《宪政之鉴》,2008年,法律出版社,第98页。
    3Stig Hadenius, The Riksdag in Focus-Swedish History in a Parlaimentary Perspective, Sveriges Riksdag,1997, pp.23-24.
    4Birgit Sawyer and Peter Sawyer, Medieval Scandinavia from Conversion to Reformation, circa800-1500, University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, London,1993, p.98
    1Franklin D. Scott, Sweden-the Nation's History, University of Minnesota Press,1977, p.108.
    2Lotte Hedeagar, Iron Age Societies, From Tribe to State in Northern Europe,500BC to AD700, translated by John Hines, Blackwell Publishers, Oxford UK and Cambridge USA,1992, p.173.
    1[英]梅特兰(Maitland, F.W.)等:《欧陆法律史概览》,屈文生等译,上海人民出版社,2008,第404页。
    2[英]梅特兰(Maitland, F.W.)等:《欧陆法律史概览》,屈文生等译,上海人民出版社,2008,第407页。
    3早在930年,北欧的冰岛就出现了议会的早期形态,是一个进行审判和立法活动的机构。
    4在斯堪第纳维亚地区,这种代表早期议会组织形式的出现时间几乎与欧洲其他地方同时,参见Birgit Sawyer and Peter Sawyer, Medieval Scandinavia from Conversion to Reformation, circa800-1500, University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, London,1993, p.96.
    1Stig Hadenius, The Riksdag in Focus-Swedish History in a Parlaimentary Perspective, Sveriges Riksdag,1997, p.26.
    2Stig Hadenius, The Riksdag in Focus-Swedish History in a Parlaimentary Perspective, Sveriges Riksdag,1997, pp.30-31.
    2Neander N. Cronholm, A History of Sweden, From the Earliest Times to the Present Day (Vol. I), Chicago, New York and London,1902, p.104.
    1Neander N. Cronholm, A History of Sweden, From the Earliest Times to the Present Day (Vol. I), Chicago, New York and London,1902, p.116.
    1FranklinD. Scott, Sweden-the Nation's History, University of Minnesota Press,1977, p.30
    2Neander N. Cronholm, A History of Sweden, From the Earliest Times to the Present Day (Vol. I), Chicago, New York and London,1902, p.25.
    3“他们(指维京人)不以承担社会义务为耻,不惧道德上的禁忌,他们也不屑于经济上的富有和自己身体的安全。但他们有明晰的对错观念,且这种观念具有审美的特点。如果他们的所为可以成为趣味横生的故事加以叙述述,则对他们而言这种行为就是正确的和美好的”,参见Eric Linklater, The Ultimate Viking, Macmillan, London,1955, pp.8-11,63and124.
    4FranklinD. Scott, Sweden-the Nation's History, University of Minnesota Press,1977, p.31.
    1Neander N. Cronholm, A History of Sweden, From the Earliest Times to the Present Day (Vol. I), Chicago, New York and London,1902, p.22.
    2Neander N. Cronholm, A History of Sweden, From the Earliest Times to the Present Day (Vol. I), Chicago, New York and London,1902, pp.23-24.
    3[英]霍布斯:《论公民》,应星、冯克利译,贵州人民出版社,2003,第7页及以降。
    4[英]霍布斯:《论公民》,应星、冯克利译,贵州人民出版社,2003,第3页及以降。
    1[英]霍布斯:《利维坦》,黎思复、黎廷弼译,商务印书馆,1985,第132页。
    2[英]霍布斯:《论公民》,应星、冯克利译,贵州人民出版社,2003,第4页。
    3[英]霍布斯:《论公民》,应星、冯克利译,贵州人民出版社,2003,第7页。
    4[英]霍布斯:《论公民》,应星、冯克利译,贵州人民出版社,2003,第10页及以降。
    1[英]尼尔·肯特:《瑞典史》,吴英译,中国大百科全书出版社,北京,2010,第7页。
    2Eli F. Heckscher, An Economic History of Sweden, Harvard University Press,1954, Cambridge, Massachusetts, p.35.
    3Philip Line, Kingship and State Formation in Sweden1130-1290, Birll, Leiden and Bodton,2007, p.273.
    1Philip Line, Kingship and State Formation in Sweden1130-1290, Birll, Leiden and Bodton,2007, p.288etel.
    2J.W. Bernhardt, Itinerant Kindship and Royal Monasteries in Early Medieval Germany c.936-1075, Cambridge,1993, pp.60-64.
    3Philip Line, Kingship and State Formation in Sweden1130-1290, Birll, Leiden and Bodton,2007, p.289.
    4Philip Line, Kingship and State Formation in Sweden1130-1290, Birll, Leiden and Bodton,2007, p.268.
    5Henrik Schiick, Uppsala6d, Uppsala Universitets Arskrift,1914, pp.1-37.
    6Philip Line, Kingship and State Formation in Sweden1130-1290, Birll, Leiden and Bodton,2007, p.292.
    1Philip Line, Kingship and State Formation in Sweden1130-1290, Birll, Leiden and Bodton,2007, p.296.
    2Philip Line, Kingship and State Formation in Sweden1130-1290, Birll, Leiden and Bodton,2007, p.74.
    3Philip Line, Kingship and State Formation in Sweden1130-1290, Birll, Leiden and Bodton,2007, pp.74-75.
    4Philip Line, Kingship and State Formation in Sweden1130-1290, Birll, Leiden and Bodton,2007, p.73.
    5DubyG., France in the Middle Ages, Oxford,1991,980-1460, pp.199-204.
    1I. Lindquist, Vastgotalagens litterara bilagor:Medeltida svensk smaberat telsekonst pa poesi och prosa, Skrifter utgivna an Vetenskaps-Societeten i Lund26, Lund,1941, pp.55-60.
    2Neander N. Cronholm, A History of Sweden, From the Earliest Times to the Present Day (Vol. I), Chicago, New York and London,1902, pp.105-107.
    3关于托尼的介绍,参见Snorre Sturlason, Heimskringla, or The Lives of The Norse Kings, Dover Publications,1990, p.282etel.
    4Stig Hadenius, The Riksdag in Focus-Swedish History in a Parlaimentary Perspective, Sveriges Riksdag,1997, p.z7.
    1Birgit Sawyer and Peter Sawyer, Medieval Scandinavia from Conversion to Reformation, circa800-1500, University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, London,1993, p.49.
    2Birgit Sawyer and Peter Sawyer, Medieval Scandinavia from Conversion to Reformation, circa800-1500, University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, London,1993, p.50.
    3如早期的斯维兰可能同时存在不止一位国王或者根本没有国王的状态,所以可能一种具有互利关系的分散性权力结构更适合这种社会的存续和发展,参见Philip Line, Kingship and State Formation in Sweden1130-1290, Birll, Leiden and Bodton,2007, pp.53-54.
    4Birgit Sawyer and Peter Sawyer, Medieval Scandinavia from Conversion to Reformation, circa800-1500, University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, London,1993, p.38.
    5Peter Sawyer, Nar Sverige blev Sverige, Alingsas, Sweden, Viktoria Bokforlag,1991.
    6Byron J. Nordstrom, The History of Sweden, Greenwood Press, London,2002, p.26.
    3Stefan Brink, Law and Legal Customs in Viking Age Scandinavia, The Scandinavians from the Vendel Period to the Tenth Century an Ethnographic Perspective, The Boydell Press Center for Interdisciplinary Research on Social Stress San Marino, Woodbridge,2002, p.87,90and etel.
    4Neander N. Cronholm, A History of Sweden, From the Earliest Times to the Present Day (Vol. I), Chicago, New York and London,1902, p.125.
    1Neander N. Cronholm, A History of Sweden, From the Earliest Times to the Present Day (Vol. I), Chicago, New York and London,1902, p.29.
    2转引自白钢、林广华:《宪政通论》,社会科学文献出版社,2005,第51页。
    3Philip Line, Kingship and State Formation in Sweden1130-1290, Birll, Leiden and Bodton,2007, p.472.
