碳氢共价键结构式正误样例组合的学习效果
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摘要
为了考察错误样例在样例学习中的作用,本研究以有机化学中烃类物质的化学结构式为实验材料,以普通高中一年级学生为被试,对正确与错误样例的组合样例的学习成绩进行了实验观察。(1)实验1考察了正误样例组合的学习效果是否比正确样例组合的学习效果更好。结果显示,碳氢共价键结构式正确和错误样例组合的学习成绩显著优于单一的正确样例组合的学习成绩,这表明由正确和错误样例构成的组合样例的学习效果好于只由正确样例构成的组合样例的学习效果,证明了错误样例在样例学习中的作用;(2)实验2在实验1的基础上,进一步考察了正误样例的数量比例对碳氢共价键结构式样例组合学习效果的影响。结果表明,由数量相等的正确样例和错误样例(4个正确样例和4个错误样例)构成的组合样例的学习成绩显著好于正确样例数量多于错误样例数量(6个正确样例和2个错误样例)和正确样例数量少于错误样例数量(2个正确样例和6个错误样例)的组合样例的学习成绩;而且,正确样例数量多于错误样例数量的组合样例的学习成绩好于正确样例数量少于错误样例数量的组合样例的学习成绩,但差异不显著;(3)实验3考察了正误样例的呈现方式对碳氢共价键结构式样例学习效果的影响。正确样例和错误样例“对比”呈现的组合样例的学习成绩最好,其学习成绩显著好于“正前-误后”分块呈现和“误前-正后”分块呈现的组合样例的学习成绩;“正前-误后”样例在后“分块”呈现的组合样例的学习成绩较差,但仍显著好于“误前-正后”分块呈现的组合样例学习成绩;“误前-正后”分块呈现的组合样例学习成绩最差。因此,在正误样例组合的样例学习中,如果错误样例的设计合理、数量适当、呈现顺序恰当将会有效促进样例学习的效果。
In previous studies, few researchers had paid attention to the role of incorrect worked-example in worked-example learning. Furthermore, they drew different conclusions. We thought that the outcomes would be better when using the combination of correct and incorrect worked-examples compared with the correct worked-examples only in worked-example learning.
This hypothesis was tested by three experiments in this research which used hydrocarbon structural formulas of organic chemistry as the materials and the high school students of grade one were recruited to participated in. Single-factor design was implemented in each experiment. All the hydrocarbon structural formulas were selected from chemistry textbook of Senior Two. A total of 240 subjects were assigned to the three experiments (60 participated in Experiment 1, 90 participated in Experiment 2 and 90 participated in Experiment 3). They all participated in pre-test, worked-example learning and post-test in quiet classrooms.
The results are the following: (1)Experiment 1 showed that the effect of combination of correct and incorrect worked-example learning was significantly better than the single correct worked-example learning;(2) Experiment 2 showed that the scores achieved from the combination which contained equal number of correct and incorrect worked-examples were significantly better than the scores achieved from the combination group in which the number of correct worked-examples was larger than that of incorrect ones. At the same time, the scores achieved from the combination which contained equal number of correct and incorrect worked-examples were significantly better than the scores achieved from the combination group in which the number of correct worked-examples was smaller than that of incorrect ones. (such as the proportion of correct and incorrect worked-examples was 2∶6 or 6∶2 in this study ). In addition, the scores achieved from the combination group in which the number of correct worked-examples was larger than that of incorrect ones were higher than the scores achieved from the combination group in which the number of correct worked-examples was smaller than that of incorrect ones, but not significantly; (3) Experiment 3 showed that the effect was the most significant when correct and incorrect worked examples were matched; the effect obtained from the combination group in which correct worked examples were put before the incorrect ones was worse than the effect of the matched group; the effect obtained from the combination group in which correct worked examples were put after the incorrect ones was the worst.
The conclusion derived from this study is that the learning outcomes could be promoted when using appropriate incorrect worked-example in worked-example learning. The effect is better when there’re the same number of correct and incorrect worked-examples in correct and incorrect worked-examples learning of hydrocarbon covalent bond structural formula. Especially when one correct and one incorrect worked-example are matched to be present, learners would get the best scores.
In previous studies, few researchers had paid attention to the role of incorrect worked-example in worked-example learning. Furthermore, they drew different conclusions. We thought that the outcomes would be better when using the combination of correct and incorrect worked-examples compared with the correct worked-examples only in worked-example learning.
This hypothesis was tested by three experiments in this research which used hydrocarbon structural formulas of organic chemistry as the materials and the high school students of grade one were recruited to participated in. Single-factor design was implemented in each experiment. All the hydrocarbon structural formulas were selected from chemistry textbook of Senior Two. A total of 240 subjects were assigned to the three experiments (60 participated in Experiment 1, 90 participated in Experiment 2 and 90 participated in Experiment 3). They all participated in pre-test, worked-example learning and post-test in quiet classrooms.
