试论不列颠行省的罗马化
摘要
公元43年至约公元410年,不列颠岛的大部分作为罗马帝国的一个行省——“不列颠尼亚”(Britiannia)而存在,因而也被称作“罗马不列颠”(Roman Britain)。在罗马的统治下,罗马的物质文化和精神文化不断渗透到不列颠当地人的生活中,致使不列颠在政治、经济、文化各方面都被不同程度地罗马化了。本文的目的即在于较系统地探究不列颠行省的罗马化状况,尤其是在城镇和宗教方面的罗马化,进而总结不列颠行省罗马化的特点。
本文第一部分是罗马对不列颠征服史的梳理;分别介绍了罗马人到来之前的不列颠和凯撒两次远征不列颠的概况,以及最后克劳狄皇帝征服不列颠,建立不列颠行省的过程。
第二部分论述了罗马对不列颠行省的管理模式。重点介绍了不列颠行省总督和其他重要官员的职责,罗马政府对不列颠的征税措施,部落行政区与行省议会的建立,以及罗马道路的修建。
第三部分论述了罗马化城镇的建立和乡村中罗马化维拉的建立。
第四部分分别论述了不列颠行省在语言、艺术和宗教方面的罗马化。罗马的统治不仅给不列颠人带来了长期的和平,更将其从野蛮蒙昧的铁器时代带入了以城镇为标志的文明时代。在不列颠作为庞大的罗马帝国的一个行省的近四百年时间里,由于罗马化程度不断加深,文明水平不断提高,与帝国其他地区的经济、文化交流也更为频繁。由此可见,不列颠行省的历史是一部历时长久、内容丰富且生动具体的历史;对不列颠行省罗马化的研究既有利于我们认识处于文明初期的不列颠的历史,亦能使我们更为深入地理解罗马帝国的行省统治策略。
From AD 43 to about AD 410,the major part of the Great Britain was a province called“Britannia”of Rome Empire, and was also called“Roman Britain”. Under the Roman Rule, the material and spiritual culture of Romans permeated into the life of the native people, which led to the Romanization of Britainnia in politics, economy and culture in varying degrees. The paper is aimed at studying the Romanization of the Britainnia, especially how the towns and religion became Romanized, and further summarizing the features of the Romanization of Roman Britain.
The first part gives a brief narration of the History of the Rome Conquest of Britain, including the Pre-Roman Britain, Caesar’s invasions, Claudius’s conquest of Britain and the establishment of the new Province.
The second part analyses the management mode which Rome governed Britainnia. The writer elaborates the duties of the Governors and other key officials of Britainnia, the tax measures, the establishments of the tribe-cantons (civitas) and the provincial council, and the construction of Roman Roads.
The third part discoursed upon the establishments of Roman towns of Roman Britain and has a discussion on the Roman villas in the countryside.
The Fourth part analyses the Romanization of the Province in the aspects of languages, religion and art.
The Romans not only brought long peace to Britannia, but also introduced the civilization to the barbaric Britons who still lived in the Iron Age. Britain existed as a province of the great empire for nearly four centuries, during which the Romanization developed and its civilization progressed, and the cultural exchanges and economic interaction between it and the other parts of the empire became more common. So we can see, Roman Britain has a long ,rich and vivid history that worth researching, and the studying of the Romanization of Britainnia will give us a better understanding of the Britain in its early stage of civilization as well as the governing techniques that Romans used in provincial administration.
本文第一部分是罗马对不列颠征服史的梳理;分别介绍了罗马人到来之前的不列颠和凯撒两次远征不列颠的概况,以及最后克劳狄皇帝征服不列颠,建立不列颠行省的过程。
第二部分论述了罗马对不列颠行省的管理模式。重点介绍了不列颠行省总督和其他重要官员的职责,罗马政府对不列颠的征税措施,部落行政区与行省议会的建立,以及罗马道路的修建。
第三部分论述了罗马化城镇的建立和乡村中罗马化维拉的建立。
第四部分分别论述了不列颠行省在语言、艺术和宗教方面的罗马化。罗马的统治不仅给不列颠人带来了长期的和平,更将其从野蛮蒙昧的铁器时代带入了以城镇为标志的文明时代。在不列颠作为庞大的罗马帝国的一个行省的近四百年时间里,由于罗马化程度不断加深,文明水平不断提高,与帝国其他地区的经济、文化交流也更为频繁。由此可见,不列颠行省的历史是一部历时长久、内容丰富且生动具体的历史;对不列颠行省罗马化的研究既有利于我们认识处于文明初期的不列颠的历史,亦能使我们更为深入地理解罗马帝国的行省统治策略。
From AD 43 to about AD 410,the major part of the Great Britain was a province called“Britannia”of Rome Empire, and was also called“Roman Britain”. Under the Roman Rule, the material and spiritual culture of Romans permeated into the life of the native people, which led to the Romanization of Britainnia in politics, economy and culture in varying degrees. The paper is aimed at studying the Romanization of the Britainnia, especially how the towns and religion became Romanized, and further summarizing the features of the Romanization of Roman Britain.
