热带气旋闪电活动特征及其与气旋特性演变的关系研究
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摘要
热带海洋上对流云中由于过冷水和冰晶的缺乏，电化程度很弱，闪电不活跃。然而近些年越来越多的研究发现，热带气旋（TC）中存在一定的闪电活动，特别是气旋特性发生改变的特定阶段，眼壁闪电有突然增多（闪电爆发）的现象。闪电活动与云内动力和微物理过程密切相关，闪电活动的增多表明TC内部对流的增强，因此与气旋结构变化和特性演变（强度变化和路径转向）具有内在联系。本论文以西北太平洋热带气旋为主要研究对象，综合利用WWLLN全球闪电定位资料、我国区域地闪监测资料、热带气旋强度和路径资料、多普勒雷达和TRMM卫星等观测资料，详细分析了热带气旋生命史特别是登陆过程的闪电时空分布特征，研究了闪电活动与TC强度变化之间的相关关系，探讨了眼壁闪电爆发对TC强度和路径的指示作用。论文对一次登陆台风开展观测分析和模拟研究，研究了台风登陆过程中闪电活动的时空变化与TC对流结构的演变关系，并基于WRF模式对动力和微物理过程的模拟，探讨了TC演变过程中闪电时空分布特征的形成原因。研究得到以下主要结论：
（1）热带气旋的闪电活动强弱与发生闪电时气旋的强度等级不存在明显相关，并不是TC强度等级越强，闪电越活跃。闪电活动易发生在热带低压和热带风暴等级阶段。内核和外雨带闪电活动随TC强度等级的变化表现出的趋势基本一致，均为先增加后减小。热带气旋在海洋上时大部分处于较为稳定的发展状态，较少发生强度突变（迅速加强和迅速减弱）。TC发生迅速加强（RI）和迅速减弱（RW）存在地理位置分布差异，前者发生比例高于后者，且两种突变过程均有闪电活动发生。处于增强过程的热带气旋，其闪电密度在各径向范围均大于减弱过程。
（2）TC迅速增强时内核区域闪电活动最强，内核闪电活动对气旋强度的迅速加强具有一定的指示作用。气旋发生RI和RW强度突变的前后，内核闪电活动能够提供与气旋强度变化有关的指示信息。迅速加强前24h，内核闪电活动有所增加；当RW发生时内核闪电迅速减少，RW发生12h后内核几乎无闪电发生。气旋迅速加强时，内核区域TBB出现大面积低值区，内核闪电呈现间歇式爆发。RI过程的内核具有最大的云顶高度和最低的云顶亮温，一定程度上揭示了闪电活动在该强度变化过程中增强的原因。
（3）不同热带气旋之间闪电活动差异较大，不同强度热带气旋的闪电空间分布不同。随着TC强度的增强，闪电分布有从眼壁逐渐向外雨带转移的趋势。热带风暴具有最大的眼壁-外雨带闪电密度比，强台风的眼壁-外雨带闪电密度比最小。眼区和内雨带的正地闪比例大于外雨带。不同强度等级TC登陆前、后闪电空间分布存在差异。热带风暴登陆后外雨带闪电活动比登陆前减弱，眼壁闪电快速增强。强热带风暴登陆后眼壁、内雨带和外雨带闪电频次均减弱。台风登陆前闪电活动主要出现在外雨带，登陆后闪电活动呈现出三圈分布的特性。强台风登陆后整个TC范围内闪电频次减弱。
（4）眼壁闪电爆发对TC强度和路径变化具有一定指示作用。当气旋处于强度较弱或逐渐加深过程时，闪电爆发预示TC强度的快速增强，闪电爆发提前其达到最大强度约7.1h。当气旋处于较大强度且相对稳定时，闪电爆发表示TC达到最大强度。眼壁闪电爆发且正地闪比例较高时，预示着气旋的强度减弱或即将结束。处于稳定状态下的热带气旋，眼壁闪电活动的突然增多很可能预示其路径将要发生改变。
（5）“莫拉菲”台风登陆过程的闪电密度径向分布呈现三圈结构特性。闪电密度峰值出现在外雨带，平均闪电密度远高于内雨带和眼壁区域；眼壁区域存在一个较小的闪电密集区；内雨带区域闪电密度接近于零。闪电在空间分布上表现出一定的结构非对称性，主要发生在台风移动方向的左侧。台风处于海上时，具有较为完整的结构，但闪电活动较弱。登陆后外雨带出现强对流核，产生较强的地表降水和闪电活动。螺旋雨带与陆地的摩擦以及环境气流的影响是台风登陆后对流和闪电活动增强的主要原因。
（6）台风临近登陆时，虽气旋强度逐渐减弱，但仍有较强的闪电活动发生，登陆后闪电活动则迅速减弱。台风眼壁闪电频次峰值提前TC闪电频次峰值出现。在“莫拉菲”登陆增强的过程中，眼壁发生3次闪电爆发现象。台风眼壁闪电的间歇式爆发，预示着气旋的加深和强度的增强。台风达到最大强度前1h，外雨带正地闪活动增强且比例达到最大值，正地闪与总地闪的时序变化具有一定差异。台风登陆后外雨带地闪活动迅速减弱，但正地闪比例上升，特别是消散阶段正地闪平均比例高于20%。
（7）台风不同区域的对流结构和降水特征，决定了闪电活动特征的差异。与内雨带相比，外雨带具有较强的上升气流、较大的降水粒子浓度，混合相态区具有较高的冰相粒子浓度。外雨带对流云体不仅在垂直方向达到较高高度，而且具有较为广阔的水平分布范围。外雨带相对内雨带具有更强的对流降水特性，因此比内雨带产生更加活跃的闪电活动。
（8）云中水成物粒子的分布高度依次为冰晶、雪晶、霰和云水，四种物质的浓度中，冰晶混合比含量最小。眼壁闪电爆发并不是出现在台风最强阶段，而是提前于最强强度的发生，对台风增强具有指示作用。眼壁区域霰和云水含量的增大、分布高度的升高以及上升气流面积和速度的增强，是眼壁闪电爆发的主要原因。整个台风的闪电频次峰值出现在台风达到最强强度。外雨带在TC闪电频次变化中起决定作用，外雨带冰相物粒子浓度的增大以及强对流核的出现，是TC闪电频次增加的主要原因。