    4在初期,这种民众大会的主要目的是宗教性质的,以对神的共同祭祀为基础,而与管理、法律和贸易有观点的问题也在这里讨论并作出决定,[英]尼尔·肯特:《瑞典史》,吴英译,中国大百科全书出版社,北京,2010,第5页。
    1Birgit Sawyer and Peter Sawyer, Medieval Scandinavia from Conversion to Reformation, circa800-1500, University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, London,1993, p.80.
    2Byron J. Nordstrom, The History of Sweden, Greenwood Press, London,2002, p.36.
    3Stig Hadenius, The Riksdag in Focus-Swedish History in a Parlaimentary Perspective, Sveriges Riksdag,1997, p.26.
    3Michael Jones (ed.), The New Cambridge Medieval History:Volume6, C.1300-C.1415, Cambridge University Press,2000, p.719.
    4Roger D. Congleton, Improving Democracy Through Constituional Reform-Some Swedish Lessons, Kluwer Academic Pusblishsers, ed., Dortrecht and London,2003, pp.2-3.
    1Philip Line, Kingship and State Formation in Sweden1130-1290, Birll, Leiden and Bodton,2007, pp.56-57.
    2Philip Line, Kingship and State Formation in Sweden1130-1290, Birll, Leiden and Bodton,2007, p.61.
    1Philip Line, Kingship and State Formation in Sweden1130-1290, Birll, Leiden and Bodton,2007, p.474.
    2Birgit Sawyer and Peter Sawyer, Medieval Scandinavia from Conversion to Reformation, circa800-1500, University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, London,1993, p.92.
    3Philip Line, Kingship and State Formation in Sweden1130-1290, Birll, Leiden and Bodton,2007, p.265.
    1David Luscombe and Jonathan Riley-Smith (ed.), The New Cambridge Medieval History:Volume5, C.1024-C.1198, Cambridge University Press,2004, p.503.
    2Wikipedia, Beowulf, at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beowulf, July15,2012.但也有观点认为《贝奥武夫》只是虚构的文学作品,因此不能作为历史研究的可靠证据,参见Philip Line, Kingship and State Formation in Sweden1130-1290, Birll, Leiden, andBodton,2007, P.45, R. T. FARRELL, BEOWULF, SWEDES AND GEATS. VIKING SOCIETY FOR NORTHERN RESEARCH, UNIVERSITY COLLEGE LONDON,1972, at http://vsnrweb-publications.org.uk/Beowulf%20Swedes%20andGeats.pdf, July15,2012, and Wikipedia, Beowulf, athttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beowulf#cite_note-Norton30-57, July15,2012.此外,也有观点认为《贝奥武夫》所记载的历史事件是事实与虚构的结合,参见Jerker Rosen, Svensk historia,1, Tidenfore,1718, Stockholm, Bonnier,1962, p.89; Elias Wessen, De nordiska folkstammarna I Beowulf, K. in vitterhets och antikvitets akademiens handlinger, Stockholm,1927, p.36; Bernice Grohskopf, The Treasure of Sutton Hoo, New York, Atheneum,1970; R. L. S. Bruce-Mitford, The Sutton-Hoo ship-burial, appendix to R. H. Hodgkin, History of the Anglo-Saxons,~(3)rd etal, Oxford, Clarendon,1952, pp.696-734.
    3尽管这部史诗是接受了基督教以后的盎格鲁——萨克森人所写,但这些盎格鲁—萨克森人中的大部分人原来信奉的宗教,是7世纪前后未受基督教影响的盎格鲁—萨克森原始宗教和北欧的本土宗教,后面这两种宗教信仰有着共同的渊源,即它们都是北欧日耳曼民族本来的宗教信仰。
    4M.H. Abrams, Stephen Greenblatt et el, The Norton Anthology of English Literature, Volume1:The Middle Ages through the Restoration and the Eighteenth Century, New York, W.W. Norton&Company,2006, p.30.
    5Birgit Sawyer and Peter Sawyer, Medieval Scandinavia from Conversion to Reformation, circa800-1500, University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, London,1993, p.39.
    1Lotte Hedeagar, Iron Age Societies, From Tribe to State in Northern Europe,500BC to AD700, translated by John Hines, Blackwell Publishers, Oxford UK and Cambridge USA,1992, p.173.
    1[瑞典]安德生:《瑞典史》,苏公隽译,商务印书馆,1963年版,第77页,以及Franklin D. Scott, Sweden-the Nation's History, University of Minnesota Press,1977, p.48.
    2当时,各省级区域或百户就其实相当于各个小国,由地方官(Hundekonger)管理。到13世纪下半叶,瑞典的统一程度提高了,其主要原因之一是军事领域的巨大变革:国王强化了自己的权力和地位,将立法权——这种早先属于地方(即“亭”)的权力——掌握在自己手中,但同时,国王也变得越来越依赖贵族来维持其城堡中的生活所需和提供国家武装力量。
    3二者皆为瑞典于13世纪早期出现的、经国王委任,由贵族担任的高级职务,分别相当于首席大法官和军队元帅,参见[瑞典]安德生:《瑞典史》,苏公隽译,商务印书馆,1963年版,第67页。
    4Philip Line, Kingship and State Formation in Sweden1130-1290, Birll, Leiden and Bodton,2007, p.190.
    1Roger D. Congleton, Improving Democracy Through Constituional Reform-Some Swedish Lessons, Kluwer Academic Pusblishsers, Boston, Dortrecht and London,2003, p.21.
    2[瑞典]安德生:《瑞典史》,苏公隽译,商务印书馆,1963年版,第61-62页,and Philip Line, Kingship and State Formationin Sweden1130-1290, Birll, Leiden and Bodton,2007, p.197.
    3PhiliLine认为这一传统的起源时间和形成过程尚无定论,Philip Line, Kingship and State Formation in Sweden1130-1290, Birll, Leiden and Bodton,2007, p.197.
    4Philip Line, Kingship and State Formation in Sweden1130-1290, Birll, Leiden and Bodton,2007, pp.199-200.
    5Philip Line, Kingship and State Formation in Sweden1130-1290, Birll, Leiden and Bodton,2007, p.198.
    6Philip Line, Kingship and State Formation in Sweden1130-1290, Birll, Leiden and Bodton,2007, p.200, E. Sjoholm, Sveriges medeltidslagar, Europisk rattstradition I politisk omvandling, Skrifter utgivna av Institutet for rattshistorisk forskning, Rattshistoriskt bibliotek41, Lund,1988, J. A. Hellstrom, Biskop och landskapssamhalle i tidig svensk medeltid, Skrifter utgivna av Institutet for rattshistorisk forskning, Serien I, Rattshistoriskt bibliotek16, Stockholm, pp.245-254, and E. Lonnroth, De akta folkungarnas program, nytr. i Fran svensk medeltid, Stockholm,1959, p.20.
    2Stig Hadenius, The Riksdag in Focus-Swedish History in a Parlaimentary Perspective, Sveriges Riksdag,1997, pp.25-26.
    1Michael Jones (ed.), The New Cambridge Medieval History:Volume6, C.1300-C.1415, Cambridge University Press,1st edition,2000, p.719.亦有称为《特权法案》(Letter of Priviledge)者,参见Roger D. Congleton, Improving Democracy Through Constituional Reform-Some Swedish Lessons, Kluwer Academic Pusblishsers, Boston, Dortrecht and London,2003, p.2.
    2实际上,这部法律的起草的时间最早可以追溯到1343年。
    3[瑞典]安德生:《瑞典史》,苏公隽译,商务印书馆,1963,第77页。
    4[英]尼尔·肯特:《瑞典史》,吴英译,中国大百科全书出版社,北京,2010,第29页。
    5[瑞典]安德生:《瑞典史》,苏公隽译,商务印书馆,1963,第94页。
    6[英]尼尔·肯特:《瑞典史》,吴英译,中国大百科全书出版社,北京,2010,第29页。
    1Stig Hadenius, The Riksdag in Focus-Swedish History in a Parlaimentary Perspective, Sveriges Riksdag,1997,1997, p.23, and Roger D. Congleton, Perfecting Parliament-Constitutinal Reform, Liberalism, and the Rise of Western Democracy, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge,2011, p.370.
