中国能源生产与消费外部性问题研究
|
摘要
随着中国经济的快速发展和国际地位的提升,中国的能源生产和消费问题日益引起世界各国的重视。作为世界第一大温室气体排放国,中国能源生产和消费过程中所产生的外部不经济问题也成为举足轻重的问题,并且在全球气候变化的背景下,中国承受着来自国际社会巨大的减排压力。能源生产和消费格局,以及能源生产与消费过程中所产生的负外部性问题,是关乎我国能源安全、环境容量、经济发展和国际地位的重要问题。
本文以我国能源生产消费过程中产生的外部性为研究对象,通过分析我国能源结构、研究我国能源生产消费过程中产生的外部性,运用数学模型和SPSS统计软件对我国3E综合系统协调性进行计算。通过实证研究,计算我国山西省和内蒙古自治区的能源消费碳排放量和3E系统协调性,分析和总结能源生产地区的经验和教训。在一系列定性研究、定量研究的基础上,分析我国能源生产消费外部性问题现状,并进一步提出,减少能源生产、消费过程中的外部不经济,需要从两方面同时入手:一方面从源头抓起,尽量避免和减少负外部性的产生,另一方面,要将无法避免的负外部性纳入企业成本核算体系,既将外部性内部化。
With the rapid economic development and enhancement of the international status of China, the issue of energy production and consumption in China is increasingly drawing the attention of each country in the world. As the largest country in the aspect of greenhouse gases emission, the external diseconomy problem emerged in energy production and consumption process is becoming significant, and under the background of global climate changes, China is under the pressure of emission reduction from the international society. Energy production and consumption pattern, as well as the negative externality problem in energy production and consumption, is an important issue that relates to energy safety, environment capacity, economic development and international status of China.
As one of the manufacturing bases of the world, the majority of imports are high value-added products and service, and most of exports are ordinary manufacturing products. The energy consumption in the imported commodities and exported commodities of the same value varies significantly, thus the international transfer due to energy consumption aggravates the energy consumption in the industrial development of China. Generally speaking, China has not abandoned the extensive economic growth mode featured by high economic growth, high energy consumption and high environmental pollution.
With the rapid development of economy, the energy production and consumption in China grows year by year. Seen from statistics, from 2000 to 2007, the total production and consumption of primary energy in China shows the increasing tendency year by year, and at the same time, the gap between total energy consumption and total energy production also shows the increasing tendency year by year, and the external dependency of energy consumption increases.
The BP world energy statistics published in 2009 shows that: in the end of 2008, the total oil reserve in China is 2.1 billion tons, making up 1.2% of the total reserve in the world, and the reserve output ratio is 11.1, about 26.43% of the reserve output ratio in the world; the total reserve of natural gas in China is 2460 billion cubic meters, making up 1.3% of the total natural gas reserve in the world, and the reserve output ratio is 32.3, about 53.48% of the world reserve output ratio; the total coal reserve in China is 114.5 billion tons, making up 13.9% of the total coal reserve in the world, and the reserve output ratio is 41, about 33.61% of the world reserve output ratio.
China has abundant energy resources, but at the same time, it is the main oil importer in the world. With the increase of total net oil import year by year, till 2004, the net oil import of China possesses the third position in the world, and will grow further on the basis of it. China is one of the main coal importers in the world, and the same with Australia and Indonesia, the total net coal import has always been negative. From 2002 to 2006, the energy supply per capita in China has always been lower than the world average level, and far lower than that in Canada, America and Sweden etc. countries; as for China itself, the energy supply per capita in China Taipei and Hongkong are higher than that in China mainland; seen from the development and changing rules, the per capita energy supply in China shows an overall upward and slow tendency.
China is an important energy producing country in the world, also a big energy consumption country. The energy production and consumption in China are mainly coal, and seen from the total of production and consumption, the energy production and consumption in China shows a year-by-year increasing tendency. From the aspect of energy utilization efficiency, with the advancement of technology and development of society, the energy consumption per 10,000 yuan GDP decreases year by year, and the overall utilization efficiency of energy increases continuously.
In the process of energy exploitation, transport, processing and using, negative externality will emerge in many manners and ways, and energy production and consumption are the main factors that influence the air environment. In the process of coal exploitation, thermal power generation and oil refining, large amount of waste gas and dust will be produced, which are the main air pollutants. In China, the energy consumption structure depending on coal is the main reason that causes the decrease of air quality. For a long term, the coal consumed in thermal power plant makes up over 50% of the total consumed coal, thus production of power energy becomes one of the main reasons that influence air quality.
In energy exploitation process, great inestimable damage will be done to water resource. The exploitation of deep layer energy resource changes the primitive geological structure of underground water system, and changes the original supply and drainage relationship of underground water. Part of surface flow, base flow and undercurrent becomes mine water, thus causing drying up of spring water, and discontinuous flow of rivers. Exploitation of coal energy changes the structure of natural water reserve of underground water, and causing pollution to water source through many means. The large-scale exploitation of energy resource such as coal will cause the damage to hydrological and geological structure, especially large area of underground mined-out space causes the collapse of surface, which greatly decreases the underground water level, causes grain yield reduction, difficulty in water fetching, difficulty in the growth of all kinds of forests, woods and undergrowth, etc. series of problems, thus causing the deterioration of the whole ecological system.
The exploitation of energy resource has serious negative impact on land occupation and pollution, and among all kinds of energy types, the land pollution caused by coal mining is the most prominent. In energy production process, the exploitation of resource will discharge all kinds of solid and liquid wastes and cause pollution to soil. After the energy is exploited from underground, the change of geological structure can also cause surface sinking and cracking etc. problems within a certain range. After oil and coal etc. energy resources are exploited, it will certainly damage the original mechanical equilibrium inside the rock body of the mining area, and the rock layer will displace or fission, and finally surface subsidence, mountain craze, collapse, landslide and debris flow etc. geological disasters will appear. This kind of damage in energy production process will also influence the normal life of people on the surface of mining area.
The occupational disease and safety accidents in energy exploitation process of China can not be ignored, and the situation is still far from being satisfactory, which is mainly embodied in that big accidents happen one after another in the production process of coal energy manufacturing companies, the infrastructure in safety production is weak, and the awareness for safety production and occupational disease, and strength of prevention and control is not enough. Accidents in coal mine not only impose great threat to the life safety of mine workers, but also cause vast economic loss and important social impact. The problem of safety in production is an important issue in coal resource exploitation process that allows no ignorance.
The energy consumption in current stage of China is mainly coal, and 80% coal consumption is used for burning directly. According to the coal burning mode in current stage of China, coal can not realize full burning and utilization, and the wastes caused in low level coal utilization mode form the main sources of sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, and smoke. Moreover, in a long time of the future, air pollution due to coal combustion will be the main type of air pollution in China.
Except for environmental pollution, the consumption of energy will also impose threat to the life safety and mental health of people. Sulfur dioxide has irritant action to the respiratory organ and eye mask, and breathing in high intensity sulfur dioxide can cause laryngeal edema and bronchitis. Breathing in sulfur dioxide for a long term will cause chronic poisoning, which not only aggravates the respiratory disease, but also causes damage to the liver, kidney and heart of people. If people live in the polluted air containing large amount of fine particles for a long time, the occurrence rate and death rate of lung cancer will increase, and at the same time, the occurrence rate of other heart diseases will simultaneously increase.
Emission from petrol chemistry, coal burning and end gas of vehicles is the main source of heavy metal pollution in air. In the burning process of fossil fuels, the metals are released to the air in the form of oxide or gaseous state. They hang on the micro particles in air, and become heavy metal pollutant. These metal and oxides enter the lung of people and animals through breathing, and cause great threat to the health of the human body and animals, even causing lethal damage. For example, lead pollution in heavy metal is an important reason for causing the high level of lead content in pre-school children. And lead poisoning will bring about unfavorable impact on the metal development, physique growth and memory ability of children.
In the energy consumption process, an easily ignored pollutant will be brought about, that is, noise pollution. The damage of noise pollution to human body is indirect and long-term, with time accumulation process. It is just due to this feature of noise pollution that its harmfulness does not draw the attention of people. The cities of China have the features of concentrated habitation of population, imperfect city infrastructure, and unreasonable urban planning etc. And in recent years, with the rapid economic development, the city scale expands continuously, and the transport network of cities continuously increases. The continuous growth of highway, new transport lines in cities, subway, and airport etc. transport infrastructure aggravates the day-by-day noise pollution in China, and the noise pollution in energy consumption process and its harmfulness can not be ignored.
Of the currently practiced policies in China, the issues relating to externality of energy production mainly include collection system of drainage charges, emissions trading system etc. Seen from the development condition in current stage, although there are many problems and insufficiencies in the collection system of drainage charges in its long-term development of it, but generally speaking, it plays an important role for the environmental protection work of China, and it being improved and perfected. The emissions trading system in China is still in the preliminary stage of development, and the range of trial is expanding gradually. The understanding of the social masses about emissions trading system also increases. However, generally speaking, this trading is still in the exploratory stage, and there are many objective difficulties.
