上转换单光子探测器的研究及其应用
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摘要
光的最小单位是光子,单光子探测器作为最精密的光学测量仪器可以实现对单个光子的检测,其在量子信息、生物荧光检测、分布式光纤传感、微弱光成像、激光雷达等诸多领域有着重要的应用。在量子信息领域,由于基于物理学上的量子态不可克隆定理,利用单光子的非正交态进行编码可以实现无条件安全的量子密钥分发(QKD),进而实现无条件安全的量子保密通讯。在基于光子为信息载体的量子密钥分发中,单光子探测器作为量子密钥分发的核心器件,其性能指标成为限制量子保密通讯传输距离和成码率的重要因素之一。
本论文的工作是研制基于周期性极化铌酸锂波导的高效率低噪声的通讯波段上转换单光子探测器,对通讯波段的上转换单光子探测器中存在的相关科学问题进行了分析研究,介绍了本人参与的相关实验、实验原理、数据分析等。论文中介绍了基于周期性极化铌酸锂波导的上转换单光子探测器实验方案、测试了波导转换效率、分析了噪声来源,研制成功了高效率低噪声的通讯波段上转换单光子探测器。基于研制成功的单光子探测器,本论文首次实现了测量设备无关的量子密钥分发实验从而避免了由于探测器漏洞所造成的攻击、实现了52km通讯波段白天量子密钥分发实验从而解决了白天无法进行远距离量子密钥分发和与光纤量子密钥分发波长不匹配的问题、217km的长距离光子计数光纤时域反射仪、高灵敏度的通讯波段光谱仪和2微米波段的红外单光子探测器等诸多实验。
Single-photon detection (SPD) is the most precise measurement technology of a single photon, which is the smallest unit of light. It has been widely used in quantum information, biological fluorescence detection, distributed fiber sensor, weak optical imaging and laser radar. In the field of quantum information, Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) can provide an unconditional security method of key distribution by using the nonorthogonal states of single photons. The security of QKD is guaranteed by physical laws. Single-photon detector is a core part of quantum communication. Its performance limits the transmission distance and key rate of quantum communication..
In this thesis, we develop a new type up-conversion single-photon detector based on periodically poled lithium niobate(PPLN) waveguide in the1.5μm telecom band. The working principle, experiment setup and result are discussed. Based on the newly up-conversion single-photon detector, we achieved the first experiment of device-independent measurement QKD in the fiber up to50km, which closed all attacks from the source and detector. We firstly realized the experiment of QKD based on free-space in daytime up to52km with the1550nm; which solves the problem of wavelength mismatch in free-space QKD and fiber-based QKD. Further more, photon counting Optical Time Domain Reflectometer (OTDR) with217km, spectrometers in telecom band with high-sensitivity and the up-conversion single-photon detectors in2micron band are reported in this thesis.
本论文的工作是研制基于周期性极化铌酸锂波导的高效率低噪声的通讯波段上转换单光子探测器,对通讯波段的上转换单光子探测器中存在的相关科学问题进行了分析研究,介绍了本人参与的相关实验、实验原理、数据分析等。论文中介绍了基于周期性极化铌酸锂波导的上转换单光子探测器实验方案、测试了波导转换效率、分析了噪声来源,研制成功了高效率低噪声的通讯波段上转换单光子探测器。基于研制成功的单光子探测器,本论文首次实现了测量设备无关的量子密钥分发实验从而避免了由于探测器漏洞所造成的攻击、实现了52km通讯波段白天量子密钥分发实验从而解决了白天无法进行远距离量子密钥分发和与光纤量子密钥分发波长不匹配的问题、217km的长距离光子计数光纤时域反射仪、高灵敏度的通讯波段光谱仪和2微米波段的红外单光子探测器等诸多实验。
Single-photon detection (SPD) is the most precise measurement technology of a single photon, which is the smallest unit of light. It has been widely used in quantum information, biological fluorescence detection, distributed fiber sensor, weak optical imaging and laser radar. In the field of quantum information, Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) can provide an unconditional security method of key distribution by using the nonorthogonal states of single photons. The security of QKD is guaranteed by physical laws. Single-photon detector is a core part of quantum communication. Its performance limits the transmission distance and key rate of quantum communication..