    2参与“孔加巴尔肯”章节起草的,有一位在瑞典历史上非常著名的人物——圣伯伊塔(Saint Birgitta)。她出身贵族,是中世纪时期,也是瑞典历史上非常有名的圣徒。在马格努斯四世同富豪们发生冲突时,伯伊塔同情贵族,且从未放弃支持贵族的政见。她赞同一种以宪法原则为基础的贵族政治,反对马格努斯·埃里克逊加强王廷权力的不断尝试。她的这种政见,在1319年推举国王和起草“兰德斯拉”的“孔加巴尔肯”时,她进行了明确的阐述。有关圣伯伊塔的生平,可参见[瑞典]安德生:《瑞典史》,苏公隽译,商务印书馆,1963年版,第83-96页,以及The municipality of Vadstena in Sweden, Sancta Birgitta, at http://birgitta.vadstena.se/, July112012.
    3Stig Hadenius, The Riksdag in Focus-Swedish History in a Parlaimentary Perspective, Sveriges Riksdag,1997, pp.24-25.
    1Franklin D. Scott, Sweden-the Nation's History, University of Minnesota Press,1977, p.111,以及[瑞典]安德生:《瑞典史》,苏公隽译,商务印书馆,1963年版,第79页。
    2[瑞典]安德生:《瑞典史》,苏公隽译,商务印书馆,1963年版,第81页。
    3Franklin D. Scott, Sweden-the Nation's History, University of Minnesota Press,1977, p.77.
    1Franklin D. Scott, Sweden-the Nation's History, University of Minnesota Press,1977, p.76.
    214世纪时,斯堪第纳维亚各国的贵族在整体上已经形成较为独立,但在血缘和财产关系上又密切关联的特权集团,因此各国贵族间的家族和经济关系往往超越国界存在。参见[瑞典]安德生:《瑞典史》,苏公隽译,商务印书馆,1963年版,第111页。
    3但后者从未被正式批准实施,参见Christopher Allmand (ed.), The New Cambridge Medieval History:Volume7, C.1415-C.1500, Cambridge University Press,1998, p.676.
    1FranklinD. Scott, Sweden-the Nation's History, University of Minnesota Press,1977, p.88.
    2恩格尔布雷克特(Engelbrekt Engelbrektsson)不是普通大众的代表,而是贵族的代表。他领导起义的真正原因是德国统治者的高税收除了损害瑞典下层民众的利益外,也损害了瑞典贵族的利益,参见The Riksdag in Focus-Swedish History in a Parlaimentary Perspective, Sveriges Riksdag,1997, p.9.尽管如此,恩格尔布雷克特在一定意义上首创了民主制度。1435年1月,恩格尔布雷克特召集全国四等级的代表在阿尔伯加(Arboga)召开大会(这次大会后来被称为瑞典第一次“各等级全体大会”(Riksdag of the Estates,虽然目前尚无史料证实农民的代表是否真正出席了这次大会)。在恩格尔布雷克特死后的1436年,还在乌普萨拉召开了一次国会大会。因此,恩格尔布雷克特领导的起义标志着一种在一定程度上有农民阶级参与政治的民主制度的开端,参见Wikipedia, Engelbrekt rebellion, at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engelbrecht_rebellion, July18,2012.
    2不过瑞典贵族也作出了让步,包括允许埃里克任命外国人管理斯德哥尔摩、卡尔玛和尼克平三地,参见FranklinD. Scott, Sweden-the Nation's History, University of Minnesota Press,1977, p.92.
    1FranklinD. Scott, Sweden-the Nation's History, University of Minnesota Press,1977, p.87.
    2[英]尼尔·肯特:《瑞典史》,吴英译,中国大百科全书出版社,北京,2010,第24页。
    1Franklin D. Scott, Sweden-the Nation's History, University of Minnesota Press,1977, p.85.
    2David Abulafia (ed.), The New Cambridge Medieval History:Volume5, c.1198-c.1300, Cambridge University Press,1999, p.724.
    3Franklin D. Scott, Sweden-the Nation's History, University of Minnesota Press,1977, p.113.
    4Franklin D. Scott, Sweden-the Nation's History, University of Minnesota Press,1977, pp.114-116.
    5从这一角度来看,18世纪“自由时代”时期的贵族寡头政治似有过犹不及之嫌。
    1谢维雁:《从宪法到宪政》,山东人民出版社,2004,第241-242页。
    2Roger D. Congleton, Perfecting Parliament-Constitutinal Reform, Liberalism, and the Rise of Western Democracy, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge,2011, p.369.
    2FranklinD. Scott, Sweden-the Nation's History, University of Minnesota Press,1977, p.93.
    1谢维雁:(走向平衡的宪政),法律出版社,2007,第50页及以降。
    1Michael Roberts, The Early Vasas:A History of Sweden1523-1611, Cambridge University Press,1968, pp.192-194.
    2[英]尼尔肯特:《瑞典史》,吴英译,中国大百科全书出版社,北京,2010,第54页。
    1Stig Hadenius, The Riksdag in Focus-Swedish History in a Parlaimentary Perspective, Sveriges Riksdag,1997, p.51.
    2Nils herlitz, Sweden:A Modern Democracy on Ancient foundations, the Universiy of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis,1939, pp.4-5.
    3[瑞典]安德生:《瑞典史》,苏公隽译,商务印书馆,1963年版,第240页。
    3FranklinD. Scott, Sweden-the Nation's History, University of Minnesota Press,1977, p.185.
    4FranklinD. Scott, Sweden-the Nation's History, University of Minnesota Press,1977, p.186.
    5Stig Hadenius, The Riksdag in Focus-Swedish History in a Parlaimentary Perspective, Sveriges Riksdag,1997, p.56.
    1古斯塔夫二世和奥克森斯提尔纳合作建立的官僚政府机制对瑞典未来的政府形式发生了巨大影响,并持续至今。
    2Franklin D. Scott, Sweden-the Nation's History, University of Minnesota Press,1977, p.164.
    3Franklin D. Scott, Sweden-the Nation's History, University of Minnesota Press,1977, p.183.
    4这体现了奥克森斯提尔纳意欲将贵族阶级转化为官僚阶级的意图,参见Leon Jespersen (ed.), A Revolution from Above? The Power State of~(16)th and~(17)th Century Scandinavia, Odense University Press,2000, p.75.
    1Wikipedia, Great Officers of the Realm, at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Officers_of_the_Realm, July18,2012.
    1Nils Herlitz, Sweden:A Modern Democracy on Ancient foundations, the Universiy of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis,1939, pp.13-14, and Byron J. Nordstrom, Scandinavia Since1500, University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, London, pp.80-82.
    2古斯塔夫二世的去世,使1611年的宪章失去了作为国王和贵族之间的契约的作用。这也是1634年贵族等级必须制定1634年宪法的重要原因之一,参见Nils herlitz, Sweden:A Modern Democracy on Ancient foundations, the Universiy of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis,1939, p.4.
    3Nils Herlitz, Sweden:A Modern Democracy on Ancient foundations, the Universiy of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis,1939, p.14. Modern Democracy on Ancient foundations, the Universiy of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis,1939, pp.17-19.
    3Franklin D. Scott, Sweden-the Nation's History, University of Minnesota Press,1977, p.147.
    4Franklin D. Scott, Sweden-the Nation's History, University of Minnesota Press,1977, p.148.
    1关于法国16世纪的政体情况,参见Wikipedia, Ancien Regime, at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancien_R%C3%A9gime#Administration, July18,2012.