Due to the lack of supercooled water and ice particles, electrification is inadequate andlightning activity is weak in tropical ocean convections. However, in recent years, more andmore research found that lightning occur in tropical cyclones (TCs), especially in some stages ofTC change, the eyewall lightning had a phenomenon of sudden increase (i.e., eyewall lightningoutbreak). Lightning activity is closely related to the dynamic and microphysical processes incloud. Increased lightning activity indicates the enhanced internal convection in TCs, thuslightning activity and structure changes and characteristics evolution (intensity change andtrajectory turn) of TCs are intrinsically related. Cloud-to-ground (CG) lightning in tropicalcyclones over the Northwest Pacific were investigated in this study. With data from the WorldWide Lightning Location Network (WWLLN), the GuangDong Lightning Locating System(GDLLS), TC intensity and trajectory, Doppler Radar and Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission(TRMM) satallite, the study firstly analyzsed the spatial and temporal characteristics of lightningactivity in the TC’s life, particularly during the landfall periods, and secondly investigated thestatistical relationship between lightning activity and TC intensity change, and then discussed thepredictive values of eyewall lightning outbreak to TC changes of intensity and trajectory.Moreover, the landfalling Typhoon Molave (0906) was studied with observational data andnumurical model to reveal the relationship between temporal and spatial variation of lightningand TC convection evolution. Based on the results of dynamic and microphysical processesfrom WRF model, the reasons for the formation of the temporal and spatial distribution oflightning during the evolution of TC structure were explored.
The main conclusions and results from the research are as follows:
(1) There was no significant correlation between lightning frequency and TC intensity level.Lightning was more likely to occur in intensity level of tropical depression (TD) and tropicalstorm (TS). Lightning activity in the inner core and outer rainband demonstrated consistent trendwith TC intensity levels, with firstly increased and then decreased. When over the water, mostTCs were in a relatively stable state, and less experienced rapid intensity change (i.e., rapidintensification and rapid weaken). There were differences in geographic distribution betweenrapid intensification (RI) and rapid weaken (RW). The former occurred more frequently than thelatter and lightning occurred during both RI and RW periods. Lightning density in TCs duringthe intensify process was greater in radius than that during the weakening process.