In this thesis, we develop a new type up-conversion single-photon detector based on periodically poled lithium niobate(PPLN) waveguide in the1.5μm telecom band. The working principle, experiment setup and result are discussed. Based on the newly up-conversion single-photon detector, we achieved the first experiment of device-independent measurement QKD in the fiber up to50km, which closed all attacks from the source and detector. We firstly realized the experiment of QKD based on free-space in daytime up to52km with the1550nm; which solves the problem of wavelength mismatch in free-space QKD and fiber-based QKD. Further more, photon counting Optical Time Domain Reflectometer (OTDR) with217km, spectrometers in telecom band with high-sensitivity and the up-conversion single-photon detectors in2micron band are reported in this thesis.
引文
Albota, M. A. and F. N. Wong (2004). "Efficient single-photon counting at 1.55 μm by means of frequency upconversion." Optics letters 29(13): 1449-1451.
Armstrong, J., N. Bloembergen, J. Ducuing and P. Pershan (1962). "Interactions between light waves in a nonlinear dielectric." Physical Review 127(6):1918.
Aspelmeyer, M., H. R. Bohm, T. Gyatso, T. Jennewein, R. Kaltenbaek, M. Lindenthal, G. Molina-Terriza, A. Poppe, K. Resch and M. Taraba (2003). "Long-distance free-space distribution of quantum entanglement." science 301(5633):621-623.
Bennett, C. H. (1992). "Quantum cryptography using any two nonorthogonal states." Physical Review Letters 68(21):3121.
Bennett, C. H., F. Bessette, G. Brassard, L. Salvail and J. Smolin (1992). "Experimental quantum cryptography." Journal of cryptology 5(1):3-28.
Bennett, C. H. and G. Brassard (1984). Quantum cryptography:Public key distribution and coin tossing. Proceedings of IEEE International Conference on Computers, Systems and Signal Processing, New York.
Brassard, G., N. Lutkenhaus, T. Mor and B. C. Sanders (2000). "Security aspects of practical quantum cryptography." Advances in Cryptology-Eurocrypt 20001807:289-299.
Brassard, G., T. Mor and B. C. Sanders (2000). "Quantum cryptography via parametric downconversion." Quantum Communication, Computing, and Measurement 2:381-386.
Buttler, W., R. Hughes, P. Kwiat, S. Lamoreaux, G. Luther, G. Morgan, J. Nordholt, C. Peterson and C. Simmons (1998). "Practical free-space quantum key distribution over 1 km." Physical Review Letters 81(15):3283.
Deutsch, D., A. Ekert, R. Jozsa, C. Macchiavello, S. Popescu and A. Sanpera (1996). "Quantum privacy amplification and the security of quantum cryptography over noisy channels." Physical Review Letters 77(13):2818.
Gansen, E., M. Rowe, M. Greene, D. Rosenberg, T. Harvey, M. Su, R. Hadfield, S. Nam and R. Mirin (2007). "Photon-number-discriminating detection using a quantum-dot, optically gated, field-effect transistor." Nature Photonics 1(10): 585-588.
Gottesman, D., H. K. Lo, N. Lutkenhaus and J. Preskill (2004). "Security of quantum key distribution with imperfect devices." Quantum Information & Computation 4(5):325-360.
Hadfield, R. H. (2009). "Single-photon detectors for optical quantum information applications." Nature photonics 3(12):696-705.
Hughes, R. J., J. E. Nordholt, D. Derkacs and C. G. Peterson (2002). "Practical free-space quantum key distribution over 10 km in daylight and at night." New journal of physics 4(1):43.
Itzler, M. A., R. Ben-Michael, C.-F. Hsu, K. Slomkowski, A. Tosi, S. Cova, F. Zappa and R. Ispasoiu (2007). "Single photon avalanche diodes (SPADs) for 1.5 μm photon counting applications." Journal of Modern Optics 54(2-3):283-304.
Jain, N., C. Wittmann, L. Lydersen, C. Wiechers, D. Elser, C. Marquardt, V. Makarov and G. Leuchs (2011). "Device calibration impacts security of quantum key distribution." Physical review letters 107(11):110501.
Kamada, H., M. Asobe, T. Honjo, H. Takesue, Y. Tokura, Y. Nishida,O. Tadanaga and H. Miyazawa (2008). "Efficient and low-noise single-photon detection in 1550 nm communication band by frequency upconversion in periodically poled LiNbO< sub> 3 waveguides." Optics letters 33(7): 639-641.
Kumar, P. (1990). "Quantum frequency conversion." Optics letters 15(24): 1476-1478.