Through principal component analysis, we analyze the coordination of 3E integrated system. The so-called 3E coordination analysis refers to analysis of the coordination of energy, environment and economy. This paper adopts quantitative analysis to discuss the coupling relationship of 3E system under the current economic development and energy consumption level of China, and analyze the coordination degree. Through establishing function, entering original data and computational model, the results show that: in 2004 and 2005, the 3E integrated system in China is relatively not coordinated; in 2003, 2006, and 2007, the 3E integrated system shows weak coordination; in 2008, it reached preliminary coordination.
Through the same method, we can calculate the coordination degree of the 3E integrated system in Shanxi and Inner Mongolia two regions, and the results show: during 2004-2008, the coordination change curve of 3E integrated system of Shanxi Province falls in the uncoordinated area where index is smaller than 0.3; except for the year 2007, the coordination index of the 3E system of Inner Mongolia is bigger than 0.5, falling in the range of preliminary coordination area. The other years are the same with that in Shanxi Province, falling in the uncoordinated area of smaller than 0.3. This means that Shanxi and Inner Mongolia have many differences in energy, environment and economic development, but share some similarities in the coordination of 3E integrated system. The coordination of 3E system in the two areas pressingly needs enhancement.
Using carbon emission index in energy consumption to calculate the carbon emissions in Shanxi and Inner Mongolia two regions, we can visually understand the externality degree of energy consumption in the two regions, and the results show: during 2004-2008, the carbon emissions in energy consumption in Shanxi and Inner Mongolia show year-by-year increasing changes, and the total carbon emission in energy consumption in Inner Mongolia is bigger than that of Shanxi Province. The growth speed of total carbon emission in energy consumption in Inner Mongolia is bigger than that of Shanxi, and the gap between the carbon emissions of the two regions gradually expands. The per capita carbon emissions in energy consumption in Shanxi and Inner Mongolia increases year by year, but the growth in Shanxi Province is relatively steady, and the growth speed in Inner Mongolia is relatively rapid.
Reducing external diseconomy in energy production and consumption process should be started from two aspects. First, we should start from source, try to avoid and reduce the occurrence of negative externality; second, we should include the unavoidable negative externality into the cost calculation system, that is, internalize the externality. In reducing the external diseconomy in energy production and consumption process, we should firstly control it from the total pollution to reduce the occurrence amount of external diseconomy, reduce emissions of pollutants from source, and realize the protection of ecological environment. Reducing the produced amount of external diseconomy is the most effective and direct means for reducing pollution and protecting the environment.
The energy production areas in Shanxi and Inner Mongolia should summary experiences and lessons in time, do well the regional development preparation after the end of energy exploitation cycle in advance, do reasonable layout from the beginning, prepare for the industrial transformation in other regions, learn the lessons of resource-exhausted regions, and avoid the long-standing bad habit in pursuing short-term interest and exhaustion of resources in the future. Formulate long-term planning according to the specific situation in each region based on the regional position, climate, economic development condition, and cultural customs etc. in each region. Depending on the resource advantage, develop economy; cultivate substitute industry in the rapid development of energy industry, prepare for the industrial transformation in the region, and finally realize the sustainable development in the region.
The measures of directly controlling the produced amount of externality in energy production and consumption mainly include energy saving, emission reduction, and enhancing the use efficiency of resources etc. The specific measures include: first, formulate different energy saving and emission reduction planning based on different departments and types of energy; second, many kinds of energy saving measures can be used at the same time, and the measures of energy saving mainly include direct energy saving and indirect energy saving. Direct energy saving mainly includes technical energy saving and technique energy saving; indirect energy saving mainly includes structural energy saving, energy saving through management, and energy saving through layout adjustment etc. Energy saving and emission reduction can not be conducted in a single measure, and many energy saving methods should be used and coordinated to gain good effect; third, reasonably use energy, prolong the industrial chain and develop cycle economy; fourth, enhance the entry conditions of high energy consumption and high pollution industry.
The measures of indirectly controlling the produced amount of externality in energy production and consumption mainly include promoting the rapid development of renewable resource, and optimize energy production and consumption structure etc. The specific measures include: first, integrated arrangement, integrated planning, reducing mutual impediment between departments; second, conduct it according to regions, with clear focus and gradual and orderly progress. Renewable energy is the future development direction of energy, and the country should strongly support and actively advocate it. However, the whole country should not rush to develop renewable energy like a swarm of bees. Instead, we should do it according to the specific situation in each place, formulate plan from national level, develop it regionally with different focus, and conduct it in a gradual and orderly progress, fanning out from point to area; third, collect the scientific and technological strength, cultivate professional talents, and combine long-term and short-term talent planning; fourth, enhance the strength of capital support, establish public efficiency fund to balance the positive and negative effect of different industries.
No matter for energy saving and emission reduction, or developing renewable resources or adjusting the structure of energy, we can not avoid the pollutants production and externality in energy production and consumption process. Therefore, we should internalize the negative externality through many measures, try to make the social costs of energy production and consumption close to private cost, include the environmental impact into the cost calculation of companies, promote companies to consider problems from the economic perspective, and adopt measures to reduce the production of pollutants and enhance the use efficiency of resources. In current stage, the major and most effective methods of China in internalization of externality mainly include emissions trading system and collection system of drainage charges. In controlling the occurrence of externality, these two internalization methods can exert their roles.
In promoting the full exertion of emissions trading system, we should start from the following aspects: establish emissions trading system with Chinese characteristics, and on the basis of fully understanding the situation of China, legal system, and related policies, analyze the differences of China with other countries in the aspect of foundation for establishing emissions trading system, fully analyze the emissions trading system in foreign countries, and selectively borrow the experience of other countries based on the specific features of China in order to make the emissions trading system conform to the actual situation of China; establish harmonious and orderly emissions trading market order, and scientifically determine the total amount indexes and distribution standard of emissions trading; strengthen the understanding of the public on emissions trading.
Further improve collection system of drainage charges, and the main measures include: enhance charging standard, and expand the collection range of drainage charges. Through long time development, the drainage charging has formed good operation system and collection method. However, as for the economic development and pollution condition in current stage of China, the collection system of drainage charges in China has the problems of low charging standard and narrow charging range. For the charging standard and range, new standard should be formed according to new development condition; strengthen environment law enforcement strength, improve management mechanism of collection system of drainage charges, and in the collection process of drainage charges, be serious, authoritative and compulsory. Therefore, we should improve the administrative establishment properties of environment monitoring and controlling institutions, improve the compulsory enforcement system of courts and compulsory allocation mechanism of bank, provide strong system guarantee for enforcement of environment monitoring and controlling institutions, and provide legal support for the high-efficient operation of collection system of drainage charges; strengthen supervision of the government and the mass, and shut down the hard-to-harness polluting companies.
本文以我国能源生产消费过程中产生的外部性为研究对象,通过分析我国能源结构、研究我国能源生产消费过程中产生的外部性,运用数学模型和SPSS统计软件对我国3E综合系统协调性进行计算。通过实证研究,计算我国山西省和内蒙古自治区的能源消费碳排放量和3E系统协调性,分析和总结能源生产地区的经验和教训。在一系列定性研究、定量研究的基础上,分析我国能源生产消费外部性问题现状,并进一步提出,减少能源生产、消费过程中的外部不经济,需要从两方面同时入手:一方面从源头抓起,尽量避免和减少负外部性的产生,另一方面,要将无法避免的负外部性纳入企业成本核算体系,既将外部性内部化。
With the rapid economic development and enhancement of the international status of China, the issue of energy production and consumption in China is increasingly drawing the attention of each country in the world. As the largest country in the aspect of greenhouse gases emission, the external diseconomy problem emerged in energy production and consumption process is becoming significant, and under the background of global climate changes, China is under the pressure of emission reduction from the international society. Energy production and consumption pattern, as well as the negative externality problem in energy production and consumption, is an important issue that relates to energy safety, environment capacity, economic development and international status of China.
As one of the manufacturing bases of the world, the majority of imports are high value-added products and service, and most of exports are ordinary manufacturing products. The energy consumption in the imported commodities and exported commodities of the same value varies significantly, thus the international transfer due to energy consumption aggravates the energy consumption in the industrial development of China. Generally speaking, China has not abandoned the extensive economic growth mode featured by high economic growth, high energy consumption and high environmental pollution.
With the rapid development of economy, the energy production and consumption in China grows year by year. Seen from statistics, from 2000 to 2007, the total production and consumption of primary energy in China shows the increasing tendency year by year, and at the same time, the gap between total energy consumption and total energy production also shows the increasing tendency year by year, and the external dependency of energy consumption increases.
The BP world energy statistics published in 2009 shows that: in the end of 2008, the total oil reserve in China is 2.1 billion tons, making up 1.2% of the total reserve in the world, and the reserve output ratio is 11.1, about 26.43% of the reserve output ratio in the world; the total reserve of natural gas in China is 2460 billion cubic meters, making up 1.3% of the total natural gas reserve in the world, and the reserve output ratio is 32.3, about 53.48% of the world reserve output ratio; the total coal reserve in China is 114.5 billion tons, making up 13.9% of the total coal reserve in the world, and the reserve output ratio is 41, about 33.61% of the world reserve output ratio.
