美国教师资格认证制度及其效应研究
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摘要
人类设立制度,为的是调节行为,规范关系,形构稳定的社会秩序和整合统一的社会力量,促使现实朝着人所希望的方向发展。所以,判定一个制度存在的价值、发展的潜力等问题的前提,应该是探寻该制度本身架构的合理性、进一步发展的深层次的依据与动力以及评估和分析其实施效应。但是,在错综复杂的社会与教育现实条件和背景下,在各类理念与价值观的相互碰撞和影响下,在多元多层的教育诉求中,作为制定系统的教师专业规范体系、评估和选拔合格教师以及指导教师进步的教师资格认证制度,要保证其认证结果的有效性并能得到广大教师的支持和社会各方面的广泛采信,就必须探索如何在实现其内部架构的不断合理化的同时,努力应对来自外在各类条件与力量的影响,最终尽可能实现其制度理想。
教师资格证书制度作为教师质量保障体系的核心,它的发展与演变,更能反映出教师专业化的程度与水平。本文选取教师资格认证制度发展时间最长、最具有典型代表的美国为研究对象,首先从历史和现实的角度去探求教师资格认证制度在美国发展的轨迹和当前的新特点;其次,研究那些左右美国教师资格认证制度发展的因素和条件,并由此讨论其整体运行机制、理论基础、价值取向和功能地位等问题;最后,关注其发展的效应问题。通过对美国教师资格认证制度的全面深入研究,了解其制度的历史经验与发展现状,在理论和实践、价值和技术等层面上找寻与我国教师资格认证制度发展的共性和个性,认识并揭示其内在的生存与运行规律,加深人们对这个制度规律性与合理性的认识,由此探讨这个制度的相关经验以及对我国目前教师资格认证制度的发展有哪些启示,哪些方面值得我们借鉴,从而使我国教师资格认证制度的理论与实践体系更加科学化、系统化。
本文研究路径如下:
首先,对美国教师资格认证制度进行历时性梳理,尤其重点研究美国教师资格认证制度存在和发展的历史与现实社会背景。
其次,对美国当前教师资格认证制度进行深入分析,具体探讨这一制度在一定的社会文化与教育背景下的理论与实践活动,研究其以各类持续性规定为代表的制度规范体系与运行机制,并评析美国教师资格认证制度的整体特征,从而为后面的制度学理研究和制度效应研究奠定基础。
第三,对美国教师资格认证制度进行学理研究,探讨其理论与政策基础。具体通过对这一制度的内涵、价值取向、理论基础以及从相关政策法规的分析,研究美国教师资格认证制度的系统定位问题,并揭示其价值层面的意义。
第四,评估制度的效应问题。试图回答作为美国整体教育系统中的一个重要环节——教师资格认证制度到底是否能达到预想的价值期待,其目标达成度有多少,哪些因素及其在多大的程度上促进或阻碍了该制度的进一步实施和整体教育目标的实现。
最后,分析我国目前教师资格认证制度的现状和问题,并探讨美国教师资格认证制度的相关理论与实践经验可对我国提供的借鉴和启示意义。
整体而言,有三条线索贯穿全文,并构成本文的基本框架:一是在呈现顺序上,从美国教师资格认证制度的历史演变,到现实发展的探讨,再到我国未来教师资格认证制度建设的建议;二是在研究层次上,从制度内容的分析到决策主体的价值选择,到不同的理论基础和政策变迁的深层次因素,再到制度的实施结果分析;三是在内容安排上,微观的个案讨论与宏观的制度分析交织进行。
此外,考虑到美国是一个典型的联邦制国家,各州都有制定自己法律的权力,所以在研究这个国家的教师资格认证制度时,也考虑各州对这项工作的管理模式、州与州之间制度建设与执行情况的差别等。但是,近年来美国联邦政府也正在追求教师资格认证制度在更高一层次上的统一性及其在各州的互通性,因此本文主要从国家级和州级教师资格认证制度两个层面,以及传统型教师资格认证制度与选择性教师资格认证制度两个角度,分别研究美国的教师资格认证制度,最后进行整合分析。同时,也考虑到了教师资格认证制度既是一个静态“文本系统”(法律、法规、标准规范层面),又是一个动态“执行系统”(流程、措施、方法层面),所以需要从这两个视角出发进行分析,才能把握教师资格认证制度的发展脉络和全貌,并最终得以探究其深层次的价值理念与效应问题。
本文力求有所突破之处集中表现在两个方面:首先,国内关于美国教师资格认证制度的研究大多是从制度的“技术性”与“工具性”角度,探寻的主要是“是什么”的问题,即对这个制度的相关认证流程、实施手段和标准等进行研究;而本文在此基础上重点涉及到了其“价值性”层面的系统阐释,并深入探讨“为什么”以及“怎么做”等超越工具理性层面的价值理性问题。其次,从社会科学本身的研究来看,对一事物或现象的研究应该是三个层面的,即目的、实施和结果。以往的众多相关研究主要是关注教师资格认证制度的目的以及实施过程,而对于其实施之后的结果评估却很少注意到。本文在系统讨论了美国教师资格认证制度的发展与现状、理念与机制、价值取向与功能定位等的基础上,则注重考查其实施效应问题。简言之,就是探讨在一定的目的和实施过程的引导之下,会产生一个什么样的结果,这样的结果是否达到了预期的目的,还有哪些方面是值得调整和纠正的,由此可以从整体上分析这个制度的发展潜力问题。
In order to regulate human behavior, standardize human relations, construct a steady civil order and unify the forces of humankind, institutions can emerge spontaneously or can be created by people, with the goal to make the society develop towards a direction that they hope. For example, teacher certification is an institution created to standardize the teaching profession, assess and select qualified teachers, and guide teacher professional development. The prerequisite for estimating the value and potential of an institution is the rationality of its structure, its solid foundation and the effect of its implementation. However, the complexity of the society and education, containing intricately combined or involved parts, the mutual collision of diverse thoughts and values and the multi-layer demand of education make it is difficult to realize the goal of teacher certification. To promote teacher development, obtain support from the entire society and realize its ideals as much as possible, teacher certification should ameliorate its structure and the relationship with the financial world.