The results are the following: (1)Experiment 1 showed that the effect of combination of correct and incorrect worked-example learning was significantly better than the single correct worked-example learning;(2) Experiment 2 showed that the scores achieved from the combination which contained equal number of correct and incorrect worked-examples were significantly better than the scores achieved from the combination group in which the number of correct worked-examples was larger than that of incorrect ones. At the same time, the scores achieved from the combination which contained equal number of correct and incorrect worked-examples were significantly better than the scores achieved from the combination group in which the number of correct worked-examples was smaller than that of incorrect ones. (such as the proportion of correct and incorrect worked-examples was 2∶6 or 6∶2 in this study ). In addition, the scores achieved from the combination group in which the number of correct worked-examples was larger than that of incorrect ones were higher than the scores achieved from the combination group in which the number of correct worked-examples was smaller than that of incorrect ones, but not significantly; (3) Experiment 3 showed that the effect was the most significant when correct and incorrect worked examples were matched; the effect obtained from the combination group in which correct worked examples were put before the incorrect ones was worse than the effect of the matched group; the effect obtained from the combination group in which correct worked examples were put after the incorrect ones was the worst.
The conclusion derived from this study is that the learning outcomes could be promoted when using appropriate incorrect worked-example in worked-example learning. The effect is better when there’re the same number of correct and incorrect worked-examples in correct and incorrect worked-examples learning of hydrocarbon covalent bond structural formula. Especially when one correct and one incorrect worked-example are matched to be present, learners would get the best scores.
引文
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[10]Kablan Z,Erden M. Instructional efficiency of integrated and separated text with animated presentations in computer-based science instruction. Computers & Education,2008,51:660–668.
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[19]莫雷,唐雪峰.表面概貌对原理运用的影响的实验研究.心理学报,2000,32:339–408.
[20]邢强,莫雷.渐减提示法呈现样例对学习迁移的作用.心理与行为研究, 2003,1:274–277.
[21]Catrambone R,Holyoak K J. Learning and subgoals and methods for solving probability problems. Memory and Cognition,1990,18:593–603.
[22]Catrambone, R. The subgoal learning model: creating better examples so that students can solve novel problems. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General,1998,127:355–376.
[23]邢强,莫雷.样例的子目标编码对新问题解决中原理运用的作用研究.心理发展与教育,2003,4:55–59.
[24]张奇,林洪新.四则混合运算规则的样例学习.心理学报,2005,37: 784–790.
[25]Reed S K,Bolstad C R. Use of examples and procedures in problem solving. Journal of Experiment Psychology:Learning,Memory and Cognition,1991,17:753–766.
[26]Pass F, Van Merrienboer J. Variability of worked examples and transfer of geometrical problem-solving skills:A cognitive-load approach. Journal of Educational Psychological,1994,86:122–133.
[27]邢强,莫雷.多重样例的变异性和编码对迁移影响的实验研究.心理科学,2005,28:1382–1387.
[28]张奇,赵弘.算术应用题二重变异样例学习的迁移效果.心理学报,2008,40:409–417.
[29]Trafton J G,Reiser B J. The contributions of studying examples and solving problems to skill acquisition.In:Polson M ed. Proceedings of the Fifteenth Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society Hillsdale.NJ:Erlbaum, 1993:1017–1022.
[30]Chi M T H,Bassok M,Lewis M W,Reimann P,Glaser R. Self-explanations:how students study and use examples in learning to solve problems.Cognitive Science,1984,13:145–182.
[31]Chi M T H. Self-explaining expository texts:The dual processes of generating inferences and repairing mental models.In R Glaser (Ed.),Advances in Instructional Psychology,Hillsdale. NJ:Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2000:161–238.
[32]Paas F. Training strategies for attaining transfer of problem-solving skill in statistic:A cognitive-load approach. Journal of Educational Psychology,1992,84:429–434.
[33]Renkl A,Atkinson R K. Structuring the transition from example study to problem solving in cognitive skill acquisition:A cognitive load perspective. Educational Psychologist,2003,38:15–22.
[34]Stark R. Learning by worked-out examples:The impact of incomplete solution steps on example elaboration,motivation,and learning outcomes.Bern,CH:Huber,1999.
[35]林洪新,张奇.小学生数学运算规则的样例学习.心理学报,2007,39: 257–266.
[36]Siegler R S. Microgenetic studies of self-explanation. In N Granott,J Parziale(Eds). Microdevelopment Transition processes in development and learning. New York ,NY:Cambridge University Press,2002:31–58.
[37]Tennyson R D,Cocchiarella M J. An empirically based instructional design theory for teaching concepts. Review of Educational Research,1986,56:40–71.