(2) Lightning density was the highest in the inner core when the storm experienced RI.Lightning in the inner core had predictive values to TC intensity changes. Lightning activity in the inner core can provide instructions to RI and RW changes. Lightning frequency increased24h before the rapid strengthen happened. When RW occurred, the inner core lightning densitysharply reduced and no lightning occurred12h after RW happening. The TBB values reachedthe lowest when the storm rapidly strengthened, and the inner core lightning showed periodicoutbreaks. The largest cloud top and lowest TBB appeared in the inner core during the RI stages,which gave the reason why lightning frequency increased during the RI stages.
(3) Lightning activity varied among TCs and the spatial distributions were different amongdifferent TC intensity levels. With the enhancement of TC intensity, lightning distribution hadthe trend of gradually transferring outward from the eyewall to outer rainbands. The highestlightning density ratio of eyewall to outer rainband occurred in TSs and the lowest in strongtyphoon (STY). The positive CG ratio in the eyewall and inner rainband were greater than that inthe outer rainbands. Spatial distributions of lightning differentiated before and after landfall indifferent TC intensity levels. Lightning in the outer rainbands weakened but in the eyewallstrengthened after TSs landed. While lightning in the eyewall, inner raiband and outer rainbandall weakened after strong tropical storms (STSs) landed. Lightning occurred mainly in the outerrainbands during pre-and post-landfall and there were three distinct lightning density regions inradial distribution after the storm landed. Lightning frequency in STY reduced after the stormlanded.
(4) Lightning outbreaks in the eyewall region had indication information to TC changes ofintensity and path. When storms were during weak or gradually deepened process, lightningoutbreak indicated the coming rapidly intensity increase and the outbreak was ahead of themaximum intensity about7.1hours. When storms were in greater strength and relatively stable,lightning outbreak represent that the storm would reach the maximum intensity. When theeyewall lightning outbreak with high positive CG ratio, it indicated that storm intensity wouldweaken or come to an end. The sudden increase of eyewall lightning in storm of steady statemay indicate the coming change of its trajectory.
(5) There were three distinct lightning density regions in radial distribution in TyphoonMolave (0906) during its landfall period, with a strong maximum in the outer rainbands, asignificant maximum in the eyewall regions and a minimum in the inner rainbands with nearlyzero. During the period of landfall, lightning activities showed significant spatial asymmetry andoccurred mainly on the left side of typhoon moving direction. When Molave was in the sea, ithad a complete structure but lightning activity was weak. Strong convective core apparent in theouter rainband after it landfall, thus resulted strong surface rainfall and intense lightning activity.When typhoon landed, friction between spiral rainbands and land, and the effects ofenvironmental flow were the main causes of stronger lightning activity and the enhancedconvection in the outer rainbands.
(6) When Molave was approaching landing, storm intensity gradually weakened, but stronglightning activity still occurred. After the typhoon landing, lightning density rapidly weakened.The maximum lightning frequency in the eyewall region was ahead of that in the whole TCregion. The eyewall lightning outbreak occurred3times during the TC intensification and theoutbreaks of eyewall lightning may indicate deepening of the cyclone and strength enhancement.The ratio of positive to CG lightning reached its maximum one hour before the maximumtyphoon intensity. CG lightning weakened rapidly after the typhoon landed, but the ratio ofpositive lightning increased, especially during the dissipating stage with the average ratio ofabove20%.
(7) Different characteristics of lightning activity were determined by convective structuresand precipitation features in different regions. Strong lightning activities in the outer rainbandswere caused by the strong updraft, large concentration of precipitable particles, large ice particledensity in mixed region and the large vertical and horizontal distribution of convective cloud.The outer rainbands have stronger convective precipitation characteristics than the innerrainbands, which determine the more active lightning activity in the outer rainbands than in theinner ones.