As one of the important guarantees of teacher quality, the development of teacher certification is regarded as the reflection of teacher professional development. Studying American teacher certification system is important because it is a typical example of a teacher certification system and has the longest history of the world.
First, this study seeks to uncover the steps that led to the development of the teacher certification system, and to understand the characteristics of the current American teacher certification. On this basis, the study is discussing the conditions and factors that influence the development of the American teacher certification system. Second, this study focuses on the operational mechanism, theoretical foundation, value orientation, function and the effect of implementation of the American teacher certification system. Third, through the comprehensive and in-depth study of American teacher certification system, this study seeks to illuminate the similarities and differences with the Chinese teacher certification system through the comparison of historical facts and the present situation, theory and practice, the value and methodology, with the goal to reveal the laws of its operations and to understand the rationality and possibility for future development. Finally, this study seeks to understand how the impact and experience of American teacher certification can help with the development of our own teacher certification system and how we can improve to benefit our society.
The structure of the dissertation is as follows:
Fist of all, a historical look at American teacher certification system is provided. The study delves into the past in order to better understand the present. This is one of the most important aspects of the dissertation: offering a historical perspective of American teacher certification system.
Second, an in-depth analysis of the status of American teacher certification system is performed. The study goes deep into the political, economic, social and educational background of American teacher certification, trying to analyze it with from both a theoretical and a practical perspective, summarizing the General Characteristics of American teacher certification system.
Third, further theoretical research on American teacher certification system is performed. The study tries to explore the theoretical foundation and policy basis of American teacher certification, to understand its philosophical and administrative aspects, and discuss its role and function in the whole American educational system. The study is not only trying to answer the question "what", but also seeks to answer the questions "why" and "how" about the American teacher certification system.
Fourth, the efficiency of American teacher certification is evaluated. The study seeks to answer the question whether teacher certification has achieved the goal of improving teacher development and student achievement, as an important link within the American educational system. That is, the study tries to assess the extent to which the system has reached its target. Furthermore, the study aims to identify the factors that influence the efficiency of American teacher certification. Among these factors, the study aims to differentiate the factors with positive impact and those with negative impact on the system.