The first part gives a brief narration of the History of the Rome Conquest of Britain, including the Pre-Roman Britain, Caesar’s invasions, Claudius’s conquest of Britain and the establishment of the new Province.
The second part analyses the management mode which Rome governed Britainnia. The writer elaborates the duties of the Governors and other key officials of Britainnia, the tax measures, the establishments of the tribe-cantons (civitas) and the provincial council, and the construction of Roman Roads.
The third part discoursed upon the establishments of Roman towns of Roman Britain and has a discussion on the Roman villas in the countryside.
The Fourth part analyses the Romanization of the Province in the aspects of languages, religion and art.
The Romans not only brought long peace to Britannia, but also introduced the civilization to the barbaric Britons who still lived in the Iron Age. Britain existed as a province of the great empire for nearly four centuries, during which the Romanization developed and its civilization progressed, and the cultural exchanges and economic interaction between it and the other parts of the empire became more common. So we can see, Roman Britain has a long ,rich and vivid history that worth researching, and the studying of the Romanization of Britainnia will give us a better understanding of the Britain in its early stage of civilization as well as the governing techniques that Romans used in provincial administration.
引文
①参见Simon Hornblower and Antony Spawforth , The Oxford University Classical Dictionary, New York : Oxford University Press, 2003, p1321.
②Ray Laurence and Joanne Berry, Culture Identity in the Roman Empire, London and New York : Routledge, 2001, p111.
③肖丽:《论罗马海外殖民地的建立及其历史功用---兼论共和向帝制转变时期的罗马化问题》,东北师范大学硕士学位论文,2010年,第3页。
④参见Simon Hornblower and Antony Spawforth , The Oxford University Classical Dictionary, p1321.
⑤参见钱乘旦、许洁明:《英国通史》,上海社会科学院出版社,2002年,第16页。
①参见Graham Webster, The Roman Invasion of Britain, London: Batsford Academic and Educational Ltd, 1980, p31,p33.
②参见http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gallia_Belgica, 2011-3-1.
③[美]克里斯托弗·A·斯奈德:《不列颠人:传说和历史》,范勇鹏译,北京:北京大学出版社,2009,第17页。
④布立吞人(Britons),指铁器时期至中世纪早期生活在大不列颠岛的福斯湾(约位于北纬56度,英格兰与苏格兰地区的交界处)以南的凯尔特人。参见http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Britons_(historical), 2011-3-1.
⑤Caesar, The Gallic War, With an English translation by H. J. Edward, Cambridge(Massachusetts), London(England): Harvard University Press, 2006, p147.
①塔西坨:《阿古利可拉传·日耳曼尼亚志》,马庸、傅正元译,北京:商务印书馆,1985,第21页。
②参见Graham Webster, The Roman Invasion of Britain, London: Batsford Academic and Educational Ltd, 1980, p34-35.
③[美]克里斯托弗·A·斯奈德:《不列颠人:传说和历史》,第23页。
④[古罗马]]凯撒:《高卢战记》,任炳湘译,商务印书馆,1997年,第98页。
⑤H. H. Scullard, Roman Britain : outpost of the Empire, London :Thames and Hudson, 1979, p26.
①凯撒:《高卢战记》,第105-107页。
②参见[英]屈勒味林:《英国史》,钱端升译,北京:中国社会科学出版社,2008,第20页。
③[美]克里斯托弗·A·斯奈德:《不列颠人:传说和历史》,第24-25页。
④Graham Webster, The Roman Invasion of Britain, p46.
⑤参见[古罗马]苏维托尼乌斯:《罗马十二帝王传》,田丽娟、邹凯丽译,上海:上海三联书店,2010,第175页。
①Dio Cassius, Dio’s Roman History, (Volume VII), Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2006, p417.
②[美]克里斯托弗·A·斯奈德:《不列颠人:传说和历史》,第35页。
③David Shotter, Roman Britain, 2nd ed., London and New York : Routledge, 2004, p21.
④Suetonius, Claudius,17.转引自[美]克里斯托弗·A·斯奈德:《不列颠人:传说和历史》,第35页。
⑤[古罗马]塔西佗:《阿古利可拉传·日耳曼尼亚志》,第22页。
⑥[英]迈克尔·格兰特:《罗马史》,王乃新、郝际陶译,上海人民出版社,2008 ,第223页。
⑦[英]温斯顿·丘吉尔:《英语国家史略》,薛力敏、林林译,北京:新华出版社,1985,第43页。
⑧参见[英]F·E·霍利迪:《简明英国史》,洪永珊译,南昌:江西人民出版社,1985,第4页。
①David Shotter, Roman Britain, p24.
②Alan K. Bowman, Edward Champlin, Andrew Lintott , The Cambridge Ancient History(Vol X:The Augustan Empire 43B.C.-A.D.69 , 2nd ed., Cambridge : Cambridge University Press, 1996, p509.
③F.Haverfield, The Romanization of Roman Britain , 4th ed., Oxford : Clarendon Press, 1923, p24.
④David Shotter, Roman Britain, p63.