(8) The vertical distributions of ice and water particles in cloud were ice, snow, graupel andcloud water. Among the concentrations of the four particles, the mixing ratio of ice was thelowest. The eye wall lightning outbreaks did not occur during the maximum wind spend stage,but in advance of the occurrence of the strongest intensity, and had predictive value to typhoon’sintensify. The increased content density and distribution height of graupel and cloud water, andthe enlarged area and speed of updraft were the main reasons for the eyewall lightning outbreak.The peak of TC lightning frequency reached its maximum during the strongest strength oftyphoon. The outer rainbands played an important role in TC lightning frequency changes. Theincreased density of ice-phase particles and the emergence of strong convective core were themain reasons for the increase of TC lightning frequency.
（1）热带气旋的闪电活动强弱与发生闪电时气旋的强度等级不存在明显相关，并不是TC强度等级越强，闪电越活跃。闪电活动易发生在热带低压和热带风暴等级阶段。内核和外雨带闪电活动随TC强度等级的变化表现出的趋势基本一致，均为先增加后减小。热带气旋在海洋上时大部分处于较为稳定的发展状态，较少发生强度突变（迅速加强和迅速减弱）。TC发生迅速加强（RI）和迅速减弱（RW）存在地理位置分布差异，前者发生比例高于后者，且两种突变过程均有闪电活动发生。处于增强过程的热带气旋，其闪电密度在各径向范围均大于减弱过程。
（2）TC迅速增强时内核区域闪电活动最强，内核闪电活动对气旋强度的迅速加强具有一定的指示作用。气旋发生RI和RW强度突变的前后，内核闪电活动能够提供与气旋强度变化有关的指示信息。迅速加强前24h，内核闪电活动有所增加；当RW发生时内核闪电迅速减少，RW发生12h后内核几乎无闪电发生。气旋迅速加强时，内核区域TBB出现大面积低值区，内核闪电呈现间歇式爆发。RI过程的内核具有最大的云顶高度和最低的云顶亮温，一定程度上揭示了闪电活动在该强度变化过程中增强的原因。
（3）不同热带气旋之间闪电活动差异较大，不同强度热带气旋的闪电空间分布不同。随着TC强度的增强，闪电分布有从眼壁逐渐向外雨带转移的趋势。热带风暴具有最大的眼壁-外雨带闪电密度比，强台风的眼壁-外雨带闪电密度比最小。眼区和内雨带的正地闪比例大于外雨带。不同强度等级TC登陆前、后闪电空间分布存在差异。热带风暴登陆后外雨带闪电活动比登陆前减弱，眼壁闪电快速增强。强热带风暴登陆后眼壁、内雨带和外雨带闪电频次均减弱。台风登陆前闪电活动主要出现在外雨带，登陆后闪电活动呈现出三圈分布的特性。强台风登陆后整个TC范围内闪电频次减弱。
（4）眼壁闪电爆发对TC强度和路径变化具有一定指示作用。当气旋处于强度较弱或逐渐加深过程时，闪电爆发预示TC强度的快速增强，闪电爆发提前其达到最大强度约7.1h。当气旋处于较大强度且相对稳定时，闪电爆发表示TC达到最大强度。眼壁闪电爆发且正地闪比例较高时，预示着气旋的强度减弱或即将结束。处于稳定状态下的热带气旋，眼壁闪电活动的突然增多很可能预示其路径将要发生改变。
（5）“莫拉菲”台风登陆过程的闪电密度径向分布呈现三圈结构特性。闪电密度峰值出现在外雨带，平均闪电密度远高于内雨带和眼壁区域；眼壁区域存在一个较小的闪电密集区；内雨带区域闪电密度接近于零。闪电在空间分布上表现出一定的结构非对称性，主要发生在台风移动方向的左侧。台风处于海上时，具有较为完整的结构，但闪电活动较弱。登陆后外雨带出现强对流核，产生较强的地表降水和闪电活动。螺旋雨带与陆地的摩擦以及环境气流的影响是台风登陆后对流和闪电活动增强的主要原因。
（6）台风临近登陆时，虽气旋强度逐渐减弱，但仍有较强的闪电活动发生，登陆后闪电活动则迅速减弱。台风眼壁闪电频次峰值提前TC闪电频次峰值出现。在“莫拉菲”登陆增强的过程中，眼壁发生3次闪电爆发现象。台风眼壁闪电的间歇式爆发，预示着气旋的加深和强度的增强。台风达到最大强度前1h，外雨带正地闪活动增强且比例达到最大值，正地闪与总地闪的时序变化具有一定差异。台风登陆后外雨带地闪活动迅速减弱，但正地闪比例上升，特别是消散阶段正地闪平均比例高于20%。
（7）台风不同区域的对流结构和降水特征，决定了闪电活动特征的差异。与内雨带相比，外雨带具有较强的上升气流、较大的降水粒子浓度，混合相态区具有较高的冰相粒子浓度。外雨带对流云体不仅在垂直方向达到较高高度，而且具有较为广阔的水平分布范围。外雨带相对内雨带具有更强的对流降水特性，因此比内雨带产生更加活跃的闪电活动。
（8）云中水成物粒子的分布高度依次为冰晶、雪晶、霰和云水，四种物质的浓度中，冰晶混合比含量最小。眼壁闪电爆发并不是出现在台风最强阶段，而是提前于最强强度的发生，对台风增强具有指示作用。眼壁区域霰和云水含量的增大、分布高度的升高以及上升气流面积和速度的增强，是眼壁闪电爆发的主要原因。整个台风的闪电频次峰值出现在台风达到最强强度。外雨带在TC闪电频次变化中起决定作用，外雨带冰相物粒子浓度的增大以及强对流核的出现，是TC闪电频次增加的主要原因。