Finally, a comprehensive overview of the Chinese teacher certification and a comparison between the Chinese and American teacher certification systems is provided. The study discusses the successful aspects that we should learn from the American system and the mistakes we should avoid during the reform. Most importantly, the study offers suggestions on how we should build and develop our own teacher certification system in a reasonable and scientific manner, to truly promote the quality of education.
Overall, there are three important structural aspects of the dissertation. The first aspect is the sequential order of presentation, from the expatiation of historical evolution through the discussion of status of American teacher certification system, and to the suggestions of the future development of Chinese teacher certification. The second aspect is the gradual shift of research focus, from the outward appearance to the inner essence of the system and to the analysis of the effects of the system. The third aspect is the arrangement of contents, joining the discussion and systematic analysis together. These three structural aspects constitute the framework of the entire dissertation.
In addition, considering that America is a typical federal country, every state has its own power to make its own law. Therefore, it is primarily the individual states, and not the Federal Government that is responsible for the management of teacher certification, and numerous differences exist between teacher certifications in different states. On the other hand, in recent years, the Federal Government has also been pursuing the development of a higher-level teacher certification system throughout the country. Therefore, the study is trying to discuss both levels of the teacher certification system (i.e., the individual states and the Federal Government). The study also offers an overview of traditional teacher certification and the alternative teacher certification system. In addition, because teacher certification is not only a static "text" (laws, regulations, standards and norms), but also a dynamic "Execution System" (processes, measures and methods level), it is necessary to illustrate both of these aspects to really understand the whole system and its effect.
The study seeks to achieve two breakthroughs.
Fist of all, the study aims to perform a comprehensive and in-depth study of the American teacher certification system. Most studies have so far focused on the "technical" and "tools" aspects of the American teacher certification system. That is, previous research in this field was mostly concerned with answering the "what" question, focusing on the process, type, means of implementation and standards of American teacher certification system, and have not tried to answers the "why" and "how" questions. To thoroughly, accurately and truly understand a societal institution, we should study its other aspects, such as its value and efficiency, as it is done in this study.
Secondly, there are three typical aspects of social science research: purpose, implementation and results. However, most of the previous research in the field was mainly concerned with the purpose and implementation of teacher certification system. Few studies addressed the efficiency of the system. While numerous social science research studies have concluded that it is impossible to set a specific target and achieve the precise results that we expect. Contrary to these claims, the current study seeks to explore the effect of teacher certification and to provide suggestions of how to adjust and improve the entire system to make it more goal-oriented.
教师资格证书制度作为教师质量保障体系的核心,它的发展与演变,更能反映出教师专业化的程度与水平。本文选取教师资格认证制度发展时间最长、最具有典型代表的美国为研究对象,首先从历史和现实的角度去探求教师资格认证制度在美国发展的轨迹和当前的新特点;其次,研究那些左右美国教师资格认证制度发展的因素和条件,并由此讨论其整体运行机制、理论基础、价值取向和功能地位等问题;最后,关注其发展的效应问题。通过对美国教师资格认证制度的全面深入研究,了解其制度的历史经验与发展现状,在理论和实践、价值和技术等层面上找寻与我国教师资格认证制度发展的共性和个性,认识并揭示其内在的生存与运行规律,加深人们对这个制度规律性与合理性的认识,由此探讨这个制度的相关经验以及对我国目前教师资格认证制度的发展有哪些启示,哪些方面值得我们借鉴,从而使我国教师资格认证制度的理论与实践体系更加科学化、系统化。