Lacaita, A., F. Zappa, S. Cova and P. Lovati (1996). "Single-photon detection beyond 1μm:performance of commercially available InGaAs/lnP detectors." Applied Optics 35(16):2986-2996.
Langrock, C., E. Diamanti, R. V. Roussev, Y. Yamamoto, M. M. Fejer and H. Takesue (2005). "Highly efficient single-photon detection at communication wavelengths by use of upconversion in reverse-proton-exchanged periodically poled LiNbO3 waveguides." Optics letters 30(13):1725-1727.
Liu, Y., T.-Y. Chen, J. Wang, W.-Q. Cai, X. Wan, L.-K. Chen, J.-H. Wang, S.-B. Liu, H. Liang and L. Yang (2010). "Decoy-state quantum key distribution with polarized photons over 200 km." Optics express 18(8):8587-8594.
Liu, Y., T.-Y. Chen, L.-J. Wang, H. Liang, G.-L. Shentu, J. Wang, K. Cui, H.-L. Yin, N.-L. Liu and L. Li (2013). "Experimental measurement-device-independent quantum key distribution." Physical review letters 111(13):130502.
Lo, H.-K. and H. F. Chau (1999). "Unconditional security of quantum key distribution over arbitrarily long distances." Science 283(5410):2050-2056.
Lo, H.-K., M. Curty and B. Qi (2012). "Measurement-device-independent quantum key distribution." Physical review letters 108(13):130503.
Lo, H.-K., X. Ma and K. Chen (2005). "Decoy state quantum key distribution." Physical Review Letters 94(23):230504.
Lydersen, L., C. Wiechers, C. Wittmann, D. Elser, J. Skaar and V. Makarov (2010). "Hacking commercial quantum cryptography systems by tailored bright illumination." Nature photonics 4(10):686-689.
Ma, X. and M. Razavi (2012). "Alternative schemes for measurement-device-independent quantum key distribution." Physical Review A 86(6):062319.
Makarov, V., A. Anisimov and J. Skaar (2006). "Effects of detector efficiency mismatch on security of quantum cryptosystems." Physical Review A 74(2): 022313.
Marsili, F., V. Verma, J. Stern, S. Harrington, A. Lita, T. Gerrits, I. Vayshenker, B. Baek, M. Shaw and R. Mirin (2013). "Detecting single infrared photons with 93% system efficiency." Nature Photonics 7(3):210-214.
Mayers, D. (1996). Quantum key distribution and string oblivious transfer in noisy channels. Advances in Cryptology-CRYPTO'96, Springer.
Muller, A., H. Zbinden and N. Gisin (1995). "Underwater quantum coding." Nature 378(6556):449-449.
Nevet, A., A. Hayat and M. Orenstein (2011). "Ultrafast three-photon counting in a photomultiplier tube." Optics letters 36(5):725-727.
Pelc, J., G.-L. Shentu, Q. Zhang, M. Fejer and J.-W. Pan (2012). "Up-conversion of optical signals with multi-longitudinal-mode pump lasers." Physical Review A 86(3):033827.
Peng, C.-Z., J. Zhang, D. Yang, W.-B. Gao, H.-X. Ma, H. Yin, H.-P. Zeng, T. Yang, X.-B. Wang and J.-W. Pan (2007). "Experimental long-distance decoy-state quantum key distribution based on polarization encoding." Physical review letters 98(1):010505.
Rosenberg, D., J. W. Harrington, P. R. Rice, P. A. Hiskett, C. G. Peterson, R. J. Hughes, A. E. Lita, S. W. Nam and J. E. Nordholt (2007). "Long-distance decoy-state quantum key distribution in optical fiber." Physical review letters 98(1):010503.
Rosfjord, K. M., J. K. Yang, E. A. Dauler, A. J. Kerman, V. Anant, B. M. Voronov, G. N. Gol'Tsman and K. K. Berggren (2006). "Nanowire single-photon detector with an integrated optical cavity and anti-reflection coating." Optics Express 14(2):527-534.
Schmitt-Manderbach, T., H. Weier, M. Furst, R. Ursin, F. Tiefenbacher, T. Scheidl, J. Perdigues, Z. Sodnik, C. Kurtsiefer and J. G. Rarity (2007). "Experimental demonstration of free-space decoy-state quantum key distribution over 144 km." Physical Review Letters 98(1):010504.
Shor, P. W. and J. Preskill (2000). "Simple proof of security of the BB84 quantum key distribution protocol." Physical Review Letters 85(2):441.