Due to the lack of supercooled water and ice particles, electrification is inadequate andlightning activity is weak in tropical ocean convections. However, in recent years, more andmore research found that lightning occur in tropical cyclones (TCs), especially in some stages ofTC change, the eyewall lightning had a phenomenon of sudden increase (i.e., eyewall lightningoutbreak). Lightning activity is closely related to the dynamic and microphysical processes incloud. Increased lightning activity indicates the enhanced internal convection in TCs, thuslightning activity and structure changes and characteristics evolution (intensity change andtrajectory turn) of TCs are intrinsically related. Cloud-to-ground (CG) lightning in tropicalcyclones over the Northwest Pacific were investigated in this study. With data from the WorldWide Lightning Location Network (WWLLN), the GuangDong Lightning Locating System(GDLLS), TC intensity and trajectory, Doppler Radar and Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission(TRMM) satallite, the study firstly analyzsed the spatial and temporal characteristics of lightningactivity in the TC’s life, particularly during the landfall periods, and secondly investigated thestatistical relationship between lightning activity and TC intensity change, and then discussed thepredictive values of eyewall lightning outbreak to TC changes of intensity and trajectory.Moreover, the landfalling Typhoon Molave (0906) was studied with observational data andnumurical model to reveal the relationship between temporal and spatial variation of lightningand TC convection evolution. Based on the results of dynamic and microphysical processesfrom WRF model, the reasons for the formation of the temporal and spatial distribution oflightning during the evolution of TC structure were explored.
The main conclusions and results from the research are as follows:
(1) There was no significant correlation between lightning frequency and TC intensity level.Lightning was more likely to occur in intensity level of tropical depression (TD) and tropicalstorm (TS). Lightning activity in the inner core and outer rainband demonstrated consistent trendwith TC intensity levels, with firstly increased and then decreased. When over the water, mostTCs were in a relatively stable state, and less experienced rapid intensity change (i.e., rapidintensification and rapid weaken). There were differences in geographic distribution betweenrapid intensification (RI) and rapid weaken (RW). The former occurred more frequently than thelatter and lightning occurred during both RI and RW periods. Lightning density in TCs duringthe intensify process was greater in radius than that during the weakening process.
(2) Lightning density was the highest in the inner core when the storm experienced RI.Lightning in the inner core had predictive values to TC intensity changes. Lightning activity in the inner core can provide instructions to RI and RW changes. Lightning frequency increased24h before the rapid strengthen happened. When RW occurred, the inner core lightning densitysharply reduced and no lightning occurred12h after RW happening. The TBB values reachedthe lowest when the storm rapidly strengthened, and the inner core lightning showed periodicoutbreaks. The largest cloud top and lowest TBB appeared in the inner core during the RI stages,which gave the reason why lightning frequency increased during the RI stages.