本文研究路径如下:
首先,对美国教师资格认证制度进行历时性梳理,尤其重点研究美国教师资格认证制度存在和发展的历史与现实社会背景。
其次,对美国当前教师资格认证制度进行深入分析,具体探讨这一制度在一定的社会文化与教育背景下的理论与实践活动,研究其以各类持续性规定为代表的制度规范体系与运行机制,并评析美国教师资格认证制度的整体特征,从而为后面的制度学理研究和制度效应研究奠定基础。
第三,对美国教师资格认证制度进行学理研究,探讨其理论与政策基础。具体通过对这一制度的内涵、价值取向、理论基础以及从相关政策法规的分析,研究美国教师资格认证制度的系统定位问题,并揭示其价值层面的意义。
第四,评估制度的效应问题。试图回答作为美国整体教育系统中的一个重要环节——教师资格认证制度到底是否能达到预想的价值期待,其目标达成度有多少,哪些因素及其在多大的程度上促进或阻碍了该制度的进一步实施和整体教育目标的实现。
最后,分析我国目前教师资格认证制度的现状和问题,并探讨美国教师资格认证制度的相关理论与实践经验可对我国提供的借鉴和启示意义。
整体而言,有三条线索贯穿全文,并构成本文的基本框架:一是在呈现顺序上,从美国教师资格认证制度的历史演变,到现实发展的探讨,再到我国未来教师资格认证制度建设的建议;二是在研究层次上,从制度内容的分析到决策主体的价值选择,到不同的理论基础和政策变迁的深层次因素,再到制度的实施结果分析;三是在内容安排上,微观的个案讨论与宏观的制度分析交织进行。
此外,考虑到美国是一个典型的联邦制国家,各州都有制定自己法律的权力,所以在研究这个国家的教师资格认证制度时,也考虑各州对这项工作的管理模式、州与州之间制度建设与执行情况的差别等。但是,近年来美国联邦政府也正在追求教师资格认证制度在更高一层次上的统一性及其在各州的互通性,因此本文主要从国家级和州级教师资格认证制度两个层面,以及传统型教师资格认证制度与选择性教师资格认证制度两个角度,分别研究美国的教师资格认证制度,最后进行整合分析。同时,也考虑到了教师资格认证制度既是一个静态“文本系统”(法律、法规、标准规范层面),又是一个动态“执行系统”(流程、措施、方法层面),所以需要从这两个视角出发进行分析,才能把握教师资格认证制度的发展脉络和全貌,并最终得以探究其深层次的价值理念与效应问题。
本文力求有所突破之处集中表现在两个方面:首先,国内关于美国教师资格认证制度的研究大多是从制度的“技术性”与“工具性”角度,探寻的主要是“是什么”的问题,即对这个制度的相关认证流程、实施手段和标准等进行研究;而本文在此基础上重点涉及到了其“价值性”层面的系统阐释,并深入探讨“为什么”以及“怎么做”等超越工具理性层面的价值理性问题。其次,从社会科学本身的研究来看,对一事物或现象的研究应该是三个层面的,即目的、实施和结果。以往的众多相关研究主要是关注教师资格认证制度的目的以及实施过程,而对于其实施之后的结果评估却很少注意到。本文在系统讨论了美国教师资格认证制度的发展与现状、理念与机制、价值取向与功能定位等的基础上,则注重考查其实施效应问题。简言之,就是探讨在一定的目的和实施过程的引导之下,会产生一个什么样的结果,这样的结果是否达到了预期的目的,还有哪些方面是值得调整和纠正的,由此可以从整体上分析这个制度的发展潜力问题。
In order to regulate human behavior, standardize human relations, construct a steady civil order and unify the forces of humankind, institutions can emerge spontaneously or can be created by people, with the goal to make the society develop towards a direction that they hope. For example, teacher certification is an institution created to standardize the teaching profession, assess and select qualified teachers, and guide teacher professional development. The prerequisite for estimating the value and potential of an institution is the rationality of its structure, its solid foundation and the effect of its implementation. However, the complexity of the society and education, containing intricately combined or involved parts, the mutual collision of diverse thoughts and values and the multi-layer demand of education make it is difficult to realize the goal of teacher certification. To promote teacher development, obtain support from the entire society and realize its ideals as much as possible, teacher certification should ameliorate its structure and the relationship with the financial world.
As one of the important guarantees of teacher quality, the development of teacher certification is regarded as the reflection of teacher professional development. Studying American teacher certification system is important because it is a typical example of a teacher certification system and has the longest history of the world.
First, this study seeks to uncover the steps that led to the development of the teacher certification system, and to understand the characteristics of the current American teacher certification. On this basis, the study is discussing the conditions and factors that influence the development of the American teacher certification system. Second, this study focuses on the operational mechanism, theoretical foundation, value orientation, function and the effect of implementation of the American teacher certification system. Third, through the comprehensive and in-depth study of American teacher certification system, this study seeks to illuminate the similarities and differences with the Chinese teacher certification system through the comparison of historical facts and the present situation, theory and practice, the value and methodology, with the goal to reveal the laws of its operations and to understand the rationality and possibility for future development. Finally, this study seeks to understand how the impact and experience of American teacher certification can help with the development of our own teacher certification system and how we can improve to benefit our society.