China has abundant energy resources, but at the same time, it is the main oil importer in the world. With the increase of total net oil import year by year, till 2004, the net oil import of China possesses the third position in the world, and will grow further on the basis of it. China is one of the main coal importers in the world, and the same with Australia and Indonesia, the total net coal import has always been negative. From 2002 to 2006, the energy supply per capita in China has always been lower than the world average level, and far lower than that in Canada, America and Sweden etc. countries; as for China itself, the energy supply per capita in China Taipei and Hongkong are higher than that in China mainland; seen from the development and changing rules, the per capita energy supply in China shows an overall upward and slow tendency.
China is an important energy producing country in the world, also a big energy consumption country. The energy production and consumption in China are mainly coal, and seen from the total of production and consumption, the energy production and consumption in China shows a year-by-year increasing tendency. From the aspect of energy utilization efficiency, with the advancement of technology and development of society, the energy consumption per 10,000 yuan GDP decreases year by year, and the overall utilization efficiency of energy increases continuously.
In the process of energy exploitation, transport, processing and using, negative externality will emerge in many manners and ways, and energy production and consumption are the main factors that influence the air environment. In the process of coal exploitation, thermal power generation and oil refining, large amount of waste gas and dust will be produced, which are the main air pollutants. In China, the energy consumption structure depending on coal is the main reason that causes the decrease of air quality. For a long term, the coal consumed in thermal power plant makes up over 50% of the total consumed coal, thus production of power energy becomes one of the main reasons that influence air quality.
In energy exploitation process, great inestimable damage will be done to water resource. The exploitation of deep layer energy resource changes the primitive geological structure of underground water system, and changes the original supply and drainage relationship of underground water. Part of surface flow, base flow and undercurrent becomes mine water, thus causing drying up of spring water, and discontinuous flow of rivers. Exploitation of coal energy changes the structure of natural water reserve of underground water, and causing pollution to water source through many means. The large-scale exploitation of energy resource such as coal will cause the damage to hydrological and geological structure, especially large area of underground mined-out space causes the collapse of surface, which greatly decreases the underground water level, causes grain yield reduction, difficulty in water fetching, difficulty in the growth of all kinds of forests, woods and undergrowth, etc. series of problems, thus causing the deterioration of the whole ecological system.
The exploitation of energy resource has serious negative impact on land occupation and pollution, and among all kinds of energy types, the land pollution caused by coal mining is the most prominent. In energy production process, the exploitation of resource will discharge all kinds of solid and liquid wastes and cause pollution to soil. After the energy is exploited from underground, the change of geological structure can also cause surface sinking and cracking etc. problems within a certain range. After oil and coal etc. energy resources are exploited, it will certainly damage the original mechanical equilibrium inside the rock body of the mining area, and the rock layer will displace or fission, and finally surface subsidence, mountain craze, collapse, landslide and debris flow etc. geological disasters will appear. This kind of damage in energy production process will also influence the normal life of people on the surface of mining area.
The occupational disease and safety accidents in energy exploitation process of China can not be ignored, and the situation is still far from being satisfactory, which is mainly embodied in that big accidents happen one after another in the production process of coal energy manufacturing companies, the infrastructure in safety production is weak, and the awareness for safety production and occupational disease, and strength of prevention and control is not enough. Accidents in coal mine not only impose great threat to the life safety of mine workers, but also cause vast economic loss and important social impact. The problem of safety in production is an important issue in coal resource exploitation process that allows no ignorance.
The energy consumption in current stage of China is mainly coal, and 80% coal consumption is used for burning directly. According to the coal burning mode in current stage of China, coal can not realize full burning and utilization, and the wastes caused in low level coal utilization mode form the main sources of sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, and smoke. Moreover, in a long time of the future, air pollution due to coal combustion will be the main type of air pollution in China.
Except for environmental pollution, the consumption of energy will also impose threat to the life safety and mental health of people. Sulfur dioxide has irritant action to the respiratory organ and eye mask, and breathing in high intensity sulfur dioxide can cause laryngeal edema and bronchitis. Breathing in sulfur dioxide for a long term will cause chronic poisoning, which not only aggravates the respiratory disease, but also causes damage to the liver, kidney and heart of people. If people live in the polluted air containing large amount of fine particles for a long time, the occurrence rate and death rate of lung cancer will increase, and at the same time, the occurrence rate of other heart diseases will simultaneously increase.
Emission from petrol chemistry, coal burning and end gas of vehicles is the main source of heavy metal pollution in air. In the burning process of fossil fuels, the metals are released to the air in the form of oxide or gaseous state. They hang on the micro particles in air, and become heavy metal pollutant. These metal and oxides enter the lung of people and animals through breathing, and cause great threat to the health of the human body and animals, even causing lethal damage. For example, lead pollution in heavy metal is an important reason for causing the high level of lead content in pre-school children. And lead poisoning will bring about unfavorable impact on the metal development, physique growth and memory ability of children.
In the energy consumption process, an easily ignored pollutant will be brought about, that is, noise pollution. The damage of noise pollution to human body is indirect and long-term, with time accumulation process. It is just due to this feature of noise pollution that its harmfulness does not draw the attention of people. The cities of China have the features of concentrated habitation of population, imperfect city infrastructure, and unreasonable urban planning etc. And in recent years, with the rapid economic development, the city scale expands continuously, and the transport network of cities continuously increases. The continuous growth of highway, new transport lines in cities, subway, and airport etc. transport infrastructure aggravates the day-by-day noise pollution in China, and the noise pollution in energy consumption process and its harmfulness can not be ignored.
Of the currently practiced policies in China, the issues relating to externality of energy production mainly include collection system of drainage charges, emissions trading system etc. Seen from the development condition in current stage, although there are many problems and insufficiencies in the collection system of drainage charges in its long-term development of it, but generally speaking, it plays an important role for the environmental protection work of China, and it being improved and perfected. The emissions trading system in China is still in the preliminary stage of development, and the range of trial is expanding gradually. The understanding of the social masses about emissions trading system also increases. However, generally speaking, this trading is still in the exploratory stage, and there are many objective difficulties.
Through principal component analysis, we analyze the coordination of 3E integrated system. The so-called 3E coordination analysis refers to analysis of the coordination of energy, environment and economy. This paper adopts quantitative analysis to discuss the coupling relationship of 3E system under the current economic development and energy consumption level of China, and analyze the coordination degree. Through establishing function, entering original data and computational model, the results show that: in 2004 and 2005, the 3E integrated system in China is relatively not coordinated; in 2003, 2006, and 2007, the 3E integrated system shows weak coordination; in 2008, it reached preliminary coordination.
Through the same method, we can calculate the coordination degree of the 3E integrated system in Shanxi and Inner Mongolia two regions, and the results show: during 2004-2008, the coordination change curve of 3E integrated system of Shanxi Province falls in the uncoordinated area where index is smaller than 0.3; except for the year 2007, the coordination index of the 3E system of Inner Mongolia is bigger than 0.5, falling in the range of preliminary coordination area. The other years are the same with that in Shanxi Province, falling in the uncoordinated area of smaller than 0.3. This means that Shanxi and Inner Mongolia have many differences in energy, environment and economic development, but share some similarities in the coordination of 3E integrated system. The coordination of 3E system in the two areas pressingly needs enhancement.
Using carbon emission index in energy consumption to calculate the carbon emissions in Shanxi and Inner Mongolia two regions, we can visually understand the externality degree of energy consumption in the two regions, and the results show: during 2004-2008, the carbon emissions in energy consumption in Shanxi and Inner Mongolia show year-by-year increasing changes, and the total carbon emission in energy consumption in Inner Mongolia is bigger than that of Shanxi Province. The growth speed of total carbon emission in energy consumption in Inner Mongolia is bigger than that of Shanxi, and the gap between the carbon emissions of the two regions gradually expands. The per capita carbon emissions in energy consumption in Shanxi and Inner Mongolia increases year by year, but the growth in Shanxi Province is relatively steady, and the growth speed in Inner Mongolia is relatively rapid.
Reducing external diseconomy in energy production and consumption process should be started from two aspects. First, we should start from source, try to avoid and reduce the occurrence of negative externality; second, we should include the unavoidable negative externality into the cost calculation system, that is, internalize the externality. In reducing the external diseconomy in energy production and consumption process, we should firstly control it from the total pollution to reduce the occurrence amount of external diseconomy, reduce emissions of pollutants from source, and realize the protection of ecological environment. Reducing the produced amount of external diseconomy is the most effective and direct means for reducing pollution and protecting the environment.
The energy production areas in Shanxi and Inner Mongolia should summary experiences and lessons in time, do well the regional development preparation after the end of energy exploitation cycle in advance, do reasonable layout from the beginning, prepare for the industrial transformation in other regions, learn the lessons of resource-exhausted regions, and avoid the long-standing bad habit in pursuing short-term interest and exhaustion of resources in the future. Formulate long-term planning according to the specific situation in each region based on the regional position, climate, economic development condition, and cultural customs etc. in each region. Depending on the resource advantage, develop economy; cultivate substitute industry in the rapid development of energy industry, prepare for the industrial transformation in the region, and finally realize the sustainable development in the region.