Stucki, D., N. Walenta, F. Vannel, R. T. Thew, N. Gisin, H. Zbinden, S. Gray, C. Towery and S. Ten (2009). "High rate, long-distance quantum key distribution over 250 km of ultra low loss fibres." New Journal of Physics 11(7):075003.
Takesue, H., S. W. Nam, Q. Zhang, R. H. Hadfield, T. Honjo, K. Tamaki and Y. Yamamoto (2007). "Quantum key distribution over a 40-dB channel loss using superconducting single-photon detectors." Nature photonics 1(6):343-348.
Townsend, P. D. and J. G. Rarity (1993). "Experimental Demonstration of Quantum Cryptography Using Polarized Photons in Optical-Fiber over More Than 1 Km." Electronics Letters 29(7):634-635.
Ursin, R., F. Tiefenbacher, T. Schmitt-Manderbach, H. Weier, T. Scheidl, M. Lindenthal, B. Blauensteiner, T. Jennewein, J. Perdigues and P. Trojek (2007). "Entanglement-based quantum communication over 144 km." Nature physics 3(7]:481-486.
Vandevender, A. P. and P. G. Kwiat (2004). "High efficiency single photon detection via frequency up-conversion." Journal of Modern Optics 51(9-10): 1433-1445.
Wang, X.-B. (2005). "Beating the photon-number-splitting attack in practical quantum cryptography." Physical review letters 94(23):230503.
Wiechers, C., L. Lydersen, C. Wittmann, D. Elser, J. Skaar, C. Marquardt, V. Makarov and G. Leuchs (2011). "After-gate attack on a quantum cryptosystem." New Journal of Physics 13(1):013043.
Xu, F., B. Qi and H.-K. Lo (2010). "Experimental demonstration of phase-remapping attack in a practical quantum key distribution system." New Journal of Physics 12(11):113026.
Yuan, Z., C. Gobby and A. J. Shields (2003). Quantum key distribution over distances as long as 101km. CLEO/QELS.
Yuan, Z., B. Kardynal, A. Sharpe and A. Shields (2007). "High speed single photon detection in the near infrared." Applied Physics Letters 91(4):041114.
Zhang, J., R. Thew, C. Barreiro and H. Zbinden (2009). "Practical fast gate rate InGaAs/InP single-photon avalanche photodiodes." Applied Physics Letters 95(9):091103.
Zhao, Y., C.-H. F. Fung, B. Qi, C. Chen and H.-K. Lo (2008). "Quantum hacking: Experimental demonstration of time-shift attack against practical quantum-key-distribution systems." Physical Review A 78(4):042333.
Armstrong, J., N. Bloembergen, J. Ducuing and P. Pershan (1962). "Interactions between light waves in a nonlinear dielectric." Physical Review 127(6):1918.
Aspelmeyer, M., H. R. Bohm, T. Gyatso, T. Jennewein, R. Kaltenbaek, M. Lindenthal, G. Molina-Terriza, A. Poppe, K. Resch and M. Taraba (2003). "Long-distance free-space distribution of quantum entanglement." science 301(5633):621-623.
Bennett, C. H. (1992). "Quantum cryptography using any two nonorthogonal states." Physical Review Letters 68(21):3121.
Bennett, C. H., F. Bessette, G. Brassard, L. Salvail and J. Smolin (1992). "Experimental quantum cryptography." Journal of cryptology 5(1):3-28.
Bennett, C. H. and G. Brassard (1984). Quantum cryptography:Public key distribution and coin tossing. Proceedings of IEEE International Conference on Computers, Systems and Signal Processing, New York.
Brassard, G., N. Lutkenhaus, T. Mor and B. C. Sanders (2000). "Security aspects of practical quantum cryptography." Advances in Cryptology-Eurocrypt 20001807:289-299.
Brassard, G., T. Mor and B. C. Sanders (2000). "Quantum cryptography via parametric downconversion." Quantum Communication, Computing, and Measurement 2:381-386.
Buttler, W., R. Hughes, P. Kwiat, S. Lamoreaux, G. Luther, G. Morgan, J. Nordholt, C. Peterson and C. Simmons (1998). "Practical free-space quantum key distribution over 1 km." Physical Review Letters 81(15):3283.
Deutsch, D., A. Ekert, R. Jozsa, C. Macchiavello, S. Popescu and A. Sanpera (1996). "Quantum privacy amplification and the security of quantum cryptography over noisy channels." Physical Review Letters 77(13):2818.