The structure of the dissertation is as follows:
Fist of all, a historical look at American teacher certification system is provided. The study delves into the past in order to better understand the present. This is one of the most important aspects of the dissertation: offering a historical perspective of American teacher certification system.
Second, an in-depth analysis of the status of American teacher certification system is performed. The study goes deep into the political, economic, social and educational background of American teacher certification, trying to analyze it with from both a theoretical and a practical perspective, summarizing the General Characteristics of American teacher certification system.
Third, further theoretical research on American teacher certification system is performed. The study tries to explore the theoretical foundation and policy basis of American teacher certification, to understand its philosophical and administrative aspects, and discuss its role and function in the whole American educational system. The study is not only trying to answer the question "what", but also seeks to answer the questions "why" and "how" about the American teacher certification system.
Fourth, the efficiency of American teacher certification is evaluated. The study seeks to answer the question whether teacher certification has achieved the goal of improving teacher development and student achievement, as an important link within the American educational system. That is, the study tries to assess the extent to which the system has reached its target. Furthermore, the study aims to identify the factors that influence the efficiency of American teacher certification. Among these factors, the study aims to differentiate the factors with positive impact and those with negative impact on the system.
Finally, a comprehensive overview of the Chinese teacher certification and a comparison between the Chinese and American teacher certification systems is provided. The study discusses the successful aspects that we should learn from the American system and the mistakes we should avoid during the reform. Most importantly, the study offers suggestions on how we should build and develop our own teacher certification system in a reasonable and scientific manner, to truly promote the quality of education.
Overall, there are three important structural aspects of the dissertation. The first aspect is the sequential order of presentation, from the expatiation of historical evolution through the discussion of status of American teacher certification system, and to the suggestions of the future development of Chinese teacher certification. The second aspect is the gradual shift of research focus, from the outward appearance to the inner essence of the system and to the analysis of the effects of the system. The third aspect is the arrangement of contents, joining the discussion and systematic analysis together. These three structural aspects constitute the framework of the entire dissertation.
In addition, considering that America is a typical federal country, every state has its own power to make its own law. Therefore, it is primarily the individual states, and not the Federal Government that is responsible for the management of teacher certification, and numerous differences exist between teacher certifications in different states. On the other hand, in recent years, the Federal Government has also been pursuing the development of a higher-level teacher certification system throughout the country. Therefore, the study is trying to discuss both levels of the teacher certification system (i.e., the individual states and the Federal Government). The study also offers an overview of traditional teacher certification and the alternative teacher certification system. In addition, because teacher certification is not only a static "text" (laws, regulations, standards and norms), but also a dynamic "Execution System" (processes, measures and methods level), it is necessary to illustrate both of these aspects to really understand the whole system and its effect.
The study seeks to achieve two breakthroughs.
Fist of all, the study aims to perform a comprehensive and in-depth study of the American teacher certification system. Most studies have so far focused on the "technical" and "tools" aspects of the American teacher certification system. That is, previous research in this field was mostly concerned with answering the "what" question, focusing on the process, type, means of implementation and standards of American teacher certification system, and have not tried to answers the "why" and "how" questions. To thoroughly, accurately and truly understand a societal institution, we should study its other aspects, such as its value and efficiency, as it is done in this study.
Secondly, there are three typical aspects of social science research: purpose, implementation and results. However, most of the previous research in the field was mainly concerned with the purpose and implementation of teacher certification system. Few studies addressed the efficiency of the system. While numerous social science research studies have concluded that it is impossible to set a specific target and achieve the precise results that we expect. Contrary to these claims, the current study seeks to explore the effect of teacher certification and to provide suggestions of how to adjust and improve the entire system to make it more goal-oriented.
引文
[1]奥兰·扬,国际制度的有效性:棘手案例和关键因素,载于詹姆斯·罗西瑙等著.没有政府的治理[M],张胜军、刘小林译,江西人民出版社,2001.
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