    2[德]迪特儿·格林:《现代宪法的诞生、运作和前景》,刘刚译,法律出版社,2010,第79页。
    4陈欣新:《宪政之鉴》,2008年,法律出版社,第100页。
    1A parliamentary system is a system of government in which the ministers of the executive branch get their democratic legitimacy from the legislature and are accountable to that body, such that the executive and legislative branches are intertwined, Wikipedia, Parliamentary system, at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parliamentary system, July18,2012and Wikipedia, History of Parliamentarism, at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History of Parliamentarism, July18,2012.
    2Stig Hadenius, The Riksdag in Focus-Swedish History in a Parliamentary Perspective, Sveriges Riksdag,1997, p.85.
    3Wikipedia, Swedish nobility, at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swedish nobility, July18,2012.
    4从16世纪开始,瑞典的贵族阶级包括士绅阶层,参见The Riksdag in Focus-Swedish History in a Parlaimentary Perspective, Sveriges Riksdag,1997, p.48.
    1李秀清:《日尔曼法研究》,商务印书馆,2005,北京,第451-456页;何勤华主编:《外国法制史》,法律出版社,北京,2007年,第88页。
    1[瑞典]安德生:《瑞典史》,苏公隽译,商务印书馆,1963年,第363–380页。
    1Stig Hadenius, The Riksdag in Focus-Swedish History in a Parlaimentary Perspective, Sveriges Riksdag,1997, p.81.
    2Franklin D. Scott, Sweden-the Nation's History, University of Minnesota Press,1977, p.241.
    3即使就国会中代表各等级的所有代表的人数而言,其也仅代表了占瑞典总人口7%的人口,参见Byron J. Nordstrom, Scandinavia Since1500,University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis-London, p.107.
    4Roger D. Congleton, Perfecting Parliament-Constitutinal Reform, Liberalism, and the Rise of Western Democracy, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge,2011, p.377.
    5Michael Roberts, The Age of Liberty, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge,1986, pp.76-77and83.
    1Gothe Erik, THE SWEDISH TRADITION OF FREEDOM OF PRESS, at http://www.fecl.org/circular/1507.htm, July21,2012.
    4Steven Koblik (ed.), Sweden's Development from Poverty to Affluence,1750-1970, translated by Joanne Johnson, University of Minnesota Press, Mineapolis,1975, p.31.
    1Steven Koblik (ed.), Sweden's Development from Poverty to Affluence,1750-1970, translated by Joanne Johnson, University of Minnesota Press, Mineapolis,1975, p.32.
    2Byron J. Nordstrom, Scandinavia Since1500, University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis-London, p.108.此外,在两派的党争之中,所谓“特权”问题,演变成为派系冲突的导火索和斗争工具。该时期的激烈辩论,促生了寻求确立民众权利的民主思想的萌芽,参见[瑞典]安德生:《瑞典史》,苏公隽译,商务印书馆,北京,1972年,第400-402页。
    3Charlotta Wolff, Noble Conceptions of Politics in Eighteen-century Sweden (Ca1740-1790), Historical15, Studia Fennica, Finnish Literature Society,2008, p.40.在自由时代,瑞典国会中的贵族等级代表组成了所谓的“贵族院”(House of Nobility)。
    1Stig Hadenius, The Riksdag in Focus-Swedish History in a Parliamentary Perspective, Sveriges Riksdag,1997, P.82; Byron J. Nordstrom, Scandinavia Since1500, University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis-London, p.122.
    2Michael Roberts, The Age of Liberty, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge,1986, P.156; Lars Magnusson, An Economic History of Sweden, Routledge,2000, London and New York, pp.57-58.
    3Lars Magnusson, An Economic History of Sweden, Routledge,2000, London and New York, P.48-50.
    4Charlotta Wolff, Noble Conceptions of Politics in Eighteen-century Sweden (Ca1740-1790), Historical15, Studia Fennica, Finnish Literature Society,2008, P.13; Eli F. Heckscher, An Economic History of Sweden, Harvard University Press,1954, Cambridge, Massachusetts, pp.141-143.
    5Michael Roberts, The Age of Liberty, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge,1986, p.156.
    1张义清:《变革社会中的宪政秩序》,人民出版社,2011年,第22页。
    2费巩:《比较宪法》,法律出版社,北京,2007,第171页。
    1Michael Roberts, The Age of Liberty, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge,1986, p.152.
    2古斯塔夫三世在1772年发动的政变恢复了1634年宪法实质上体现的由国王作为国家最高主权代表者的制度。
    3Stig Hadenius, The Riksdag in Focus-Swedish History in a Parlaimentary Perspective, Sveriges Riksdag,1997, p.81.
    4宫廷派在1756年发动的旨在恢复王权的政变被镇压下去,后果非常严重:非王室的政变领袖被处死,国王夫妇被隔离,参见[英]尼尔·肯特:《瑞典史》,吴英译,中国大百科全书出版社,北京,2010,第101-102页。
    1A. D. Harvey, Gustav III of Sweden:The Forgotten Despot of the Age of Enlightenment, at http://www.historytoday.com/ad-harvey/gustav-iii-sweden-forgotten-despot-age-enlightenment, July21,2012.
    2Michael Roberts, The Age of Liberty, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge,1986, pp.15-58.
    3Stig Hadenius, The Riksdag in Focus-Swedish History in a Parliamentary Perspective, Sveriges Riksdag,1997, p.85.
    4Wikipedia, Swedish Constitution of1772, at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swedish Constitution of1772, July21,2012.
    1Roger D. Congleton, Perfecting Parliament-Constitutinal Reform, Liberalism, and the Rise of Western Democracy, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge,2011, p.386.
    2有关宪法的博弈性本质,可参见汪国华:《宪法哲学导论》,北京,商务印书馆,2007,第222页。
    1FranklinD. Scott, Sweden-the Nation's History, University of Minnesota Press,1977, p.295.
    1Franklin D. Scott, Sweden-the Nation's History, University of Minnesota Press,1977, p.296; H. Arnold Barton, Scandinavia in the Revolutionary Era,1760-1815, University of Minnesota Press,1986, p.303.
    2[瑞典]安德生:《瑞典史》,苏公隽译,商务印书馆,北京,1972年,第437-438页。
    3Franklin D. Scott, Sweden-the Nation's History, University of Minnesota Press,1977, P.295; Stig Hadenius, The Riksdag in Focus-Swedish History in a Parlaimentary Perspective, Sveriges Riksdag,1997, p.119.
    4[德]迪特儿·格林:《现代宪法的诞生、运作和前景》,刘刚译,法律出版社,2010,第6页。
    1互动在线,大陆封锁,at http://www.hudong.com/wiki/%E5%A4%A7%E9%99%86%E5%BO%81%E9%94%81, July21,2012.
    2Michael Roberts, The Age of Liberty, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge,1986, pp.51-56.
    1瑞典1809年10月与丹麦签署了和平条约,于1810年1月加入了法国的“大陆封锁”集团。
    2Michael Roberts, The Age of Liberty, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge,1986, pp.15-58.
    1Michael Roberts, The Age of Liberty, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge,1986, p.280.
    2Michael Roberts, The Age of Liberty, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge,1986, p.287-288.
    3Michael Roberts, The Age of Liberty, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge,1986, P.287.
    4Michael Roberts, The Age of Liberty, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge,1986, P.280and292.
    5Wikipedia, Gustav Ⅳ Adolf of Sweden, at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gustav_IV_Adolf_of_Sweden, July21,2012.
    1Eli F. Heckscher, An Economic History of Sweden, Harvard University Press,1954, Cambridge, Massachusetts, p.131.
    2因为其他农民只穿瓦德麦尔呢布,参见Eli F. Heckscher, An Economic History of Sweden, Harvard University Press,1954, Cambridge, Massachusetts, p.143.
    3Eli F. Heckscher, An Economic History of Sweden, Harvard University Press,1954, Cambridge, Massachusetts, p.143.
    2Franklin D. Scott, Sweden-the Nation's History, University of Minnesota Press,1977, pp.276-279.