The measures of directly controlling the produced amount of externality in energy production and consumption mainly include energy saving, emission reduction, and enhancing the use efficiency of resources etc. The specific measures include: first, formulate different energy saving and emission reduction planning based on different departments and types of energy; second, many kinds of energy saving measures can be used at the same time, and the measures of energy saving mainly include direct energy saving and indirect energy saving. Direct energy saving mainly includes technical energy saving and technique energy saving; indirect energy saving mainly includes structural energy saving, energy saving through management, and energy saving through layout adjustment etc. Energy saving and emission reduction can not be conducted in a single measure, and many energy saving methods should be used and coordinated to gain good effect; third, reasonably use energy, prolong the industrial chain and develop cycle economy; fourth, enhance the entry conditions of high energy consumption and high pollution industry.
The measures of indirectly controlling the produced amount of externality in energy production and consumption mainly include promoting the rapid development of renewable resource, and optimize energy production and consumption structure etc. The specific measures include: first, integrated arrangement, integrated planning, reducing mutual impediment between departments; second, conduct it according to regions, with clear focus and gradual and orderly progress. Renewable energy is the future development direction of energy, and the country should strongly support and actively advocate it. However, the whole country should not rush to develop renewable energy like a swarm of bees. Instead, we should do it according to the specific situation in each place, formulate plan from national level, develop it regionally with different focus, and conduct it in a gradual and orderly progress, fanning out from point to area; third, collect the scientific and technological strength, cultivate professional talents, and combine long-term and short-term talent planning; fourth, enhance the strength of capital support, establish public efficiency fund to balance the positive and negative effect of different industries.
No matter for energy saving and emission reduction, or developing renewable resources or adjusting the structure of energy, we can not avoid the pollutants production and externality in energy production and consumption process. Therefore, we should internalize the negative externality through many measures, try to make the social costs of energy production and consumption close to private cost, include the environmental impact into the cost calculation of companies, promote companies to consider problems from the economic perspective, and adopt measures to reduce the production of pollutants and enhance the use efficiency of resources. In current stage, the major and most effective methods of China in internalization of externality mainly include emissions trading system and collection system of drainage charges. In controlling the occurrence of externality, these two internalization methods can exert their roles.
In promoting the full exertion of emissions trading system, we should start from the following aspects: establish emissions trading system with Chinese characteristics, and on the basis of fully understanding the situation of China, legal system, and related policies, analyze the differences of China with other countries in the aspect of foundation for establishing emissions trading system, fully analyze the emissions trading system in foreign countries, and selectively borrow the experience of other countries based on the specific features of China in order to make the emissions trading system conform to the actual situation of China; establish harmonious and orderly emissions trading market order, and scientifically determine the total amount indexes and distribution standard of emissions trading; strengthen the understanding of the public on emissions trading.
Further improve collection system of drainage charges, and the main measures include: enhance charging standard, and expand the collection range of drainage charges. Through long time development, the drainage charging has formed good operation system and collection method. However, as for the economic development and pollution condition in current stage of China, the collection system of drainage charges in China has the problems of low charging standard and narrow charging range. For the charging standard and range, new standard should be formed according to new development condition; strengthen environment law enforcement strength, improve management mechanism of collection system of drainage charges, and in the collection process of drainage charges, be serious, authoritative and compulsory. Therefore, we should improve the administrative establishment properties of environment monitoring and controlling institutions, improve the compulsory enforcement system of courts and compulsory allocation mechanism of bank, provide strong system guarantee for enforcement of environment monitoring and controlling institutions, and provide legal support for the high-efficient operation of collection system of drainage charges; strengthen supervision of the government and the mass, and shut down the hard-to-harness polluting companies.
引文
1姚向君,田宜水.生物质能资源清洁转化利用技术. [M].北京:化学工业出版社,2005:9.
2查冬兰,周德群.地区能源效率与二氧化碳排放的差异性——基于Kaya因素分解[J].系统工程,2007(11):65-71.
3王革华,艾德生.新能源概论[M].北京:化学工业出版社,2006:2.
4赖向军,戴林.石油与天然气[M].北京:化学工业出版社,2005:4.
5王革华,艾德生.新能源概论[M].北京:化学工业出版社,2006:4.
6林伯强.现代能源经济学[M].北京:中国财政经济出版社,2007:1.
7汪安佑.资源环境经济学[M].北京:地质出版社,2005:47.
8左玉辉.环境经济学[M].北京:高等教育出版社,2003:91.
9汪安佑.资源环境经济学[M].北京:地质出版社,2005:48.
10叶文虎.可持续发展引论[M].北京:高等教育出版,2001:144.
11汪安佑,雷涯邻,沙景华.资源环境经济学[M].北京:地质出版社,2005:120-121.
12叶文虎.可持续发展引论[M].北京:高等教育出版,2001:155.
13李会明.非市场失灵理论与中国市场经济实践[M].上海:立信会计出版社,1996:5.
14姚建.环境经济学[M].成都:西南财经大学出版社,2001:91.
15唐作斌.市场失灵对市场效率的影响及其对策[J].经济与社会发展,2004(1):48.
16阮班会.市场失灵的几种形式[J].理论与现代化,1998(3):40.
17吕红梅.“市场失灵”与“政府失灵”述评[J].现代商贸工业,2009(11):30.
18陈小安,高丽亚.市场失灵与政府失灵的经济学分析[J].决策参考,2005(6):63.
19黄泰岩,雷达.市场的功能与失灵——西方市场理论考察[M].北京:经济科学出版社,1993:194-195.
20张连城.经济学教程[M].北京:经济日报出版社,2007:232.
21姚建.环境经济学[M].成都:西南财经大学出版社,2001:95
22张连城.经济学教程[M].北京:经济日报出版社,2007:232.
23张卿.政府失灵:衡量、成因与治理[J],1997(10):21.
24陆长福,王国贞,焦笑南[M].西方经济.北京:中国经济出版社,2005:271.
25吴勇.政府失灵及原因研究[J].郑州工业大学学报(社会科学版),2000(3):7.
26吕红梅.“市场失灵”与“政府失灵”述评[J].现代商贸工业,2009(11):31.
27姚建.环境经济学[M].成都:西南财经大学出版社,2001:95 .
28崔玉香.政府失灵问题研究综述[J].理论与现代化,1999(7):35.
29陈小安,高丽亚.市场失灵与政府失灵的经济学分析[J].决策参考,2005(6):64.
30姚建.环境经济学[M].成都:西南财经大学出版社,2001:88.
31殷瑜.论科斯定理的意义[J].商业经济,2005(8):19.
32黄敬宝.解析“科斯定理”[J].商业研究,2005(14):42.
33叶文虎.可持续发展引论[M].北京:高等教育出版.2001:151.
34沈满洪.环境经济手段研究[M].北京:中国环境科学出版社,2001:148-150.
35王金南.排污收费理论学[M].北京:中国环境科学出版社,1997:65.
36张连城.经济学教程[M].北京:经济日报出版社,2007:217.
37沈满洪.环境经济手段研究[M].北京:中国环境科学出版社,2001:110.
38王金南.排污收费理论学[M].北京:中国环境科学出版社,1997:65.
39姚建.环境经济学[M].成都:西南财经大学出版社,2001:90.
40王金南.排污收费理论学[M].北京:中国环境科学出版社,1997:53.
41叶文虎.可持续发展引论[M].北京:高等教育出版.2001:150.
42崔民选.中国能源发展报告2006[M].北京:社会科学文献出版社,2006:15.
50吴宇.如何应对煤焦与环境污染的难题[J].环境教育. 2008(9):75
51中国的绿色革命—实现能源与环境可持续发展的技术选择.麦肯锡咨询报告:84
52张秀生,陈先勇.论中国资源型城市产业发展的现状、困境和对策[J].经济评论,2001(6):96-97.
53张莲莲.山西煤炭开发利用与可持续发展研究[J].晋阳学刊,1998(6):23-28.
54朱德仁.煤炭开发中的清洁生产技术[J].煤矿环境保护,2000(1):20.
55陈孝娥,黄载春,马兰,唐士豹,王刚,刘立新.煤化工行业环境污染现状及对策建议.攀枝花学院学报,2008(6):9.
56徐华清.中国能源环境发展报告2006[M].北京:中国环境科学出版社,2006:152.
57张东强,蓝俊康,刘宝剑.煤的开采与加工对地下水的污染及防治措施[J].地下水,2008(6).
58中华人民共和国环境保护部.2007年中国近岸海域环境质量公报. http://www.mep.gov.cn/hjjc09/jcxx/jagb/07hygb/ .2008-06-05 592009年中国环保业年度报告.2009:91
60田霍卿.资源型城市可持续发展的思考[M].北京:人民出版社,2000:29.
61朱德仁.煤炭开发中的清洁生产技术[J].煤矿环境保护,2000(1):19.
62刘志斌.大型露天煤矿闭坑后生态环境问题及对策[R].资源枯竭城市灾害形成机理与控制战略研讨,2003:177.
63中华人民共和国环境保护部http://www.sepa.gov.cn/.
64朱明锋.基于循环经济的资源型城市发展理论与应用研究[D].合肥:合肥工业大学,2005:15.
65中国经济信息网.2009年中国环保行业年度报告[R].2009:91-92
66姬婧,刘富齐,张登明.平顶山市区采煤塌陷地治理现状与分区治理措施探讨[J].煤炭工程,2006(7):69.