①Peter Salway, Roman Britain, Oxford: Clarendon Press,1981,List of Maps: Map VII.
②参见R.G. Collingwood , Roman Britain and the English settlements, 2nd ed., Oxford : Clarendon Press, 1937, p292.
③[英]肯尼思·O·摩根:《牛津英国通史》,王觉非等译,北京:商务印书馆,1993,第56页。
④A Dictionary of World History, second edition, New York : Oxford University Press, 2006, p545.
①宫秀华:《罗马:从共和走向帝制》(第二版),北京:高等教育出版社,2006,第175页。
②戴克里先皇帝将不列颠划分为四个行省之后,在各省设有一名行政长官,他们对驻伦敦的不列颠行省代表人负责,这位代表人再转而向高卢的行政官负责。参见[美]克里斯托弗·A·斯奈德:《不列颠人:传说和历史》,第60页。
③H. H. Scullard, Roman Britain : outpost of the Empire, p47.
④R.G.Collingwood, Roman Britain and the English settlements, p162.
①参见宋立宏:《罗马帝国的地方政府——以不列颠为例》,载于《古代文明》2009年第1期,第2-13页。
②David Shotter, Roman Britain, p55.
③参见塔西佗:《阿古利可拉传·日耳曼尼亚志》,第27页。
④R.G.Collingwood, Roman Britain and the English settlements, p163.
①R.G.Collingwood, Roman Britain and the English settlements, p164.
②Lindsay Allason-Jones, Daily life in Roman Britain, Oxford ; Westport, Conn.: Greenwood World, 2008, p56.
③Lindsay Allason-Jones, Daily life in Roman Britain, p55.
④R.G.Collingwood, Roman Britain and the English settlements , p242.
⑤R.G.Collingwood, Roman Britain and the English settlements , p242.
⑥参见[古罗马]塔西坨:《编年史》(下册),王以铸等译,北京:商务印书馆,2009,第532页。
⑦R.G.Collingwood, Roman Britain and the English settlements , p164.
⑧R.G.Collingwood, Roman Britain and the English settlements , p164.
①拉丁文civitas的英文意为“罗马化的部落”(“Romanised tribes”),参见David Shotter, Roman Britain, p56.
②Peter Salway, Roman Britain, Oxford: Clarendon Press,1981, p535.
③参见Peter Salway, Roman Britain, Oxford: Clarendon Press,1981, p537.
④F.Haverfield, ,The Romanization of Roman Britain , 4th ed.,Oxford : Clarendon Press, 1923, p60.
⑤David Shotter, Roman Britain, p61.
①T.W. Potter and Catherine Johns., Roman Britain, London : British Museum Press, 1992, p80.
②I.A.Richmond, Roman Britain, Harmondsworth, Middlesex: Penguin Books, 1955, p69.
③参见http://www.unrv.com/provinces/gallia.php,2011-5-20.
④Peter Garnsey and Richard Saller, The Roman Empire:Economy,Society and Culture, Berkeley and Los Angeles:University of California Press,1987,p166.
⑤I.A.Richmond, Roman Britain, p69-70.
②G.H.Stevenson, Roman provincial administration: till the age of the Antonines, Oxford : Basil Blackwell, 1939, p130.
①Peter Salway, Roman Britain, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1981, p565.
②Peter Salway, Roman Britain, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1981, p566.
③http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_roads_in_Britain, 2011-3-4.
①[美]克里斯托弗·A·斯奈德:《不列颠人:传说和历史》,第19页。
②关于不列颠行省内主要罗马化城镇的分布图见本文第20-21页。
③Malcolm Todd , A companion to Roman Britain, Malden, MA : Blackwell Pub., 2004, p182.
④David Shotter, Roman Britain, p59.
①R. G. Collingwood, Roman Britain and the English settlements, p164.
②David Shotter, Roman Britain, 2nd ed., London and NewYork : Routledge, 2004, p59-60.
③G.H.Stevenson, Roman provincial administration: till the age of the Antonines, p129.
④参见R.G. Collingwood, Roman Britain and the English settlements, p165,以及A. L. F. Rivet, Town and country in Roman Britain, London : Hutchinson University Library, 1958, p65.
⑤David Shotter, Roman Britain, p61.
⑥David Shotter, Roman Britain, p56.
①I. A. Richmond, Roman Britain, p67.
②Malcolm Todd, Roman Britain55BC-AD400: The Province beyond Ocean, Glasgow: Fontana Paperbacks , 1981, p123.
③R. G. Collingwood, Roman Britain and the English settlements, p198.
④Tacitus, The Annals, (Vol XIV) , Harvard University Press, 2006, p169.
⑤Sheppard Frere , Britannia: A history of Roman Britain, 3rd ed., extensively rev., London ; New York : Routledge & Kegan Paul ,1987, p253.
⑥参见http://www.roman-britain.org/romano-british-settlement.htm, 2011-4-5.
⑦Philip Crummy,“The Origins of Some Major Romano-British Towns”, Britannia, Vol. 13 ,1982, pp. 130.
⑧I.A.Richmond, Roman Britain, p82.