    1Michael Roberts, The Age of Liberty, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge,1986, pp.211-212.
    1关于启蒙运动在西方的影响,参见World History Center, The Age of Enlightenment, at http://history-wor ld.org/age of enlightenment.htm, July22,2012; Encyclop(?)dia Britannica, Inc., Enlightenment, at http://ww w.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/188441/Enlightenment, July22,2012.
    2Eli F. Heckscher, An Economic History of Sweden, Harvard University Press,1954, Cambridge, Massachusetts, pp.131-132and141-142.
    3Charlotta Wolff, Noble Conceptions of Politics in Eighteen-century Sweden (Ca1740-1790), Historical15, Studia Fennica, Finnish Literature Society,2008, p.13.
    1Charlotta Wolff, Noble Conceptions of Politics in Eighteen-century Sweden (Ca1740-1790), Historical15, Studia Fennica, Finnish Literature Society,2008, p.46.
    2从1762年开始,瑞典国会的贵族院宣布不再接纳出身于新贵族家庭者成为贵族院成员,参见Charlotta Wolff, Noble Conceptions of Politics in Eighteen-century Sweden (Ca1740-1790), Historical15, Studia Fennica, Finnish Literature Society,2008, pp.13-14.
    3Charlotta Wolff, Noble Conceptions of Politics in Eighteen-century Sweden (Ca1740-1790), Historical15, Studia Fennica, Finnish Literature Society,2008, pp.29,41,43and47.
    4Charlotta Wolff, Noble Conceptions of Politics in Eighteen-century Sweden (Ca1740-1790), Historical15, Studia Fennica, Finnish Literature Society,2008, p.28.
    3Wikipedia, Liberalism, at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberalism, July22,2012.
    4Charlotta Wolff, Noble Conceptions of Politics in Eighteen-century Sweden (Ca1740-1790), Historical15, Studia Fennica, Finnish Literature Society,2008, P.48; Stig Hadenius, The Riksdag in Focus-Swedish History in aParlaimentary Perspective, Sveriges Riksdag,1997, p.81.
    1Charlotta Wolff, Noble Conceptions of Politics in Eighteen-century Sweden (Ca1740-1790), Historical15, Studia Fennica, Finnish Literature Society,2008, pp.56and59.
    2Olof Petersson, The Swedish1809Constitution, at http://www.google.com.hk/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=The%2BSwedish%2B1809%2BConstitution&source=web&cd=3&ved=OCDsQFjAC&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.olofpetersson.se%2F arkiv%2Fskrifter%2Frf1809.pdf&ei=~(1N)~(2tT) uimKo-uiQe25cy3Dw&usg=AFQjCNEIF81Q31ypPlc8vKUJ-qU4piZ3GQ&cad=rjt, July22,2012.
    1Stig Hadenius, The Riksdag in Focus-Swedish History in a Parlaimentary Perspective, Sveriges Riksdag,1997,p.121;[瑞典]安德生:《瑞典史》,苏公隽译,商务印书馆,北京,1972年,第455页。
    2Franklin D. Scott, Sweden-the Nation's History, University of Minnesota Press,1977, p.297.
    3如:民法、刑法和宗教法的创制和修订由国会和国王共同负责。
    41809年《政府组织法》规定:“古已有之的征税权属于人民”。此外,瑞典银行和国债办公室也由国会管辖。
    1Franklin D. Scott, Sweden-the Nation's History, University of Minnesota Press,1977, p.296.
    2古斯塔夫四世登基后,专制政体日益受到猛烈反对,特别在国会的贵族院中更是如此,甚至几个年纪较轻的贵族代表(自称为“雅各宾派”)作出了一种激进的姿态表示对封建专制的反对,即宣布放弃贵族称号——其中就有汉斯·雅尔塔(后称为“雅塔”),参见Stig Hadenius, The Riksdag in Focus-Swedish History in a Parlaimentary Perspective, Sveriges Riksdag,1997, p.123。
    3H. Arnold Barton, Scandinavia in the Revolutionary Era,1760-1815, University of Minnesota Press,1986,P.303.这一说法似乎同时佐证了前述关于1809年宪法委员会全部由十五名贵族成员组成的说法。
    4Franklin D. Scott, Sweden-the Nation's History, University of Minnesota Press,1977, p.298.
    5Byron J. Nordstrom:The History of Sweden, Greenwood Press, Westport, Connnecticut and London,2002, p.66; Byron J. Nordstrom, Scandinavia Since1500, University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis-London, p.177.
    1何勤华主编:《外国法制史》,法律出版社,2007年,北京,第156-158页。
    2何勤华主编:《外国法制史》,法律出版社,2007年,北京,第234页。
    3何勤华主编:《外国法制史》,法律出版社,2007年,北京,第285-286页。
    3Franklin D. Scott, Sweden-the Nation's History, University of Minnesota Press,1977, p.297.
    4[英]尼尔·肯特:《瑞典史》,吴英译,中国大百科全书出版社,北京,2010,第151页。 http://baike.baidu.com/view/50432.htm), July22,2012.
    1具体可参见本文第二章中有关政务院的内容。
    2[瑞典]安德生:《瑞典史》,苏公隽译,商务印书馆,北京,1972年,第74页。
    1据考古资料记载,已知的第一个日耳曼部落住地大约于公元前2000年建立于斯堪第纳维亚,参见李秀清:《日尔曼法研究》,商务印书馆,2005,北京,第2页。
    2此外,还可参见如同本文第三章第一节内容有关日耳曼民族文化的内容。
    3李秀清:《日尔曼法研究》,商务印书馆,2005,北京,第451-452页。
    4关于日耳曼法团体本位性的概述,参见李秀清:《日尔曼法研究》,商务印书馆,2005,北京,第451-456页,及何勤华主编:《外国法制史》,法律出版社,北京,2007年,第88页。
    5瑞典1350年时的宪法性文件为防止国王任意课征捐税,授予政务会和人民同意新税的权利。
    1[瑞典]安德生:《瑞典史》,苏公隽译,商务印书馆,北京,1972年,第414页和第448页。 1809ars regeringsform", in Brundin and Isberg, Maktbalans och kontrollmakt, P.232-372,转引自Olof Petersson, The Swedish1809Constitution, at http://www.google.com.hk/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=The%2BSwedish%2B1809%2BConstitution&source=web&cd=3&ved=OCDsQFjAC&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.olofpetersson.se%2F arkiv%2Fskrifter%2Frf1809.pdf&ei=~(1N)~(2tT) uimKo-uiOe25cy3Dw&usg=AFQjCNEIF81Q31ypPlc8vKUJ-qU4piZ3GO&cad=rjt, July22,2012.
    1古斯塔夫三世统治时期通过的1772年宪法即规定由政务会中一部分人组成最高上诉法院,而组成政务会的成员都是贵族出身。
    2范明志:《审判监督与司法独立的平衡——瑞典国会监察员制度》,载《山东审判》2005年03期,第119页。
    3Wikipedia, History of the Riksdag, at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Riksdag, July22,2012.
    1王旭萍:《近代早期西欧王权加强的必然性》,载首都师范大学学报(社会科学版),2010年S1期,第62-66页。
    1原名Hans Hierta(1774-1847),参见Stig Hadenius, The Riksdag in Focus-Swedish History in a Parlaimentary Perspective, Sveriges Riksdag,1997, p.123.
    2H. Arnold Barton, Scandinavia in the Revolutionary Era,1760-1815, University of Minnesota Press,1986, P.286; Byron J. Nordstrom, Scandinavia Since1500, University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis-London, p.177.
    3Franklin D. Scott, Sweden-the Nation's History, University of Minnesota Press,1977, p.296.
    4H. Arnold Barton, Scandinavia in the Revolutionary Era,1760-1815, University of Minnesota Press,1986, p.286.
    5H. Arnold Barton, Scandinavia in the Revolutionary Era,1760-1815, University of Minnesota Press,1986, p.286.