(3) Lightning activity varied among TCs and the spatial distributions were different amongdifferent TC intensity levels. With the enhancement of TC intensity, lightning distribution hadthe trend of gradually transferring outward from the eyewall to outer rainbands. The highestlightning density ratio of eyewall to outer rainband occurred in TSs and the lowest in strongtyphoon (STY). The positive CG ratio in the eyewall and inner rainband were greater than that inthe outer rainbands. Spatial distributions of lightning differentiated before and after landfall indifferent TC intensity levels. Lightning in the outer rainbands weakened but in the eyewallstrengthened after TSs landed. While lightning in the eyewall, inner raiband and outer rainbandall weakened after strong tropical storms (STSs) landed. Lightning occurred mainly in the outerrainbands during pre-and post-landfall and there were three distinct lightning density regions inradial distribution after the storm landed. Lightning frequency in STY reduced after the stormlanded.
(4) Lightning outbreaks in the eyewall region had indication information to TC changes ofintensity and path. When storms were during weak or gradually deepened process, lightningoutbreak indicated the coming rapidly intensity increase and the outbreak was ahead of themaximum intensity about7.1hours. When storms were in greater strength and relatively stable,lightning outbreak represent that the storm would reach the maximum intensity. When theeyewall lightning outbreak with high positive CG ratio, it indicated that storm intensity wouldweaken or come to an end. The sudden increase of eyewall lightning in storm of steady statemay indicate the coming change of its trajectory.
(5) There were three distinct lightning density regions in radial distribution in TyphoonMolave (0906) during its landfall period, with a strong maximum in the outer rainbands, asignificant maximum in the eyewall regions and a minimum in the inner rainbands with nearlyzero. During the period of landfall, lightning activities showed significant spatial asymmetry andoccurred mainly on the left side of typhoon moving direction. When Molave was in the sea, ithad a complete structure but lightning activity was weak. Strong convective core apparent in theouter rainband after it landfall, thus resulted strong surface rainfall and intense lightning activity.When typhoon landed, friction between spiral rainbands and land, and the effects ofenvironmental flow were the main causes of stronger lightning activity and the enhancedconvection in the outer rainbands.
(6) When Molave was approaching landing, storm intensity gradually weakened, but stronglightning activity still occurred. After the typhoon landing, lightning density rapidly weakened.The maximum lightning frequency in the eyewall region was ahead of that in the whole TCregion. The eyewall lightning outbreak occurred3times during the TC intensification and theoutbreaks of eyewall lightning may indicate deepening of the cyclone and strength enhancement.The ratio of positive to CG lightning reached its maximum one hour before the maximumtyphoon intensity. CG lightning weakened rapidly after the typhoon landed, but the ratio ofpositive lightning increased, especially during the dissipating stage with the average ratio ofabove20%.
(7) Different characteristics of lightning activity were determined by convective structuresand precipitation features in different regions. Strong lightning activities in the outer rainbandswere caused by the strong updraft, large concentration of precipitable particles, large ice particledensity in mixed region and the large vertical and horizontal distribution of convective cloud.The outer rainbands have stronger convective precipitation characteristics than the innerrainbands, which determine the more active lightning activity in the outer rainbands than in theinner ones.
(8) The vertical distributions of ice and water particles in cloud were ice, snow, graupel andcloud water. Among the concentrations of the four particles, the mixing ratio of ice was thelowest. The eye wall lightning outbreaks did not occur during the maximum wind spend stage,but in advance of the occurrence of the strongest intensity, and had predictive value to typhoon’sintensify. The increased content density and distribution height of graupel and cloud water, andthe enlarged area and speed of updraft were the main reasons for the eyewall lightning outbreak.The peak of TC lightning frequency reached its maximum during the strongest strength oftyphoon. The outer rainbands played an important role in TC lightning frequency changes. Theincreased density of ice-phase particles and the emergence of strong convective core were themain reasons for the increase of TC lightning frequency.
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