①参见R.G. Collingwood, Roman Britain and the English settlements, p197和T.W. Potter and Catherine Johns., Roman Britain,p75.
②Peter Salway, Roman Britain, Oxford: Clarendon Press,1981, p575.
③Sheppard Frere, Britannia :A history of Roman Britain, p250.
①Lindsay Allason-Jones, .Daily life in Roman Britain, p68.
②R.G. Collingwood, Roman Britain and the English settlements, p243.
③1英亩=0.405公顷=4050平方米;100英亩=405平方千米。
④1英尺=30.48厘米;240英尺≈73米,60英尺≈18米。
⑤Malcolm Todd , A companion to Roman Britain, p175.
⑥http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_roads_in_Britain, 2011-3-4.
①Lindsay Allason-Jones, Daily life in Roman Britain, p65.
②Lindsay Allason-Jones, Daily life in Roman Britain, p65.
③R.G. Collingwood, Roman Britain and the English settlements, p192.
④LindsayAllason-Jones, Daily life in Roman Britain, p65.
⑤H. H.Scullard, Roman Britain : outpost of the Empire, p99.
⑥Lindsay Allason-Jones, Daily life in Roman Britain, p66.
①Lindsay Allason-Jones, Daily life in Roman Britain, p67.
②Sheppard Frere, Britannia: a history of Roman Britain, p297.
③Lindsay Allason-Jones, Daily life in Roman Britain, p58.
④Lindsay Allason-Jones, Daily life in Roman Britain, p59.
①H. H. Scullard, Roman Britain : outpost of the Empire, p113.
②Jennifer Laing, Art and society in Roman Britain, Stroud, Gloucestershire : Sutton Publishing Limited, 1997, p96.
③R.G. Collingwood, Roman Britain and the English settlements, p215.
④转引自R.G. Collingwood, Roman Britain and the English settlements, p215.
①参见E.W. Black:“Villa Owers:Romano-British Gentleman and Officers”, Britannia, Vol. 25, (1994), pp. 99-110.
②参见R.G. Collingwood, Roman Britain and the English settlements, p216.
③R.G. Collingwood, Roman Britain and the English settlements, p217.
④转引自Jennifer Laing, Art and society in Roman Britain, p93.
①Jennifer Laing, Art and society in Roman Britain, p103-104.
②R.G Collingwood., The archaeology of Roman Britain, New York : Lincon Macveagh The DialPress, 1930, p114.
①R.G. Collingwood, Roman Britain and the English settlements, p218.
②R.G. Collingwood, Roman Britain and the English settlements, p218.
③Sheppard Frere,Britannia: a history of Roman Britain, p301.
④Sheppard Frere,Britannia: a history of Roman Britain, p302.
⑤Sheppard Frere,Britannia: a history of Roman Britain, p301.
①Sheppard Frere,Britannia: a history of Roman Britain, p302.
②Sheppard Frere,Britannia: a history of Roman Britain, p302.
①参见http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romano-British, 2011-4-5.
②F.Haverfield, The Romanization of Roman Britain , p29.
③Peter Salway, Roman Britain, p506.
④F.Haverfield, The Romanization of Roman Britain , p29.
①F.Haverfield, The Romanization of Roman Britain , p31.
②F.Haverfield, The Romanization of Roman Britain , p31.
③参见Sheppard Frere, Britannia: a history of Roman Britain, p303-304.
①F.Haverfield, The Romanization of Roman Britain , p34.
②塔西坨:《阿古利可拉传·日耳曼尼亚志》,第28页。
①LindsayAllason-Jones, Daily life in Roman Britain, p111.
②R.G. Collingwood, Roman Britain and the English settlements, p261.
③转引自H. H.Scullard, Roman Britain : outpost of the Empire, p154.
④Lindsay Allason-Jones, Daily life in Roman Britain, p119.
①Lindsay Allason-Jones, Daily life in Roman Britain, p120.
②转引自Lindsay Allason-Jones, Daily life in Roman Britain, p125.
③Sheppard Frere, Britannia: a history of Roman Britain, p313.
④Lindsay Allason-Jones, Daily life in Roman Britain, p121.
⑤Sheppard Frere, Britannia: a history of Roman Britain, p316.
①R.G. Collingwood, Roman Britain and the English settlements, p269.
②R.G. Collingwood, Roman Britain and the English settlements, p264.
③R.G. Collingwood, Roman Britain and the English settlements, p261.
①H. H. Scullard, Roman Britain : outpost of the Empire, p165.
②吉尔达斯(Gildas,500-570),不列颠教士,是公元6世纪不列颠基督教教会史中被描写得最明确的人物之一。参见http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gildas, 2011-4-3.
③参见R.G. Collingwood, Roman Britain and the English settlements, p271.
①R.G. Collingwood, Roman Britain and the English settlements, p270.
②H. H. Scullard, Roman Britain : outpost of the Empire, p165.
③Sheppard Frere, Britannia : a history of Roman Britain, p321.
④参见R.G. Collingwood, Roman Britain and the English settlements, p272-273.