    1Stig Hadenius, The Riksdag in Focus-Swedish History in a Parlaimentary Perspective, Sveriges Riksdag,1997, pp.23-24.
    2[瑞典]安德生:《瑞典史》,苏公隽译,商务印书馆,北京,1972年,第77页。
    3H. Arnold Barton, Scandinavia in the Revolutionary Era,1760-1815, University of Minnesota Press,1986, p.286.
    4Stig Hadenius, The Riksdag in Focus-Swedish History in a Parlaimentary Perspective, Sveriges Riksdag,1997, p.123. Press,1977, p.299.
    1参见前注。
    2Nils Andren, Five Roads to Parliamentary Democracy, in:Patrik Engellau and Ulf Henning (ed.), Nordiac Views and Values, The Nordia Council,1984, Gothenburg, p.41.
    3Patrick Engellau, A System out of Harmany with its Values, in:Patrik Engellau and Ulf Henning (ed.), Nordiac Views and Values, The Nordia Council,1984, Gothenburg, pp.56-59.
    41809年宪法直到1974年才被替换,参见Stig Hadenius, The Riksdag in Focus-Swedish History in a Parlaimentary Perspective, Sveriges Riksdag,1997, p.121.
    5指1809年后瑞典宪法在贵族的影响下又陆续发生一些列变化的时期。
    1Stig Hadenius, The Riksdag in Focus-Swedish History in a Parlaimentary Perspective, Sveriges Riksdag,1997, p.122.
    2Eli F. Heckscher, An Economic History of Sweden, Harvard University Press,1954, Cambridge, Massachusetts, pp.141-142.
    3H. Arnold Barton, Scandinavia in the Revolutionary Era,1760-1815, University of Minnesota Press,1986, pp.305-306.
    1H. Arnold Barton, Scandinavia in the Revolutionary Era,1760-1815, University of Minnesota Press,1986, p.306.
    2Stig Hadenius, The Riksdag in Focus-Swedish History in a Parlaimentary Perspective, Sveriges Riksdag,1997, p.127; H. Arnold Barton, Scandinavia in the Revolutionary Era,1760-1815, University of Minnesota Press,1986, pp.305-306.
    1H. Arnold Barton, Scandinavia in the Revolutionary Era,1760-1815, University of Minnesota Press,1986, p.289.
    2H. Arnold Barton, Scandinavia in the Revolutionary Era,1760-1815, University of Minnesota Press,1986, p.289.
    1Steven Koblik (ed.), Sweden's Development from Poverty to Affluence,1750-1970, translated by Joanne Johnson, University of Minnesota Press, Mineapolis,1975, p.64.
    1FranklinD. Scott, Sweden-the Nation's History, University of Minnesota Press,1977, pp.335-336.
    1FranklinD. Scott, Sweden-the Nation's History, University of Minnesota Press,1977, p.335.
    3Franklin D. Scott, Sweden-the Nation's History, University of Minnesota Press,1977, p.133.
    4Franklin D. Scott, Sweden-the Nation's History, University of Minnesota Press,1977, p.133.
    6[英]K.C.惠尔:《现代宪法》,翟小波译,法律出版社,2006,第72页。
    1李强主编:《宪政与秩序》,北京大学出版社,2011,第143页。
    1尽管如此,当时的议会仅代表了瑞典20%左右的成年人,而且妇女没有选举权。
    2Louis Gerhard De Geer, Minnen2, Stockholm,1892, p.37.
    3FranklinD. Scott, Sweden-the Nation's History, University of Minnesota Press,1977, p.393.
    3Stig Hadenius, The Riksdag in Focus-Swedish History in a Parlaimentary Perspective, Sveriges Riksdag,1997, p.153.
    4Stig Hadenius, The Riksdag in Focus-Swedish History in a Parlaimentary Perspective, Sveriges Riksdag,1997, p.153.
    5Stig Hadenius, The Riksdag in Focus-Swedish History in a Parlaimentary Perspective, Sveriges Riksdag,1997, p.154etel.
    1瑞典人做事“适度”的风格和传统由来已久,参见[瑞典]安德生:《瑞典史》,苏公隽译,商务印书馆,1963年版,第53页。
    2Stig Hadenius, The Riksdag in Focus-Swedish History in a Parlaimentary Perspective, Sveriges Riksdag,1997, p.127.
    1[英]K.C.惠尔:《现代宪法》,翟小波译,法律出版社,2006年版,第63页。
    2汪国华:《宪法哲学导论》,北京,商务印书馆,2007,第39-42页。
    1[古罗马]塔西陀:《阿古利可拉传·日耳曼尼亚志》,马雍(译)北京,商务印书馆,1997,59-60页。
    2[德]马克思、恩格斯:《马克思恩格斯全集》(第19卷),人民出版社,1963,第356页。
    1李秀清:《日尔曼法研究》,商务印书馆,2005,北京,第451-456页;何勤华主编:《外国法制史》,法律出版社,北京,2007年,第2页。
    1李秀清:《日尔曼法研究》,商务印书馆,2005,北京,第451-456页;何勤华主编:《外国法制史》,法律出版社,北京,2007年,第121-122页。
    2侯树栋:《德意志封建王权的历史道路》,载《河南大学学报:社会科学版》,2002年第42卷第3期,第10页及第13页。
    1李秀清:《日尔曼法研究》,商务印书馆,2005,北京,第451-456页;何勤华主编:《外国法制史》,法律出版社,北京,2007年,第103-104页。
    1[德]马克思、恩格斯:《马克思恩格斯全集》第18卷,人民出版社,1965年版,第648页。
    2邢来顺:《德国贵族文化史》,人民出版社,2006,第178页。
    2陈欣新:《宪政之鉴》,2008年,法律出版社,第109页。
    1李秀清:《日尔曼法研究》,商务印书馆,2005,北京,第451-456页;何勤华主编:《外国法制史》,法律出版社,2007年,第104-106页。 Inc., social institution, at http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/551266/social-institution, July22,2012.
    1Martin van Gelderen and Quentin Skinner (ed.), Republicanism:Volume1, Republicanism and Constitutionalism in Early Modern Europe:A Shared European Heritage, Cambridge University Press,2002, p.291.
    1董建萍:《关于英国封建政治的特质与议会传统》,载《浙江学刊》2002年第03期,第176-177以及第180-181页。
    2汪进元:《良宪论》,山东人民出版社,2005,第13-20页。
    1王铭:《从“贵族民主制”到“等级君主制"的英国》,载《辽宁大学学报(哲学社会科学版)》2003年5月第31卷第3期,第66页。
    2转引自魏明:《从《列国游记》看康有为对英国贵族历史作用的认识》,载《中共青岛市委党校青岛行政学院学报》2010年第2期,第37页。
    1姜德福:《论都铎王权与贵族》,载《东北师大学报(哲学社会科学版)》2005年第2期,第21-27页。
    2阎照祥:《“光荣革命”后英国贵族集团的若干特征》,载《河南大学学报(社会科学版)》1996年11月第36卷第6期,第185页。
    3阎照祥:《“光荣革命”后英国贵族集团的若干特征》,载《河南大学学报(社会科学版)》1996年11月第36卷第6期,第187页。
    5阎照祥:《“光荣革命”后英国贵族集团的若干特征》,载《河南大学学报(社会科学版)》1996年11月第36卷第6期,第53-57页。
    6[德]迪特儿格林:《现代宪法的诞生、运作和前景》,刘刚译,法律出版社,2010,第6页。
    2柳飒:《英国议会主权观念的由来和确立》,载《湖湘论坛》2006年第2期,第65-66页。
    1谢红星:《论英国宪法的进化及其启示——一种宪法发展形态的研究》,载《理论月刊》2009年第07期,第150-151页。
    3阎照祥:《英国近代贵族政治研究述评》,载《河南大学学报(社会科学版)》2003年7月第43卷第4期,第36-40页。
    4于民:《对英国贵族演变的系统诠释》,载《广西社会科学》2003年第3期(总第九十三期),第190页。
    1[英]K.C.惠尔:《现代宪法》,翟小波译,法律出版社,2006年版,第9页。
    1范剑虹:《德国成文宪法的主导背景》,载《浙江大学学报(人文社会科学版)》1999年6月第29卷第3期,第150页。
    2赵星铁,孙炳辉,郑寅达:《德国史纲》,华东师范大学出版社,1996年版,第68页,或http://www.qiji.cn/eprint/abs/2046.html(访问日期:2012年7月22日)。
    3赵星铁、孙炳辉、郑寅达:《德国史纲》,华东师范大学出版社,1996年版,第68页,或http://www.qiji.cn/eprint/abs/2046.html(访问日期:2012年7月22日)。
    1邢来顺:《近代以来德国贵族政治特权的延续及其原因》,载《世界历史》2011年02期。 参见Athanasios Moulakis, Civic Humanism, at http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/humanism-civic/, July22,2012.