67徐华清.中国能源环境发展报告2006[M].北京:中国环境科学出版社,2006:25.
68扈天保.关于小煤矿整顿关闭机制设计的思考.国家安全生产监督管理总局调查研究,2008(16):
69国汉芬.煤矿安全事故致因因素经济学分析与风险管理方法.北京:对外经济贸易大学,2007:12
70数据资料整理自国家煤矿安全检查局网站http://www.chinacoal-safety.gov.cn/mkaj/
77陈阳.法律经济学视野下的我国排污收费制度思考[J].武汉公安干部学院学报.2009(1):69.
78杨玲.对我国现行排污收费工作的思考[J].环境研究与监测.2008(1):45.
79巫肖芬.我国排污收费等同于准排污税[J].中国税务.2007(7):55.
80李小荣.浅谈我国排污收费制度[J].法制与社会.2007(2):211.
81巫肖芬.我国排污收费等同于准排污税[J].中国税务.2007(7):55.
82杨卫.排污权交易的制度经济学分析[J].兰州交通大学学报(社会科学版).2004(5):4.
83张颖,王勇.我国排污权交易制度的应用研究[J].中南大学学报(社会科学版).2004(4):465.
84蓝虹.排污权交易的产权分析[J].生态经济. 2005(4):70
87罗斯基勒(丹麦),姜克隽(译),于胜民(译),胡秀莲(译).清洁发展机制(中文版)[M].北京:气象出版社,2003:7.
88国家发展和改革委员会应对气候变化司.中国清洁发展机制网:http://cdm.ccchina.gov.cn/web/index.asp 2009-10-05.
89国家发展和改革委员会应对气候变化司.中国清洁发展机制网:http://cdm.ccchina.gov.cn/web/index.asp 2009-11-08.
93袁开智,王克强.循环经济发展的山西样本[N].中国经济导报.2009年8月6日.第B02版.
94钱伯章.节能减排——可持续发展的必由之路[M].科学出版社.2008:90-91.
95钱伯章.节能减排——可持续发展的必由之路[M].科学出版社.2008:125.
96王革华,艾德生.新能源概论[M].北京:化学工业出版社,2006:214.
97虞锡君.减排背景下完善排污权交易机制探析———以全国首个试点城市浙江省嘉兴市为例[J].农业经济问题.2009(3):99.
98李寿德.排污权交易市场秩序的特征、功能与制度安排[J].上海交通大学学报(哲学社会科学版).2006(2):47.
99朱友君,吴静静.排污权交易在我国水土资源保护中的法规发展探析[J].发展水土保持科技、实现人与自然和谐——中国水土保持学会第三次全国会员代表大会学术论文集.2006:23.
[1]姚向君,田宜水.生物质能资源清洁转化利用技术[M].北京:化学工业出版社,2005.
[2]王革华,艾德生.新能源概论[M].北京:化学工业出版社,2006:2.
[3]赖向军,戴林.石油与天然气[M].北京:化学工业出版社,2005:4.
[4]林伯强.现代能源经济学[M].北京:中国财政经济出版社,2007:1.
[5]汪安佑.资源环境经济学[M].北京:地质出版社,2005:47.
[6]左玉辉.环境经济学[M].北京:高等教育出版社,2003:91.
[7]叶文虎.可持续发展引论[M].北京:高等教育出版社,2001:144.
[8]李会明.非市场失灵理论与中国市场经济实践[M].上海:立信会计出版社,1996:5.
[9]朱国宏.社会学视里的经济现象[M].成都:四川人民出版社,1998.
[10]姚建.环境经济学[M].成都:西南财经大学出版社,2001:91.
[11]黄泰岩,雷达.市场的功能与失灵——西方市场理论考察[M].北京:经济科学出版社,1993.
[12]张连城.经济学教程[M].北京:经济日报出版社,2007.
[13]沈满洪.环境经济手段研究[M].北京:中国环境科学出版社,2001.
[14]王金南.排污收费理论学[M].北京:中国环境科学出版社,1997:65.
[15]崔民选.2006中国能源发展报告.北京:社会科学文献出版社,2006:15.
[16]徐华清.中国能源环境发展报告2006[M].北京:中国环境科学出版社,2006.
[17]罗斯基勒(丹麦),姜克隽(译),于胜民(译),胡秀莲(译).清洁发展机制(中文版)[M].北京:气象出版社,2003.
[18]钱伯章.节能减排——可持续发展的必由之路[M].科学出版社,2008.
[19]田霍卿.资源型城市可持续发展的思考[M].北京:人民出版社,2000.
[20]鞠美庭,张裕芬,李洪远.能源规划环境影响评价[M].北京:化学工业出版社,2006.
[21]查尔斯·沃尔夫.市场或政府[M].北京:中国发展出版社,1994.
[22]曼瑟尔·奥尔森:集体行动的逻辑[M].上海:上海人民出版社,1995.
[23]巴泽尔:产权的经济分析[M].上海:上海人民出版社,2004.
[24]托马斯·斯德纳.环境与自然资源管理的政策工具[M].上海:上海人民出版社,2005.
[25]迈克尔·波特.竞争战略[M].北京:华夏出版社,2001.
[26]罗纳德·科斯.论生产的制度结构[M].上海:上海三联书店,1994. [26]迈克尔·波特.国家竞争优势[M].北京:华夏出版社,2003.
[27]保罗·R·伯特尼和罗伯特·N·史蒂文斯.环境保护的公共政策[M].上海:上海人民出版社,2004.
[28]詹姆斯·M·布坎南和戈登·塔洛克同意的计算[M].北京:中国社会科学出版社,2000.
[29]陈雪梅.中小企业集群的理论与实践[M].北京:经济科学出版社,2003.
[30]樊勇明.公共经济学[M].上海:复旦大学出版社,2000.
[31]国家环境保护局污染控制司.控制危废物越境转移及其处置文件和技术准则汇编[M].北京:中国环境科学出版社,1994.
[32]黄有光.效率、公平与公共政策[M].北京:社会科学文献出版社,2003.
[33]霍斯特·西伯特.环境经济学[M].北京:中国林业出版社,2002.
[34]理查德·布隆克.质疑自由市场经济[M].南京:江苏人民出版社,2000.
[35]张帆.环境与自然资源经济学[M].上海:上海人民出版社,1998.
[36]张培刚.微观经济学的产生和发展[M].长沙:湖南人民出版社,1997. [37]
[37]朱为群.消费课税的经济分析.上海:上海财经人学出版社,2001.
[38]陈富良,万卫虹.企业行为与政府规制.北京:经济管理出版社,2001.
[39]陈东琪.新政府干预论.北京:首都经济贸易大学出版社,2000.
[40]李文星,白冰主.公共部门经济学引论.成都:四川人民出版社,2001.
[41]斯蒂格里茨.政府为什么干预经济.北京:中国物资出版社.1998.
[42]王金南.排污收费理论学.北京:中国环境科学出版社.1997.
[43]谭力文.伦敦学派[M].武汉:武汉出版社,1996. [45]杨金田,王金南.排污收费制度改革与设计[M].北京:中国环境科学出版,1998.
[44]萨缪尔森.经济学[M].北京:华夏出版社,1999.
[45] A·哈耶克.个人主义与经济秩序[M].北京:北京经济学院出版社,1991.
[46]米尔顿·弗里德曼.资本主义与自由[M].北京:商务印书馆,1986.
[47]迈克尔·波特.竞争优势[M].北京:华夏出版社,2001.
[48]詹姆斯·布坎南.自由、市场与国家[M].上海:上海三联书店,1989.
[49]海尔布伦纳,瑟罗.经济学的秘密[M].海口:海南出版社,2001.
[50]俞海山.可持续消费模式论[M].北京:经济科学出版社,2002.
[51]黄泰岩,雷达.市场的功能与失灵[M].北京:经济科学出版社,1993.
[52]方福前.福利经济学[M].北京:人民出版社,1994.
[53]吴易风.马克思主义经济学和西方经济学[M].北京:经济科学出版社,2001.
[54]张坤民.可持续发展论[M].北京:中国环境科学出版社,1997.
[55]张五常.经济解释[M].香港:花千树出版有限公司,2003.
[56]赵伟.干预市场.北京:经济科学出版社,1999.
[57]张象枢.环境经济学[M].北京:中国环境科学出版社,2001.
[58]齐建国.现代循环经济与运行机制[M].北京:新华出版社,2006.
[59]龚向前.气候变化背景下能源法的变革[M].北京:中国民主法治出版社,2008.
[60]林伯强.能源经济学理论与政策实践[M].北京:中国财政经济出版社,2008.
[61]李美峰.中国能源工业社区现状与发展:山西实证分析[M].北京:社会科学文献出版社,2006
[62]贾丽红.外部性理论研究—中国环境规制与知识产权保护制度的分析[M].北京:人民出版社,2007.
[63] Woods J E. Mathematics economics [M]. Longman,London and New York,1959.
[1]朱德仁.煤炭开发中的清洁生产技术[J].煤矿环境保护,2000,(1).19-21.
[2]魏复盛.我国的环境污染及其健康危害[J].中国工程院环境委员会编.环境污染对健康的影响(论文集),中国环境科学出版社.2005:3
[3]杨玲.对我国现行排污收费工作的思考[J].环境研究与监测,2008(1):45.