①Sheppard Frere, Britannia : a history of Roman Britain, p322.
②Sheppard Frere, Britannia : a history of Roman Britain, p323.
③R.G. Collingwood, Roman Britain and the English settlements, p254.
④Sheppard Frere, Britannia: a history of Roman Britain, p307.
①R.G. Collingwood, Roman Britain and the English settlements, p247.
②Sheppard Frere, Britannia: a history of Roman Britain, p307.
③H. H. Scullard, Roman Britain : outpost of the Empire, p150.
①Sheppard Frere, Britannia : A history of Roman Britain, p308.
②亚瑟·伊旺斯(Arthur Evas,1851-1941),英国考古学家,以研究克里特文明著名。参见http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Evans, 2011-4-3.
③R.G. Collingwood, Roman Britain and the English settlements, p257.
④安特诺西提库斯神(Antenociticus)是在罗马-不列颠宗教崇拜中司战争中士气鼓舞和仲裁调解的神;参见http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antenociticus, 2011-5-10.
①Sheppard Frere, Britannia: a history of Roman Britain, p309.
②参见H. H. Scullard, Roman Britain : outpost of the Empire, p153.
③R.G. Collingwood, Roman Britain and the English settlements, p257.
①R.G. Collingwood, Roman Britain and the English settlements, p193.
②Peter Garnsey and Richard Saller, The Roman Empire : Economy,Society and Culture, p193.
①Sheppard Frere, Britannia: a history of Roman Britain, p295.
②G.H. Stevenson, Roman provincial administration: till the age of the Antonines, p121.
③A.L.Morton, A people’s history of England , London: Lawrence & Wishart Ltd. 1979, p29.
①David Shotter, Roman Britain, 2nd ed., London and NewYork : Routledge, 2004, p116-117.
①参见David Shotter, p113-114,以及[美]克里斯托弗·A·斯奈德著:《不列颠人:传说和历史》,第311页。
[1]Caesar, The Gallic War, With an English translation by H. J. Edward, Cambridge(Massachusetts), London(England): Harvard University Press, 2006.
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[3]Tacitus, The Annals, With an English translation by John Jackson, Cambridge(Massachusetts),London(England):Harvard University Press, 2006.
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[12] [英]约翰·克拉潘.简明不列颠经济史[M].范定九、王祖廉译,上海:上海译文出版社,1980.
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[2]蒋孟引.英国史[M].北京:中国社会科学出版社,1988年.
[3]李雅书、杨共乐.古代罗马史[M].北京:北京师范大学出版社:1994。
[4]钱乘旦、许洁明.英国通史[M].上海:上海社会科学院出版社,2002年.
[5]杨共乐.罗马史纲要[M].北京:商务印书馆,2007.
[6]阎照祥.英国史[M].北京:人民出版社,2003.
[1]陈可风.凯撒入侵不列颠原因探析[J].湘潭大学社会科学学报,2002(6):71-72,81.
[2]陈可风.罗马对不列颠的征服——从凯撒到克劳狄乌斯[J].世界历史,2004(3):113-119.
[3]宋立宏.罗马帝国行省体系中的皇帝——以罗马不列颠为例[J].南京大学学报(哲学.人文科学.社会科学版),2006( 5):135-144.
[4]宋立宏.行省中的罗马军队——以罗马不列颠为中心[J].古代文明,2008(3):15-29.
[5]宋立宏.罗马帝国的地方政府——以不列颠为例[J].古代文明,2009(1):2-13.
[6]王鹤.军队在“罗马化”过程中的作用[J].北方论丛,2007(2):97-100.
[7]崔明昊.论不列颠的罗马化[D].辽宁大学硕士学位论文,2004.
[8]肖丽.论罗马海外殖民地的建立及其历史功用---兼论共和向帝制转变时期的罗马化问题[D].东北师范大学硕士学位论文,2010.
[1]http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gallia_Belgica, 2011-3-1.
[2]http://www.unrv.com/provinces/gallia.php,2011-5-20.
[3]http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_roads_in_Britain,2011-3-4.
[4]http://www.roman-britain.org/romano-british-settlement.htm, 2011-4-5.
[5]http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Roman_Roads_in_Britannia.svg,2011-5-20.
[6]http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romano-British, 2011-4-5.
[7]http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gildas,2011-4-3.
[8]http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Evans, 2011-4-3.
[9]http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antenociticus, 2011-5-10.
[10]http://www.roman-britain.org/romano-british-settlement.htm, 2011-4-5.
②Ray Laurence and Joanne Berry, Culture Identity in the Roman Empire, London and New York : Routledge, 2001, p111.
③肖丽:《论罗马海外殖民地的建立及其历史功用---兼论共和向帝制转变时期的罗马化问题》,东北师范大学硕士学位论文,2010年,第3页。
④参见Simon Hornblower and Antony Spawforth , The Oxford University Classical Dictionary, p1321.
⑤参见钱乘旦、许洁明:《英国通史》,上海社会科学院出版社,2002年,第16页。
①参见Graham Webster, The Roman Invasion of Britain, London: Batsford Academic and Educational Ltd, 1980, p31,p33.