    1Martin van Gelderen and Quentin Skinner (ed.), Republicanism:Volume1, Republicanism and Constitutionalism in Early Modern Europe:A Shared European Heritage, Cambridge University Press,2002, p.290.
    2Wikipedia, Francois Fenelon, at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois F%C3%A9nelon, July22,2012.
    3百度百科,克劳德·昂列·圣西门,at http://baike.baidu.com/view/129568.htm, July22,2012.
    4Wikipedia, Henri de Boulainvilliers, at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_de_Boulainvilliers, July22,2012.
    1刘文立:《旧制度下的特权等级及其消亡》,载《法国研究》2003年第01期,第168页。
    2[法]托克维尔:《旧制度与大革命》,冯棠译,北京,商务印书馆,1992年。
    3[法]托克维尔:《旧制度与大革命》,冯棠译,北京,商务印书馆,1992年,第125页。
    1[法]托克维尔:《旧制度与大革命》,冯棠译,商务印书馆,1992年,第252-259页。
    2H.Taine,AcienRégime,Complexe,Paris,1991,p.216.
    3[法]托克维尔:《旧制度与大革命》,冯棠译,商务印书馆,1992年,第171页;刘北成:《托克维尔关于法国大革命起因的解释》,载《北京师范大学学报(人文社会科学版)》2001年第2期(总第164期),第99-100页。
    1秋风:《立宪的技艺》,北京大学出版社,2005,北京,第95页。
    2[法]托克维尔:《旧制度与大革命》,冯棠译,北京,商务印书馆,1992年,第148页。
    3周立红:《大革命时期的法国贵族国际学术研讨会综述》,载《世界历史》2009年第3期,第141页;张晓婉:《大革命时期法国贵族的适应力》,载《文学界》,2010年07期,第211页。
    4Doina Pasca Harsanyi, A RESILIENT ELITE:SURVIVAL AND DECADENCE, in Scandinavian Journal of History Vol.30, No.3/4., Routledge, part of the Taylor&Francis Group,2005, pp.286-297.
    5Thomas Beck, The French Revolution and the Nobility:A Reconsideration, Journal of Social History, Vol.15, No.2, Oxford University Press,1981, p.228.
    6这个阶层是在法国大革命推翻了贵族的统治之后,资产阶级还没有成熟到能够独立地支撑起一个新型的社会时,在贵族与资产阶级因不能完全衔接出现的断裂的时空中,作为新旧交替的一个特殊的社会精英集团而出现的,参见石广盛:《19世纪法国的显贵阶层》,载《长春师范学院学报》2002年12月第21卷第4期,第53-54页。
    7张亚娜:硕士学位论文《19世纪法国贵族衰落的原因分析》,华南师范大学,2007年5月。
    1关于宪法的博弈性的分类,可参见盛鹏:《宪法的妥协性研究》,安徽人民出版社,2009年,第37-38页。
    2[古罗马]塔西陀:《阿古利可拉传·日耳曼尼亚志》,马雍(译),商务印书馆,1997,59-60页。
    3[德]马克思、恩格斯:《马克思恩格斯全集》(第19卷),人民出版社,1963,第356页。
    1汪进元:《良宪论》,山东人民出版社,2005,第131页。
    1汪国华:《宪法哲学导论》,北京,商务印书馆,2007,第434页及以降。
    1王鸿斌:《中世纪后期英国王权与贵族的关系》,载《佳木斯大学牡会科学学报》2003年2月第21卷第1期,第71-73页。
    1费巩:《比较宪法》,法律出版社,北京,2007,第21页。
    2费巩:《比较宪法》,法律出版社,北京,2007,第18页。
    1侯树栋:《对西欧封建王权的再认识——评孟广林的《英国封建王权论稿》》,载《河南大学学报(社会科学版)》第42卷第6期,第63页及以降。
    1万昌华:《宪政体制的历史思辨》,齐鲁书社,2011,第165页。
    1.白钢、林广华著:《宪政通论》,社会科学文献出版社,2005年版。
    2.陈欣新著:《宪政之鉴》,法律出版社,2008年版。
    3.费巩著:《比较宪法》,法律出版社,2007年版。
    4.何勤华主编:《外国法制史》,法律出版社,2007年版。
    5.李强主编:《宪政与秩序》,北京大学出版社,2011年版。
    6.李秀清著:《日尔曼法研究》,商务印书馆,2005年版。
    7.[德]迪特儿格林:《现代宪法的诞生、运作和前景》,刘刚译,法律出版社,2010年版。
    8.[德]马克思、恩格斯著:《马克思恩格斯全集》第18卷,人民出版社,1965年版。
    9.[德]马克思、恩格斯著:《马克思恩格斯全集》第19卷,人民出版社,1963年版。
    10.[法]乔治·勒费弗尔著:《法国革命史》,商务印书馆,1989年版。
    11.[法]托克维尔著:《旧制度与大革命》,商务印书馆,1992年版。
    12.[古罗马]塔西陀著:《阿古利可拉传·日耳曼尼亚志》,马雍(译),商务印书馆,1997年版。
    13.[美]路易斯亨金、阿尔博特·J·罗森塔尔著:《宪政与权利——美国宪法的域外影响》,郑戈、赵晓力、强世功译,生活·读书·新知三联书店,1996年版。
    14.秋风著:《立宪的技艺》,北京大学出版社,2005年版。
    15.[瑞典]安德生著:《瑞典史》,苏公隽译,商务印书馆,1963年版。
    16.盛鹏著:《宪法的妥协性研究》,安徽人民出版社,2009年版。
    17.万昌华著:《宪政体制的历史思辨》,齐鲁书社,2011年版。
    18.汪进元著:《良宪论》,山东人民出版社,2005年版。
    19.汪国华著:《宪法哲学导论》,商务印书馆,2007年版。
    20.谢维雁著:《从宪法到宪政》,山东人民出版社,2004年版。
    21.谢维雁著:(走向平衡的宪政),法律出版社,2007年版。
    22.邢来顺著:《德国贵族文化史》,人民出版社,2006年版。
    23.徐国栋著:《人性论与市民法》,法律出版社,2006年版。
    24.[英]霍布斯著:《利维坦》,黎思复、黎廷弼译,商务印书馆,1985年版。
    25.[英]霍布斯著:《论公民》,应星、冯克利译,贵州人民出版社,2003年版。
    26.[英]K.C.惠尔著:《现代宪法》,翟小波译,法律出版社,2006年版。
    27.[英]梅特兰(Maitland,F.W.)等著:《欧陆法律史概览》,屈文生等译,上海人民出版社,2008年版。
    28.[英]尼尔肯特著:《瑞典史》,吴英译,中国大百科全书出版社,2010年版。
    29.张义清著:《变革社会中的宪政秩序》,人民出版社,2011年版。
    30.赵星铁、孙炳辉、郑寅达著:《德国史纲》,华东师范大学出版社,1995年版。
    31.中共中央马克思恩格斯列宁斯大林著作编译局编:《马克思恩格斯选集》第1卷,人民出版社,1995年版。
    1.丁建定:《1787——1788年法国贵族与专制王权的冲突》,载《史学月刊》1993年第3期
    2.董建萍:《关于英国封建政治的特质与议会传统》,载《浙江学刊》2002年第03期
    3.范剑虹:《德国成文宪法的主导背景》,载《浙江大学学报》人文社会科学版,1999年6月第29卷第3期
    4.范明志:《审判监督与司法独立的平衡——瑞典国会监察员制度》,载《山东审判》,2005年第3期
    5.符松涛:《论普鲁士“宪法纠纷”之实质》,载《青海师专学报》社会科学版2002年第3期
    6.侯树栋:《德意志封建王权的历史道路》,载《河南大学学报》社会科学版2002年第42卷第3期
    7.侯树栋:《对西欧封建王权的再认识——评孟广林的《英国封建王权论稿》》,载《河南大学学报》社会科学版第42卷第6期
    8.黄艳红:《“自由”的丧失和平等的起源——托克维尔论旧制度时代的贵族和王权》,载《衡阳师范学院学报》2006年8月第27卷第4期
    9.詹娜:《西方学界关于近代早期法国贵族研究新趋势》,载《江汉大学学报》人文科学版2010年10月第29卷第5期
    10.姜德福:《论都铎王权与贵族》,载《东北师大学报》哲学社会科学版2005年第2期
    11.马生祥,贺军妙:《中世纪法国三级会议酷似英国国会》,载《河北师范大学学报》哲学社会科学版,2007年11月第30卷第6期
    12.林芊:《论法国1576年至1629年的“新教共和国”》,载《贵州大学学报》社会科学版2003年1月第21卷第1期