Gansen, E., M. Rowe, M. Greene, D. Rosenberg, T. Harvey, M. Su, R. Hadfield, S. Nam and R. Mirin (2007). "Photon-number-discriminating detection using a quantum-dot, optically gated, field-effect transistor." Nature Photonics 1(10): 585-588.
Gottesman, D., H. K. Lo, N. Lutkenhaus and J. Preskill (2004). "Security of quantum key distribution with imperfect devices." Quantum Information & Computation 4(5):325-360.
Hadfield, R. H. (2009). "Single-photon detectors for optical quantum information applications." Nature photonics 3(12):696-705.
Hughes, R. J., J. E. Nordholt, D. Derkacs and C. G. Peterson (2002). "Practical free-space quantum key distribution over 10 km in daylight and at night." New journal of physics 4(1):43.
Itzler, M. A., R. Ben-Michael, C.-F. Hsu, K. Slomkowski, A. Tosi, S. Cova, F. Zappa and R. Ispasoiu (2007). "Single photon avalanche diodes (SPADs) for 1.5 μm photon counting applications." Journal of Modern Optics 54(2-3):283-304.
Jain, N., C. Wittmann, L. Lydersen, C. Wiechers, D. Elser, C. Marquardt, V. Makarov and G. Leuchs (2011). "Device calibration impacts security of quantum key distribution." Physical review letters 107(11):110501.
Kamada, H., M. Asobe, T. Honjo, H. Takesue, Y. Tokura, Y. Nishida,O. Tadanaga and H. Miyazawa (2008). "Efficient and low-noise single-photon detection in 1550 nm communication band by frequency upconversion in periodically poled LiNbO< sub> 3 waveguides." Optics letters 33(7): 639-641.
Kumar, P. (1990). "Quantum frequency conversion." Optics letters 15(24): 1476-1478.
Lacaita, A., F. Zappa, S. Cova and P. Lovati (1996). "Single-photon detection beyond 1μm:performance of commercially available InGaAs/lnP detectors." Applied Optics 35(16):2986-2996.
Langrock, C., E. Diamanti, R. V. Roussev, Y. Yamamoto, M. M. Fejer and H. Takesue (2005). "Highly efficient single-photon detection at communication wavelengths by use of upconversion in reverse-proton-exchanged periodically poled LiNbO3 waveguides." Optics letters 30(13):1725-1727.
Liu, Y., T.-Y. Chen, J. Wang, W.-Q. Cai, X. Wan, L.-K. Chen, J.-H. Wang, S.-B. Liu, H. Liang and L. Yang (2010). "Decoy-state quantum key distribution with polarized photons over 200 km." Optics express 18(8):8587-8594.
Liu, Y., T.-Y. Chen, L.-J. Wang, H. Liang, G.-L. Shentu, J. Wang, K. Cui, H.-L. Yin, N.-L. Liu and L. Li (2013). "Experimental measurement-device-independent quantum key distribution." Physical review letters 111(13):130502.
Lo, H.-K. and H. F. Chau (1999). "Unconditional security of quantum key distribution over arbitrarily long distances." Science 283(5410):2050-2056.
Lo, H.-K., M. Curty and B. Qi (2012). "Measurement-device-independent quantum key distribution." Physical review letters 108(13):130503.
Lo, H.-K., X. Ma and K. Chen (2005). "Decoy state quantum key distribution." Physical Review Letters 94(23):230504.
Lydersen, L., C. Wiechers, C. Wittmann, D. Elser, J. Skaar and V. Makarov (2010). "Hacking commercial quantum cryptography systems by tailored bright illumination." Nature photonics 4(10):686-689.
Ma, X. and M. Razavi (2012). "Alternative schemes for measurement-device-independent quantum key distribution." Physical Review A 86(6):062319.
Makarov, V., A. Anisimov and J. Skaar (2006). "Effects of detector efficiency mismatch on security of quantum cryptosystems." Physical Review A 74(2): 022313.
Marsili, F., V. Verma, J. Stern, S. Harrington, A. Lita, T. Gerrits, I. Vayshenker, B. Baek, M. Shaw and R. Mirin (2013). "Detecting single infrared photons with 93% system efficiency." Nature Photonics 7(3):210-214.
Mayers, D. (1996). Quantum key distribution and string oblivious transfer in noisy channels. Advances in Cryptology-CRYPTO'96, Springer.
Muller, A., H. Zbinden and N. Gisin (1995). "Underwater quantum coding." Nature 378(6556):449-449.