②参见http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gallia_Belgica, 2011-3-1.
③[美]克里斯托弗·A·斯奈德:《不列颠人:传说和历史》,范勇鹏译,北京:北京大学出版社,2009,第17页。
④布立吞人(Britons),指铁器时期至中世纪早期生活在大不列颠岛的福斯湾(约位于北纬56度,英格兰与苏格兰地区的交界处)以南的凯尔特人。参见http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Britons_(historical), 2011-3-1.
⑤Caesar, The Gallic War, With an English translation by H. J. Edward, Cambridge(Massachusetts), London(England): Harvard University Press, 2006, p147.
①塔西坨:《阿古利可拉传·日耳曼尼亚志》,马庸、傅正元译,北京:商务印书馆,1985,第21页。
②参见Graham Webster, The Roman Invasion of Britain, London: Batsford Academic and Educational Ltd, 1980, p34-35.
③[美]克里斯托弗·A·斯奈德:《不列颠人:传说和历史》,第23页。
④[古罗马]]凯撒:《高卢战记》,任炳湘译,商务印书馆,1997年,第98页。
⑤H. H. Scullard, Roman Britain : outpost of the Empire, London :Thames and Hudson, 1979, p26.
①凯撒:《高卢战记》,第105-107页。
②参见[英]屈勒味林:《英国史》,钱端升译,北京:中国社会科学出版社,2008,第20页。
③[美]克里斯托弗·A·斯奈德:《不列颠人:传说和历史》,第24-25页。
④Graham Webster, The Roman Invasion of Britain, p46.
⑤参见[古罗马]苏维托尼乌斯:《罗马十二帝王传》,田丽娟、邹凯丽译,上海:上海三联书店,2010,第175页。
①Dio Cassius, Dio’s Roman History, (Volume VII), Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2006, p417.
②[美]克里斯托弗·A·斯奈德:《不列颠人:传说和历史》,第35页。
③David Shotter, Roman Britain, 2nd ed., London and New York : Routledge, 2004, p21.
④Suetonius, Claudius,17.转引自[美]克里斯托弗·A·斯奈德:《不列颠人:传说和历史》,第35页。
⑤[古罗马]塔西佗:《阿古利可拉传·日耳曼尼亚志》,第22页。
⑥[英]迈克尔·格兰特:《罗马史》,王乃新、郝际陶译,上海人民出版社,2008 ,第223页。
⑦[英]温斯顿·丘吉尔:《英语国家史略》,薛力敏、林林译,北京:新华出版社,1985,第43页。
⑧参见[英]F·E·霍利迪:《简明英国史》,洪永珊译,南昌:江西人民出版社,1985,第4页。
①David Shotter, Roman Britain, p24.
②Alan K. Bowman, Edward Champlin, Andrew Lintott , The Cambridge Ancient History(Vol X:The Augustan Empire 43B.C.-A.D.69 , 2nd ed., Cambridge : Cambridge University Press, 1996, p509.
③F.Haverfield, The Romanization of Roman Britain , 4th ed., Oxford : Clarendon Press, 1923, p24.
④David Shotter, Roman Britain, p63.
①Peter Salway, Roman Britain, Oxford: Clarendon Press,1981,List of Maps: Map VII.
②参见R.G. Collingwood , Roman Britain and the English settlements, 2nd ed., Oxford : Clarendon Press, 1937, p292.
③[英]肯尼思·O·摩根:《牛津英国通史》,王觉非等译,北京:商务印书馆,1993,第56页。
④A Dictionary of World History, second edition, New York : Oxford University Press, 2006, p545.
①宫秀华:《罗马:从共和走向帝制》(第二版),北京:高等教育出版社,2006,第175页。
②戴克里先皇帝将不列颠划分为四个行省之后,在各省设有一名行政长官,他们对驻伦敦的不列颠行省代表人负责,这位代表人再转而向高卢的行政官负责。参见[美]克里斯托弗·A·斯奈德:《不列颠人:传说和历史》,第60页。
③H. H. Scullard, Roman Britain : outpost of the Empire, p47.
④R.G.Collingwood, Roman Britain and the English settlements, p162.
①参见宋立宏:《罗马帝国的地方政府——以不列颠为例》,载于《古代文明》2009年第1期,第2-13页。
②David Shotter, Roman Britain, p55.
③参见塔西佗:《阿古利可拉传·日耳曼尼亚志》,第27页。
④R.G.Collingwood, Roman Britain and the English settlements, p163.
①R.G.Collingwood, Roman Britain and the English settlements, p164.
②Lindsay Allason-Jones, Daily life in Roman Britain, Oxford ; Westport, Conn.: Greenwood World, 2008, p56.
③Lindsay Allason-Jones, Daily life in Roman Britain, p55.
④R.G.Collingwood, Roman Britain and the English settlements , p242.
⑤R.G.Collingwood, Roman Britain and the English settlements , p242.
⑥参见[古罗马]塔西坨:《编年史》(下册),王以铸等译,北京:商务印书馆,2009,第532页。
⑦R.G.Collingwood, Roman Britain and the English settlements , p164.