    13.柳飒:《英国议会主权观念的由来和确立》,载《湖湘论坛》2006年第2期
    14.刘北成:《托克维尔关于法国大革命起因的解释》,载《北京师范大学学报》人文社会科学版2001年第2期(总第164期)
    15.刘文立:《旧制度下的特权等级及其消亡》,载《法国研究》2003年第01期
    16.刘书燃:《国家征税权的公法解析》(节自《税收与国家征税权之横向解构》),载《法治论丛》2008年第2期
    17.钱乘旦:《英国王权的发展及文化与社会内涵》,载《历史研究》1991年第5期
    18.石广盛:《19世纪法国的显贵阶层》,载《长春师范学院学报》2002年12月第21卷第4期
    19.王鸿斌:《中世纪后期英国王权与贵族的关系》,载《佳木斯大学牡会科学学报》2003年2月第21卷第1期
    20.汪满生:《论征税权宪法控制的内涵及必要性》,载安《徽理工大学学报》社会科学版2011年第1期
    21.王铭:《从“贵族民主制”到“等级君主制"的英国》,载《辽宁大学学报》哲学社会科学版2003年5月第31卷第3期
    22.王旭萍:《近代早期西欧王权加强的必然性》,载《首都师范大学学报》社会科学版2010年S1期
    23.魏明:《从《列国游记》看康有为对英国贵族历史作用的认识》,载《中共青岛市委党校青岛行政学院学报》2010年第2期
    24.谢红星:《论英国宪法的进化及其启示——一种宪法发展形态的研究》,载《理论月刊》2009年第07期
    25.谢天冰:《英国君主立宪制及其历史渊源》,载《福建师范大学学报》哲学社会科学版1989年第2期
    26.邢来顺:《近代德国传统贵族与资产阶级的融合》,载《史学集刊》2009年7月第4期
    27.邢来顺:《近代以来德国贵族政治特权的延续及其原因》,载《世界历史》2011年02期
    28.徐可、游丽:《浅议英国政治文化的形成发展与本质特——保守主义与激进主义的融合》,载《湖北师范学院学报》哲学社会科学版第27卷第3期
    29.杨娜:《论英国贵族的起源》,载《科教导刊》2010年第26期
    30.阎照祥:《“光荣革命”后英国贵族集团的若干特征》,载《河南大学学报》社会科学版1996年11月第36卷第6期
    31.阎照祥:《英国近代贵族政治研究述评》,载《河南大学学报》社会科学版2003年7月第43卷第4期
    32.姚敬恒:《立宪君主制还是君主立宪制》,载《世界历史》1990年第02期
    33.于民:《对英国贵族演变的系统诠释》,载《广西社会科学》2003年第3期(总第九十三期)
    34.张斌:《试析资产阶级贵族化在法国资本主义形成过程中的作用》,载《济南职业学院学报》2005年4月第2期(总第47期)
    35.张栋:《浅析英国宪法文化的和平斗争性的形成原因》,载《法制与社会》2007年第4期
    36.张小荣、米海:《论贵族“沙龙"文化对近代法国社会经济发展的影响》,载《西北工业大学学报》社会科学版2002年12月第22卷第4期
    37.张晓婉:《大革命时期法国贵族的适应力》,载《文学界》,2010年07期
    38.周婕:《试论英国自由观的起源》,载《淮阴师范学院学报》哲学社会科学版2005年第27卷第2期
    39.周立红:《大革命时期的法国贵族国际学术研讨会综述》,载《世界历史》2009年第3期,
    1、张亚娜:《19世纪法国贵族衰落的原因分析》,华南师范大学硕士学位论文,2007年
    1. Abrams, M.H., and Greenblatt, Stephen et el, The Norton Anthology of English Literature, Volume1:The Middle Ages through the Restoration and the Eighteenth Century, W.W. Norton&Company,2006
    2. Abulafia, David (ed.), The New Cambridge Medieval History:Volume5, C.1198-C.1300, Cambridge University Press,1999
    3. Althoff, G., Otto III, University Park,2003
    4. Allmand, Christopher (ed.), The New Cambridge Medieval History:Volume7, C.1415-C.1500, Cambridge University Press,1998
    5. Andren, Nils, Five Roads to Parliamentary Democracy, in:Patrik Engellau and Ulf Henning (ed.), Nordiac Views and Values, The Nordia Council,1984
    6. Barton, Hildor Arnold, Scandinavia in the Evolutionary Era,1760-1815, University of Minnesota Press,1986
    7. Beck, Thomas, The French Revolution and the Nobility:A Reconsideration, Journal of Social History, Vol.15, No.2, Oxford University Press,1981
    8. Bernhardt, J.W., Itinerant Kindship and Royal Monasteries in Early Medieval Germany c.936-1075, University Press,1993
    9. Brink, Stefan, Law and Legal Customs in Viking Age Scandinavia, The Scandinavians from the Vendel Period to the Tenth Century an Ethnographic Perspective, The Boydell Press Center for Interdisciplinary Research on Social Stress,2002
    10. Bruce-Mitford, R. L. S., The Sutton-Hoo ship-burial, appendix to R. H. Hodgkin, History of the Anglo-Saxons,3rd et al, Clarendon,1952
    11. Carlie, Anne, Magnate Estates Along the Road, Viking Age Settlements, Communication and Contacts in South-West Scania, Sweden, in Klavs Randsborg (ed.), Nordic World:Prehistory to Medieval Times, Wiley-Blackwell,2008
    12. Cederlund, Carl Olof (author) and Hocker, Frederick M.(ed.), Vasa I:The Archaeology of a Swedish Royal Ship of1628(Statens Maritima Museer, Statens Maritima Museer,2006
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    17. Congleton, Roger D., Perfecting Parliament-Constitutinal Reform, Liberalism, and the Rise of Western Democracy, Cambridge University Press,2011
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    22. Ericson, Lars Wolke and Larsson, Villstrand (ed.), Trettioariga kriget, Historiska Media,2006
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    25. Hadenius, Stig, The Riksdag in Focus-Swedish History in a Parliamentary Perspective, Sveriges Riksdag,1997
    26. Hall, Richard, Epxloring the World of the Vikings, Thames&Hudson,2007
    27. Harsanyi, Doina Pasca, A RESILIENT ELITE:SURVIVAL AND DECADENCE, in Scandinavian Journal of History Vol.30, No.3/4, Routledge,2005
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