[4]巫肖芬.我国排污收费等同于准排污税[J].中国税务,2007(7):55.
[5]李小荣.浅谈我国排污收费制度[J].法制与社会,2007(2):211.
[6]杨卫.排污权交易的制度经济学分析[J].兰州交通大学学报(社会科学版),2004(5):4.
[7]张颖,王勇.我国排污权交易制度的应用研究[J].中南大学学报(社会科学版),2004(4):465.
[8]蓝虹.排污权交易的产权分析[J].生态经济,2005(4):70
[9]冯子毅.对现阶段发电厂排污收费状况分析[J].电力技术经济,1999(4):58.
[10]石荣.我国排污收费制度存在的问题及对策[J].山西省政法管理干部学院学报,2008(3):27-29.
[11]陈阳.法律经济学视野下的我国排污收费制度思考[J].武汉公安干部学院学报.2009(1):69.
[12]姬婧,刘富齐,张登明.平顶山市区采煤塌陷地治理现状与分区治理措施探讨[J].煤炭工程,2006,(7).69.
[13]国汉芬.煤矿安全事故致因因素经济学分析与风险管理方法[D].北京:对外经济贸易大学.2007:12
[14]查冬兰,周德群.地区能源效率与二氧化碳排放的差异性——基于Kaya因素分解[J].系统工程,2007(11):65-71.
[15]唐作斌.市场失灵对市场效率的影响及其对策[J].经济与社会发展,2004(1):48-51.
[16]阮班会.市场失灵的几种形式[J].理论与现代化,1998(3):40.
[17]吕红梅.“市场失灵”与“政府失灵”述评[J].现代商贸工业,2009(11):30-31.
[18]陈小安,高丽亚.市场失灵与政府失灵的经济学分析[J].决策参考,2005(6):63-64.
[19]张卿.政府失灵:衡量、成因与治理[J],1997(10):18-35.
[20]陆长福,王国贞,焦笑南.西方经济.北京:中国经济出版社,2005:271.
[21]吴勇.政府失灵及原因研究[J].郑州工业大学学报(社会科学版),2000(3):7-10.
[22]崔玉香.政府失灵问题研究综述[J].理论与现代化,1999(7):35-37.
[23]殷瑜.论科斯定理的意义[J].商业经济,2005(8):18-20.
[24]黄敬宝.解析“科斯定理”[J].商业研究,2005(14):41-44.
[25]吴宇.如何应对煤焦与环境污染的难题[J].环境教育. 2008(9):75
[26]张秀生,陈先勇.论中国资源型城市产业发展的现状、困境和对策[J].经济评论,2001(6).96-97.
[27]张莲莲.山西煤炭开发利用与可持续发展研究[J].晋阳学刊,1998,(6).23-28.
[28]陈孝娥,黄载春,马兰,唐士豹,王刚,刘立新.煤化工行业环境污染现状及对策建议.攀枝花学院学报,2008(6):9.
[29]张东强,蓝俊康,刘宝剑.煤的开采与加工对地下水的污染及防治措施[J].地下水,2008(6).
[30]虞锡君.减排背景下完善排污权交易机制探析———以全国首个试点城市浙江省嘉兴市为例[J].农业经济问题,2009(3):99-103
[31]李寿德.排污权交易市场秩序的特征、功能与制度安排[J].上海交通大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2006(2):47-59.
[32]朱友君,吴静静.排污权交易在我国水土资源保护中的法规发展探析[J].发展水土保持科技、实现人与自然和谐——中国水土保持学会第三次全国会员代表大会学术论文集,2006:20-24.
[33]李寿德,柯大钢.环境外部性起源理论研究述评[J].经济理论与经济管理,2000(5):63-66.
[34]李寿德,王家祺.排污权交易制度的经济学基础分析[J].武汉理工大学学报(信息与管理工程版),2004(4):169-173.
[35]吴健,马中.科斯定理对排污权交易政策的理论贡献[J].厦门大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2004(3):21-25.
[36]李寿德,王家祺.排污权交易制度的经济学基础分析[J].武汉理工大学学报(信息与管理工程版),2004(4):169-173.
[37]吴开超,白莹.市场失灵与市场自矫正机制[J].财经科学,2004(5):57-61.
[38]刘荣春,张军辉.公共选择理论的政府失败说及对我国的启示[J].生产力研究,2004(6):125-127.
[39]刘婷,肖俊辉.排污权交易的制度经济分析[J].管理现代化,2002(5):17-19.
[40]匡寻,丁桑岚.电力行业实行二氧化硫排污交易浅析[J].中国环保产业,2006(8):12-15.
[41]孙卫,李寿德.排污权期权价值评估模型研究[J].西安交通大学学报,2007,25(1):106-109.
[42]谢雯.从科斯定理到排污权交易制度的思考[J].法制与社会,2007(3):664-665
[43] [罗丽.美国排污权交易制度及其对我国的启示[J].北京理工大学学报:社科版,2004,(1):61-64.
[44]穆红莉,马慧景.我国实施排污权交易制度中的问题研究[J].石家庄经济学院学报,2005,(6):810-813.
[45]牧金.中国排污权交易制度的问题与出路[J].重庆科技学院学报:社科版,2008,(1): 61-63.
[46]肖江文,罗云峰,赵勇.排污权交易制度与初始排污权分配[J].科技进步与对策,2002,(1):126-128
[47] Bator,F.M.(1958)The Anatomy of Market Failure[J].Quarterly Journal of Economics,Aug.pp.351-379.
[48] Stevens Brandt,Adam Rose. An economic analysis of flexible permit trading in the Kyoto Protocol [J].Inter-national Environmental Agreements: Politics, Law and Economics,2001(1):219-242.
[49] Leiby Pull, Jonathan Rubin. Intertemporal permit trading for the control of greenhouse gas emissions[J]. Environmental and Resource Economics, 2001(19):229-256.
[50] Gangadharan L. Transaction cost in pollution markets:a empirical study [J]. Land Economics, 2000(76):601-614.
[1]朱明锋.基于循环经济的资源型城市发展理论与应用研究[D].合肥:合肥工业大学,2005.15.
[2]石灵云.产业集聚、外部性与劳动生产率—来自中国制造业四位数行业的证据[D].上海:复旦大学,2008.
[3]张香平.城市地区私人小汽车使用的外部性研究[D].北京:北京交通大学,2007.
2查冬兰,周德群.地区能源效率与二氧化碳排放的差异性——基于Kaya因素分解[J].系统工程,2007(11):65-71.
3王革华,艾德生.新能源概论[M].北京:化学工业出版社,2006:2.
4赖向军,戴林.石油与天然气[M].北京:化学工业出版社,2005:4.
5王革华,艾德生.新能源概论[M].北京:化学工业出版社,2006:4.
6林伯强.现代能源经济学[M].北京:中国财政经济出版社,2007:1.
7汪安佑.资源环境经济学[M].北京:地质出版社,2005:47.
8左玉辉.环境经济学[M].北京:高等教育出版社,2003:91.
9汪安佑.资源环境经济学[M].北京:地质出版社,2005:48.
10叶文虎.可持续发展引论[M].北京:高等教育出版,2001:144.
11汪安佑,雷涯邻,沙景华.资源环境经济学[M].北京:地质出版社,2005:120-121.
12叶文虎.可持续发展引论[M].北京:高等教育出版,2001:155.
13李会明.非市场失灵理论与中国市场经济实践[M].上海:立信会计出版社,1996:5.
14姚建.环境经济学[M].成都:西南财经大学出版社,2001:91.
15唐作斌.市场失灵对市场效率的影响及其对策[J].经济与社会发展,2004(1):48.
16阮班会.市场失灵的几种形式[J].理论与现代化,1998(3):40.
17吕红梅.“市场失灵”与“政府失灵”述评[J].现代商贸工业,2009(11):30.
18陈小安,高丽亚.市场失灵与政府失灵的经济学分析[J].决策参考,2005(6):63.
19黄泰岩,雷达.市场的功能与失灵——西方市场理论考察[M].北京:经济科学出版社,1993:194-195.
20张连城.经济学教程[M].北京:经济日报出版社,2007:232.
21姚建.环境经济学[M].成都:西南财经大学出版社,2001:95
22张连城.经济学教程[M].北京:经济日报出版社,2007:232.
23张卿.政府失灵:衡量、成因与治理[J],1997(10):21.
24陆长福,王国贞,焦笑南[M].西方经济.北京:中国经济出版社,2005:271.
25吴勇.政府失灵及原因研究[J].郑州工业大学学报(社会科学版),2000(3):7.
26吕红梅.“市场失灵”与“政府失灵”述评[J].现代商贸工业,2009(11):31.
27姚建.环境经济学[M].成都:西南财经大学出版社,2001:95 .
28崔玉香.政府失灵问题研究综述[J].理论与现代化,1999(7):35.
29陈小安,高丽亚.市场失灵与政府失灵的经济学分析[J].决策参考,2005(6):64.
30姚建.环境经济学[M].成都:西南财经大学出版社,2001:88.
31殷瑜.论科斯定理的意义[J].商业经济,2005(8):19.
32黄敬宝.解析“科斯定理”[J].商业研究,2005(14):42.