⑧R.G.Collingwood, Roman Britain and the English settlements , p164.
①拉丁文civitas的英文意为“罗马化的部落”(“Romanised tribes”),参见David Shotter, Roman Britain, p56.
②Peter Salway, Roman Britain, Oxford: Clarendon Press,1981, p535.
③参见Peter Salway, Roman Britain, Oxford: Clarendon Press,1981, p537.
④F.Haverfield, ,The Romanization of Roman Britain , 4th ed.,Oxford : Clarendon Press, 1923, p60.
⑤David Shotter, Roman Britain, p61.
①T.W. Potter and Catherine Johns., Roman Britain, London : British Museum Press, 1992, p80.
②I.A.Richmond, Roman Britain, Harmondsworth, Middlesex: Penguin Books, 1955, p69.
③参见http://www.unrv.com/provinces/gallia.php,2011-5-20.
④Peter Garnsey and Richard Saller, The Roman Empire:Economy,Society and Culture, Berkeley and Los Angeles:University of California Press,1987,p166.
⑤I.A.Richmond, Roman Britain, p69-70.
②G.H.Stevenson, Roman provincial administration: till the age of the Antonines, Oxford : Basil Blackwell, 1939, p130.
①Peter Salway, Roman Britain, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1981, p565.
②Peter Salway, Roman Britain, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1981, p566.
③http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_roads_in_Britain, 2011-3-4.
①[美]克里斯托弗·A·斯奈德:《不列颠人:传说和历史》,第19页。
②关于不列颠行省内主要罗马化城镇的分布图见本文第20-21页。
③Malcolm Todd , A companion to Roman Britain, Malden, MA : Blackwell Pub., 2004, p182.
④David Shotter, Roman Britain, p59.
①R. G. Collingwood, Roman Britain and the English settlements, p164.
②David Shotter, Roman Britain, 2nd ed., London and NewYork : Routledge, 2004, p59-60.
③G.H.Stevenson, Roman provincial administration: till the age of the Antonines, p129.
④参见R.G. Collingwood, Roman Britain and the English settlements, p165,以及A. L. F. Rivet, Town and country in Roman Britain, London : Hutchinson University Library, 1958, p65.
⑤David Shotter, Roman Britain, p61.
⑥David Shotter, Roman Britain, p56.
①I. A. Richmond, Roman Britain, p67.
②Malcolm Todd, Roman Britain55BC-AD400: The Province beyond Ocean, Glasgow: Fontana Paperbacks , 1981, p123.
③R. G. Collingwood, Roman Britain and the English settlements, p198.
④Tacitus, The Annals, (Vol XIV) , Harvard University Press, 2006, p169.
⑤Sheppard Frere , Britannia: A history of Roman Britain, 3rd ed., extensively rev., London ; New York : Routledge & Kegan Paul ,1987, p253.
⑥参见http://www.roman-britain.org/romano-british-settlement.htm, 2011-4-5.
⑦Philip Crummy,“The Origins of Some Major Romano-British Towns”, Britannia, Vol. 13 ,1982, pp. 130.
⑧I.A.Richmond, Roman Britain, p82.
①参见R.G. Collingwood, Roman Britain and the English settlements, p197和T.W. Potter and Catherine Johns., Roman Britain,p75.
②Peter Salway, Roman Britain, Oxford: Clarendon Press,1981, p575.
③Sheppard Frere, Britannia :A history of Roman Britain, p250.
①Lindsay Allason-Jones, .Daily life in Roman Britain, p68.
②R.G. Collingwood, Roman Britain and the English settlements, p243.
③1英亩=0.405公顷=4050平方米;100英亩=405平方千米。
④1英尺=30.48厘米;240英尺≈73米,60英尺≈18米。
⑤Malcolm Todd , A companion to Roman Britain, p175.
⑥http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_roads_in_Britain, 2011-3-4.
①Lindsay Allason-Jones, Daily life in Roman Britain, p65.
②Lindsay Allason-Jones, Daily life in Roman Britain, p65.
③R.G. Collingwood, Roman Britain and the English settlements, p192.
④LindsayAllason-Jones, Daily life in Roman Britain, p65.
⑤H. H.Scullard, Roman Britain : outpost of the Empire, p99.
⑥Lindsay Allason-Jones, Daily life in Roman Britain, p66.
①Lindsay Allason-Jones, Daily life in Roman Britain, p67.
②Sheppard Frere, Britannia: a history of Roman Britain, p297.
③Lindsay Allason-Jones, Daily life in Roman Britain, p58.
④Lindsay Allason-Jones, Daily life in Roman Britain, p59.
①H. H. Scullard, Roman Britain : outpost of the Empire, p113.
②Jennifer Laing, Art and society in Roman Britain, Stroud, Gloucestershire : Sutton Publishing Limited, 1997, p96.
③R.G. Collingwood, Roman Britain and the English settlements, p215.
④转引自R.G. Collingwood, Roman Britain and the English settlements, p215.