Nevet, A., A. Hayat and M. Orenstein (2011). "Ultrafast three-photon counting in a photomultiplier tube." Optics letters 36(5):725-727.
Pelc, J., G.-L. Shentu, Q. Zhang, M. Fejer and J.-W. Pan (2012). "Up-conversion of optical signals with multi-longitudinal-mode pump lasers." Physical Review A 86(3):033827.
Peng, C.-Z., J. Zhang, D. Yang, W.-B. Gao, H.-X. Ma, H. Yin, H.-P. Zeng, T. Yang, X.-B. Wang and J.-W. Pan (2007). "Experimental long-distance decoy-state quantum key distribution based on polarization encoding." Physical review letters 98(1):010505.
Rosenberg, D., J. W. Harrington, P. R. Rice, P. A. Hiskett, C. G. Peterson, R. J. Hughes, A. E. Lita, S. W. Nam and J. E. Nordholt (2007). "Long-distance decoy-state quantum key distribution in optical fiber." Physical review letters 98(1):010503.
Rosfjord, K. M., J. K. Yang, E. A. Dauler, A. J. Kerman, V. Anant, B. M. Voronov, G. N. Gol'Tsman and K. K. Berggren (2006). "Nanowire single-photon detector with an integrated optical cavity and anti-reflection coating." Optics Express 14(2):527-534.
Schmitt-Manderbach, T., H. Weier, M. Furst, R. Ursin, F. Tiefenbacher, T. Scheidl, J. Perdigues, Z. Sodnik, C. Kurtsiefer and J. G. Rarity (2007). "Experimental demonstration of free-space decoy-state quantum key distribution over 144 km." Physical Review Letters 98(1):010504.
Shor, P. W. and J. Preskill (2000). "Simple proof of security of the BB84 quantum key distribution protocol." Physical Review Letters 85(2):441.
Stucki, D., N. Walenta, F. Vannel, R. T. Thew, N. Gisin, H. Zbinden, S. Gray, C. Towery and S. Ten (2009). "High rate, long-distance quantum key distribution over 250 km of ultra low loss fibres." New Journal of Physics 11(7):075003.
Takesue, H., S. W. Nam, Q. Zhang, R. H. Hadfield, T. Honjo, K. Tamaki and Y. Yamamoto (2007). "Quantum key distribution over a 40-dB channel loss using superconducting single-photon detectors." Nature photonics 1(6):343-348.
Townsend, P. D. and J. G. Rarity (1993). "Experimental Demonstration of Quantum Cryptography Using Polarized Photons in Optical-Fiber over More Than 1 Km." Electronics Letters 29(7):634-635.
Ursin, R., F. Tiefenbacher, T. Schmitt-Manderbach, H. Weier, T. Scheidl, M. Lindenthal, B. Blauensteiner, T. Jennewein, J. Perdigues and P. Trojek (2007). "Entanglement-based quantum communication over 144 km." Nature physics 3(7]:481-486.
Vandevender, A. P. and P. G. Kwiat (2004). "High efficiency single photon detection via frequency up-conversion." Journal of Modern Optics 51(9-10): 1433-1445.
Wang, X.-B. (2005). "Beating the photon-number-splitting attack in practical quantum cryptography." Physical review letters 94(23):230503.
Wiechers, C., L. Lydersen, C. Wittmann, D. Elser, J. Skaar, C. Marquardt, V. Makarov and G. Leuchs (2011). "After-gate attack on a quantum cryptosystem." New Journal of Physics 13(1):013043.
Xu, F., B. Qi and H.-K. Lo (2010). "Experimental demonstration of phase-remapping attack in a practical quantum key distribution system." New Journal of Physics 12(11):113026.
Yuan, Z., C. Gobby and A. J. Shields (2003). Quantum key distribution over distances as long as 101km. CLEO/QELS.
Yuan, Z., B. Kardynal, A. Sharpe and A. Shields (2007). "High speed single photon detection in the near infrared." Applied Physics Letters 91(4):041114.
Zhang, J., R. Thew, C. Barreiro and H. Zbinden (2009). "Practical fast gate rate InGaAs/InP single-photon avalanche photodiodes." Applied Physics Letters 95(9):091103.
Zhao, Y., C.-H. F. Fung, B. Qi, C. Chen and H.-K. Lo (2008). "Quantum hacking: Experimental demonstration of time-shift attack against practical quantum-key-distribution systems." Physical Review A 78(4):042333.