33叶文虎.可持续发展引论[M].北京:高等教育出版.2001:151.
34沈满洪.环境经济手段研究[M].北京:中国环境科学出版社,2001:148-150.
35王金南.排污收费理论学[M].北京:中国环境科学出版社,1997:65.
36张连城.经济学教程[M].北京:经济日报出版社,2007:217.
37沈满洪.环境经济手段研究[M].北京:中国环境科学出版社,2001:110.
38王金南.排污收费理论学[M].北京:中国环境科学出版社,1997:65.
39姚建.环境经济学[M].成都:西南财经大学出版社,2001:90.
40王金南.排污收费理论学[M].北京:中国环境科学出版社,1997:53.
41叶文虎.可持续发展引论[M].北京:高等教育出版.2001:150.
42崔民选.中国能源发展报告2006[M].北京:社会科学文献出版社,2006:15.
50吴宇.如何应对煤焦与环境污染的难题[J].环境教育. 2008(9):75
51中国的绿色革命—实现能源与环境可持续发展的技术选择.麦肯锡咨询报告:84
52张秀生,陈先勇.论中国资源型城市产业发展的现状、困境和对策[J].经济评论,2001(6):96-97.
53张莲莲.山西煤炭开发利用与可持续发展研究[J].晋阳学刊,1998(6):23-28.
54朱德仁.煤炭开发中的清洁生产技术[J].煤矿环境保护,2000(1):20.
55陈孝娥,黄载春,马兰,唐士豹,王刚,刘立新.煤化工行业环境污染现状及对策建议.攀枝花学院学报,2008(6):9.
56徐华清.中国能源环境发展报告2006[M].北京:中国环境科学出版社,2006:152.
57张东强,蓝俊康,刘宝剑.煤的开采与加工对地下水的污染及防治措施[J].地下水,2008(6).
58中华人民共和国环境保护部.2007年中国近岸海域环境质量公报. http://www.mep.gov.cn/hjjc09/jcxx/jagb/07hygb/ .2008-06-05 592009年中国环保业年度报告.2009:91
60田霍卿.资源型城市可持续发展的思考[M].北京:人民出版社,2000:29.
61朱德仁.煤炭开发中的清洁生产技术[J].煤矿环境保护,2000(1):19.
62刘志斌.大型露天煤矿闭坑后生态环境问题及对策[R].资源枯竭城市灾害形成机理与控制战略研讨,2003:177.
63中华人民共和国环境保护部http://www.sepa.gov.cn/.
64朱明锋.基于循环经济的资源型城市发展理论与应用研究[D].合肥:合肥工业大学,2005:15.
65中国经济信息网.2009年中国环保行业年度报告[R].2009:91-92
66姬婧,刘富齐,张登明.平顶山市区采煤塌陷地治理现状与分区治理措施探讨[J].煤炭工程,2006(7):69.
67徐华清.中国能源环境发展报告2006[M].北京:中国环境科学出版社,2006:25.
68扈天保.关于小煤矿整顿关闭机制设计的思考.国家安全生产监督管理总局调查研究,2008(16):
69国汉芬.煤矿安全事故致因因素经济学分析与风险管理方法.北京:对外经济贸易大学,2007:12
70数据资料整理自国家煤矿安全检查局网站http://www.chinacoal-safety.gov.cn/mkaj/
77陈阳.法律经济学视野下的我国排污收费制度思考[J].武汉公安干部学院学报.2009(1):69.
78杨玲.对我国现行排污收费工作的思考[J].环境研究与监测.2008(1):45.
79巫肖芬.我国排污收费等同于准排污税[J].中国税务.2007(7):55.
80李小荣.浅谈我国排污收费制度[J].法制与社会.2007(2):211.
81巫肖芬.我国排污收费等同于准排污税[J].中国税务.2007(7):55.
82杨卫.排污权交易的制度经济学分析[J].兰州交通大学学报(社会科学版).2004(5):4.
83张颖,王勇.我国排污权交易制度的应用研究[J].中南大学学报(社会科学版).2004(4):465.
84蓝虹.排污权交易的产权分析[J].生态经济. 2005(4):70
87罗斯基勒(丹麦),姜克隽(译),于胜民(译),胡秀莲(译).清洁发展机制(中文版)[M].北京:气象出版社,2003:7.
88国家发展和改革委员会应对气候变化司.中国清洁发展机制网:http://cdm.ccchina.gov.cn/web/index.asp 2009-10-05.
89国家发展和改革委员会应对气候变化司.中国清洁发展机制网:http://cdm.ccchina.gov.cn/web/index.asp 2009-11-08.
93袁开智,王克强.循环经济发展的山西样本[N].中国经济导报.2009年8月6日.第B02版.
94钱伯章.节能减排——可持续发展的必由之路[M].科学出版社.2008:90-91.
95钱伯章.节能减排——可持续发展的必由之路[M].科学出版社.2008:125.
96王革华,艾德生.新能源概论[M].北京:化学工业出版社,2006:214.
97虞锡君.减排背景下完善排污权交易机制探析———以全国首个试点城市浙江省嘉兴市为例[J].农业经济问题.2009(3):99.
98李寿德.排污权交易市场秩序的特征、功能与制度安排[J].上海交通大学学报(哲学社会科学版).2006(2):47.
99朱友君,吴静静.排污权交易在我国水土资源保护中的法规发展探析[J].发展水土保持科技、实现人与自然和谐——中国水土保持学会第三次全国会员代表大会学术论文集.2006:23.
[1]姚向君,田宜水.生物质能资源清洁转化利用技术[M].北京:化学工业出版社,2005.
[2]王革华,艾德生.新能源概论[M].北京:化学工业出版社,2006:2.
[3]赖向军,戴林.石油与天然气[M].北京:化学工业出版社,2005:4.
[4]林伯强.现代能源经济学[M].北京:中国财政经济出版社,2007:1.
[5]汪安佑.资源环境经济学[M].北京:地质出版社,2005:47.
[6]左玉辉.环境经济学[M].北京:高等教育出版社,2003:91.
[7]叶文虎.可持续发展引论[M].北京:高等教育出版社,2001:144.
[8]李会明.非市场失灵理论与中国市场经济实践[M].上海:立信会计出版社,1996:5.
[9]朱国宏.社会学视里的经济现象[M].成都:四川人民出版社,1998.
[10]姚建.环境经济学[M].成都:西南财经大学出版社,2001:91.
[11]黄泰岩,雷达.市场的功能与失灵——西方市场理论考察[M].北京:经济科学出版社,1993.
[12]张连城.经济学教程[M].北京:经济日报出版社,2007.
[13]沈满洪.环境经济手段研究[M].北京:中国环境科学出版社,2001.
[14]王金南.排污收费理论学[M].北京:中国环境科学出版社,1997:65.
[15]崔民选.2006中国能源发展报告.北京:社会科学文献出版社,2006:15.
[16]徐华清.中国能源环境发展报告2006[M].北京:中国环境科学出版社,2006.
[17]罗斯基勒(丹麦),姜克隽(译),于胜民(译),胡秀莲(译).清洁发展机制(中文版)[M].北京:气象出版社,2003.
[18]钱伯章.节能减排——可持续发展的必由之路[M].科学出版社,2008.
[19]田霍卿.资源型城市可持续发展的思考[M].北京:人民出版社,2000.
[20]鞠美庭,张裕芬,李洪远.能源规划环境影响评价[M].北京:化学工业出版社,2006.
[21]查尔斯·沃尔夫.市场或政府[M].北京:中国发展出版社,1994.
[22]曼瑟尔·奥尔森:集体行动的逻辑[M].上海:上海人民出版社,1995.
[23]巴泽尔:产权的经济分析[M].上海:上海人民出版社,2004.
[24]托马斯·斯德纳.环境与自然资源管理的政策工具[M].上海:上海人民出版社,2005.
[25]迈克尔·波特.竞争战略[M].北京:华夏出版社,2001.
[26]罗纳德·科斯.论生产的制度结构[M].上海:上海三联书店,1994. [26]迈克尔·波特.国家竞争优势[M].北京:华夏出版社,2003.
[27]保罗·R·伯特尼和罗伯特·N·史蒂文斯.环境保护的公共政策[M].上海:上海人民出版社,2004.
[28]詹姆斯·M·布坎南和戈登·塔洛克同意的计算[M].北京:中国社会科学出版社,2000.
[29]陈雪梅.中小企业集群的理论与实践[M].北京:经济科学出版社,2003.
[30]樊勇明.公共经济学[M].上海:复旦大学出版社,2000.
[31]国家环境保护局污染控制司.控制危废物越境转移及其处置文件和技术准则汇编[M].北京:中国环境科学出版社,1994.
[32]黄有光.效率、公平与公共政策[M].北京:社会科学文献出版社,2003.
[33]霍斯特·西伯特.环境经济学[M].北京:中国林业出版社,2002.
[34]理查德·布隆克.质疑自由市场经济[M].南京:江苏人民出版社,2000.
[35]张帆.环境与自然资源经济学[M].上海:上海人民出版社,1998.
[36]张培刚.微观经济学的产生和发展[M].长沙:湖南人民出版社,1997. [37]
[37]朱为群.消费课税的经济分析.上海:上海财经人学出版社,2001.