①参见E.W. Black:“Villa Owers:Romano-British Gentleman and Officers”, Britannia, Vol. 25, (1994), pp. 99-110.
②参见R.G. Collingwood, Roman Britain and the English settlements, p216.
③R.G. Collingwood, Roman Britain and the English settlements, p217.
④转引自Jennifer Laing, Art and society in Roman Britain, p93.
①Jennifer Laing, Art and society in Roman Britain, p103-104.
②R.G Collingwood., The archaeology of Roman Britain, New York : Lincon Macveagh The DialPress, 1930, p114.
①R.G. Collingwood, Roman Britain and the English settlements, p218.
②R.G. Collingwood, Roman Britain and the English settlements, p218.
③Sheppard Frere,Britannia: a history of Roman Britain, p301.
④Sheppard Frere,Britannia: a history of Roman Britain, p302.
⑤Sheppard Frere,Britannia: a history of Roman Britain, p301.
①Sheppard Frere,Britannia: a history of Roman Britain, p302.
②Sheppard Frere,Britannia: a history of Roman Britain, p302.
①参见http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romano-British, 2011-4-5.
②F.Haverfield, The Romanization of Roman Britain , p29.
③Peter Salway, Roman Britain, p506.
④F.Haverfield, The Romanization of Roman Britain , p29.
①F.Haverfield, The Romanization of Roman Britain , p31.
②F.Haverfield, The Romanization of Roman Britain , p31.
③参见Sheppard Frere, Britannia: a history of Roman Britain, p303-304.
①F.Haverfield, The Romanization of Roman Britain , p34.
②塔西坨:《阿古利可拉传·日耳曼尼亚志》,第28页。
①LindsayAllason-Jones, Daily life in Roman Britain, p111.
②R.G. Collingwood, Roman Britain and the English settlements, p261.
③转引自H. H.Scullard, Roman Britain : outpost of the Empire, p154.
④Lindsay Allason-Jones, Daily life in Roman Britain, p119.
①Lindsay Allason-Jones, Daily life in Roman Britain, p120.
②转引自Lindsay Allason-Jones, Daily life in Roman Britain, p125.
③Sheppard Frere, Britannia: a history of Roman Britain, p313.
④Lindsay Allason-Jones, Daily life in Roman Britain, p121.
⑤Sheppard Frere, Britannia: a history of Roman Britain, p316.
①R.G. Collingwood, Roman Britain and the English settlements, p269.
②R.G. Collingwood, Roman Britain and the English settlements, p264.
③R.G. Collingwood, Roman Britain and the English settlements, p261.
①H. H. Scullard, Roman Britain : outpost of the Empire, p165.
②吉尔达斯(Gildas,500-570),不列颠教士,是公元6世纪不列颠基督教教会史中被描写得最明确的人物之一。参见http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gildas, 2011-4-3.
③参见R.G. Collingwood, Roman Britain and the English settlements, p271.
①R.G. Collingwood, Roman Britain and the English settlements, p270.
②H. H. Scullard, Roman Britain : outpost of the Empire, p165.
③Sheppard Frere, Britannia : a history of Roman Britain, p321.
④参见R.G. Collingwood, Roman Britain and the English settlements, p272-273.
①Sheppard Frere, Britannia : a history of Roman Britain, p322.
②Sheppard Frere, Britannia : a history of Roman Britain, p323.
③R.G. Collingwood, Roman Britain and the English settlements, p254.
④Sheppard Frere, Britannia: a history of Roman Britain, p307.
①R.G. Collingwood, Roman Britain and the English settlements, p247.
②Sheppard Frere, Britannia: a history of Roman Britain, p307.
③H. H. Scullard, Roman Britain : outpost of the Empire, p150.
①Sheppard Frere, Britannia : A history of Roman Britain, p308.
②亚瑟·伊旺斯(Arthur Evas,1851-1941),英国考古学家,以研究克里特文明著名。参见http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Evans, 2011-4-3.
③R.G. Collingwood, Roman Britain and the English settlements, p257.
④安特诺西提库斯神(Antenociticus)是在罗马-不列颠宗教崇拜中司战争中士气鼓舞和仲裁调解的神;参见http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antenociticus, 2011-5-10.
①Sheppard Frere, Britannia: a history of Roman Britain, p309.
②参见H. H. Scullard, Roman Britain : outpost of the Empire, p153.
③R.G. Collingwood, Roman Britain and the English settlements, p257.
①R.G. Collingwood, Roman Britain and the English settlements, p193.
②Peter Garnsey and Richard Saller, The Roman Empire : Economy,Society and Culture, p193.
①Sheppard Frere, Britannia: a history of Roman Britain, p295.
②G.H. Stevenson, Roman provincial administration: till the age of the Antonines, p121.
③A.L.Morton, A people’s history of England , London: Lawrence & Wishart Ltd. 1979, p29.
①David Shotter, Roman Britain, 2nd ed., London and NewYork : Routledge, 2004, p116-117.
①参见David Shotter, p113-114,以及[美]克里斯托弗·A·斯奈德著:《不列颠人:传说和历史》,第311页。
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