[38]陈富良,万卫虹.企业行为与政府规制.北京:经济管理出版社,2001.
[39]陈东琪.新政府干预论.北京:首都经济贸易大学出版社,2000.
[40]李文星,白冰主.公共部门经济学引论.成都:四川人民出版社,2001.
[41]斯蒂格里茨.政府为什么干预经济.北京:中国物资出版社.1998.
[42]王金南.排污收费理论学.北京:中国环境科学出版社.1997.
[43]谭力文.伦敦学派[M].武汉:武汉出版社,1996. [45]杨金田,王金南.排污收费制度改革与设计[M].北京:中国环境科学出版,1998.
[44]萨缪尔森.经济学[M].北京:华夏出版社,1999.
[45] A·哈耶克.个人主义与经济秩序[M].北京:北京经济学院出版社,1991.
[46]米尔顿·弗里德曼.资本主义与自由[M].北京:商务印书馆,1986.
[47]迈克尔·波特.竞争优势[M].北京:华夏出版社,2001.
[48]詹姆斯·布坎南.自由、市场与国家[M].上海:上海三联书店,1989.
[49]海尔布伦纳,瑟罗.经济学的秘密[M].海口:海南出版社,2001.
[50]俞海山.可持续消费模式论[M].北京:经济科学出版社,2002.
[51]黄泰岩,雷达.市场的功能与失灵[M].北京:经济科学出版社,1993.
[52]方福前.福利经济学[M].北京:人民出版社,1994.
[53]吴易风.马克思主义经济学和西方经济学[M].北京:经济科学出版社,2001.
[54]张坤民.可持续发展论[M].北京:中国环境科学出版社,1997.
[55]张五常.经济解释[M].香港:花千树出版有限公司,2003.
[56]赵伟.干预市场.北京:经济科学出版社,1999.
[57]张象枢.环境经济学[M].北京:中国环境科学出版社,2001.
[58]齐建国.现代循环经济与运行机制[M].北京:新华出版社,2006.
[59]龚向前.气候变化背景下能源法的变革[M].北京:中国民主法治出版社,2008.
[60]林伯强.能源经济学理论与政策实践[M].北京:中国财政经济出版社,2008.
[61]李美峰.中国能源工业社区现状与发展:山西实证分析[M].北京:社会科学文献出版社,2006
[62]贾丽红.外部性理论研究—中国环境规制与知识产权保护制度的分析[M].北京:人民出版社,2007.
[63] Woods J E. Mathematics economics [M]. Longman,London and New York,1959.
[1]朱德仁.煤炭开发中的清洁生产技术[J].煤矿环境保护,2000,(1).19-21.
[2]魏复盛.我国的环境污染及其健康危害[J].中国工程院环境委员会编.环境污染对健康的影响(论文集),中国环境科学出版社.2005:3
[3]杨玲.对我国现行排污收费工作的思考[J].环境研究与监测,2008(1):45.
[4]巫肖芬.我国排污收费等同于准排污税[J].中国税务,2007(7):55.
[5]李小荣.浅谈我国排污收费制度[J].法制与社会,2007(2):211.
[6]杨卫.排污权交易的制度经济学分析[J].兰州交通大学学报(社会科学版),2004(5):4.
[7]张颖,王勇.我国排污权交易制度的应用研究[J].中南大学学报(社会科学版),2004(4):465.
[8]蓝虹.排污权交易的产权分析[J].生态经济,2005(4):70
[9]冯子毅.对现阶段发电厂排污收费状况分析[J].电力技术经济,1999(4):58.
[10]石荣.我国排污收费制度存在的问题及对策[J].山西省政法管理干部学院学报,2008(3):27-29.
[11]陈阳.法律经济学视野下的我国排污收费制度思考[J].武汉公安干部学院学报.2009(1):69.
[12]姬婧,刘富齐,张登明.平顶山市区采煤塌陷地治理现状与分区治理措施探讨[J].煤炭工程,2006,(7).69.
[13]国汉芬.煤矿安全事故致因因素经济学分析与风险管理方法[D].北京:对外经济贸易大学.2007:12
[14]查冬兰,周德群.地区能源效率与二氧化碳排放的差异性——基于Kaya因素分解[J].系统工程,2007(11):65-71.
[15]唐作斌.市场失灵对市场效率的影响及其对策[J].经济与社会发展,2004(1):48-51.
[16]阮班会.市场失灵的几种形式[J].理论与现代化,1998(3):40.
[17]吕红梅.“市场失灵”与“政府失灵”述评[J].现代商贸工业,2009(11):30-31.
[18]陈小安,高丽亚.市场失灵与政府失灵的经济学分析[J].决策参考,2005(6):63-64.
[19]张卿.政府失灵:衡量、成因与治理[J],1997(10):18-35.
[20]陆长福,王国贞,焦笑南.西方经济.北京:中国经济出版社,2005:271.
[21]吴勇.政府失灵及原因研究[J].郑州工业大学学报(社会科学版),2000(3):7-10.
[22]崔玉香.政府失灵问题研究综述[J].理论与现代化,1999(7):35-37.
[23]殷瑜.论科斯定理的意义[J].商业经济,2005(8):18-20.
[24]黄敬宝.解析“科斯定理”[J].商业研究,2005(14):41-44.
[25]吴宇.如何应对煤焦与环境污染的难题[J].环境教育. 2008(9):75
[26]张秀生,陈先勇.论中国资源型城市产业发展的现状、困境和对策[J].经济评论,2001(6).96-97.
[27]张莲莲.山西煤炭开发利用与可持续发展研究[J].晋阳学刊,1998,(6).23-28.
[28]陈孝娥,黄载春,马兰,唐士豹,王刚,刘立新.煤化工行业环境污染现状及对策建议.攀枝花学院学报,2008(6):9.
[29]张东强,蓝俊康,刘宝剑.煤的开采与加工对地下水的污染及防治措施[J].地下水,2008(6).
[30]虞锡君.减排背景下完善排污权交易机制探析———以全国首个试点城市浙江省嘉兴市为例[J].农业经济问题,2009(3):99-103
[31]李寿德.排污权交易市场秩序的特征、功能与制度安排[J].上海交通大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2006(2):47-59.
[32]朱友君,吴静静.排污权交易在我国水土资源保护中的法规发展探析[J].发展水土保持科技、实现人与自然和谐——中国水土保持学会第三次全国会员代表大会学术论文集,2006:20-24.
[33]李寿德,柯大钢.环境外部性起源理论研究述评[J].经济理论与经济管理,2000(5):63-66.
[34]李寿德,王家祺.排污权交易制度的经济学基础分析[J].武汉理工大学学报(信息与管理工程版),2004(4):169-173.
[35]吴健,马中.科斯定理对排污权交易政策的理论贡献[J].厦门大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2004(3):21-25.
[36]李寿德,王家祺.排污权交易制度的经济学基础分析[J].武汉理工大学学报(信息与管理工程版),2004(4):169-173.
[37]吴开超,白莹.市场失灵与市场自矫正机制[J].财经科学,2004(5):57-61.
[38]刘荣春,张军辉.公共选择理论的政府失败说及对我国的启示[J].生产力研究,2004(6):125-127.
[39]刘婷,肖俊辉.排污权交易的制度经济分析[J].管理现代化,2002(5):17-19.
[40]匡寻,丁桑岚.电力行业实行二氧化硫排污交易浅析[J].中国环保产业,2006(8):12-15.
[41]孙卫,李寿德.排污权期权价值评估模型研究[J].西安交通大学学报,2007,25(1):106-109.
[42]谢雯.从科斯定理到排污权交易制度的思考[J].法制与社会,2007(3):664-665
[43] [罗丽.美国排污权交易制度及其对我国的启示[J].北京理工大学学报:社科版,2004,(1):61-64.
[44]穆红莉,马慧景.我国实施排污权交易制度中的问题研究[J].石家庄经济学院学报,2005,(6):810-813.
[45]牧金.中国排污权交易制度的问题与出路[J].重庆科技学院学报:社科版,2008,(1): 61-63.
[46]肖江文,罗云峰,赵勇.排污权交易制度与初始排污权分配[J].科技进步与对策,2002,(1):126-128
[47] Bator,F.M.(1958)The Anatomy of Market Failure[J].Quarterly Journal of Economics,Aug.pp.351-379.
[48] Stevens Brandt,Adam Rose. An economic analysis of flexible permit trading in the Kyoto Protocol [J].Inter-national Environmental Agreements: Politics, Law and Economics,2001(1):219-242.
[49] Leiby Pull, Jonathan Rubin. Intertemporal permit trading for the control of greenhouse gas emissions[J]. Environmental and Resource Economics, 2001(19):229-256.
[50] Gangadharan L. Transaction cost in pollution markets:a empirical study [J]. Land Economics, 2000(76):601-614.
[1]朱明锋.基于循环经济的资源型城市发展理论与应用研究[D].合肥:合肥工业大学,2005.15.
[2]石灵云.产业集聚、外部性与劳动生产率—来自中国制造业四位数行业的证据[D].上海:复旦大学,2008.
[3]张香平.城市地区私人小汽车使用的外部性研究[D].北京:北京交通大学,2007.