[38]Bransford J D,Schwartz D L. Rethinking transfer:a simple proposal with multiple implications. Review of Educational Research,1999,24:61–100.
[39]Vanlehn K. Cognitive skill acquisition. Annual Review of Psychology,1996,47:513–539.
[40]Vanlehn K. Rule-learning events in the acquisition of a complex skill:an evaluation of CASCADE. The Journal of the Learning Sciences,1999,8:71–125.
[41] Groβe C S , Renkl A. Finding and fixing errors in worked examples: Can this foster learning outcomes? Learning and Instruction,2007,17:612–634.
[2]Bourne L E, Goldstein S, Link W E. Concept learning as a function of availability of previously learned information. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1964 ,67:439–448.
[3]Brewer W F , Nakamura G V. The nature and function of schemas. In:Wyer , R S. Srull T K ed. Handbook of Social Cognition.Hillsdale N J:Erlbaum,1984:119–160.
[4]Chase W G. & Simon H A. Perception in chess. Cognitive Psychology,1973,4: 55–81.
[5]Simon D P, Simon H A. Individual differences in solving physics problems. In R S Siegler, (Ed) ,Children’s thinking:What develops?Hillsdale, NJ:Lawrence Erlbaum Associates,1978:325–348.
[6]Sweller J, Levine M. Effects of goal specificity on means-ends analysis and learning.Journal of Experimental Psychology:Learning, Memory and Cognition, 1982,8:463–474.
[7]Sweller J, Cooper G A. The use of worked examples as a substitute for problem solving in learning algebra. Cognition and Instruction,1985,2:59–89.
[8]Tarmizi R A,Sweller J. Guidance during mathematical problem solving. Journal of Educational Psychology,1988,56:40–71.
[9]Chi M T H,Bassok M,Lewis M W,Reimann P,Glaser R. Self-explanations:How students study and use examples in learning to solve problems. Cognitive Science,1989,13:145–182.
[10]Kablan Z,Erden M. Instructional efficiency of integrated and separated text with animated presentations in computer-based science instruction. Computers & Education,2008,51:660–668.
[11]Ward M,Sweller J. Structuring effective worked examples. Cognition and Instruction,1990,7:1–39.
[12]Chandler P,Sweller J.The split-attention effect as a factor in the design of instruction.British Journal of Education Psychology,1992,62:233–246.
[13]许远理,朱新明,李亦非.材料的呈现方式如何影响学习的效果和过.心理科学,1998,21:560–561.
[14]Chandler P,Sweller J. Cognitive load while learning to use a computer program. Applied Cognitive Psychology,1996,10:151–170.
[15]Mousavi S Y,Low R,Sweller J. Reducing cognitive load by mixing auditory and visual presentation modes. Journal of Educational Psychology,1995,87: 319–334.
[16]Jeung H,Chandler P,Sweller J.The role of visual indicators in dual sensory mode instruction. Educational Psychology:Learning,Memory and Cognition,1997,8:252–259.
[17]Holyoak K J. Analogical thinking and human intelligence.In: Sternberg R J ed. Advance in the psychology of human intelligence.Hillsdale:Erlbaum,1984:345–364.
[18]Ross B H,Kilbane M C. Effect of principle explanation and superficial similarity on analogical mapping in problem solving. Journal of Experment Psychology:Learning,Memory and Cognition,1997,23:427–440.
[19]莫雷,唐雪峰.表面概貌对原理运用的影响的实验研究.心理学报,2000,32:339–408.
[20]邢强,莫雷.渐减提示法呈现样例对学习迁移的作用.心理与行为研究, 2003,1:274–277.
[21]Catrambone R,Holyoak K J. Learning and subgoals and methods for solving probability problems. Memory and Cognition,1990,18:593–603.
[22]Catrambone, R. The subgoal learning model: creating better examples so that students can solve novel problems. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General,1998,127:355–376.
[23]邢强,莫雷.样例的子目标编码对新问题解决中原理运用的作用研究.心理发展与教育,2003,4:55–59.
[24]张奇,林洪新.四则混合运算规则的样例学习.心理学报,2005,37: 784–790.
[25]Reed S K,Bolstad C R. Use of examples and procedures in problem solving. Journal of Experiment Psychology:Learning,Memory and Cognition,1991,17:753–766.
[26]Pass F, Van Merrienboer J. Variability of worked examples and transfer of geometrical problem-solving skills:A cognitive-load approach. Journal of Educational Psychological,1994,86:122–133.
[27]邢强,莫雷.多重样例的变异性和编码对迁移影响的实验研究.心理科学,2005,28:1382–1387.
[28]张奇,赵弘.算术应用题二重变异样例学习的迁移效果.心理学报,2008,40:409–417.
[29]Trafton J G,Reiser B J. The contributions of studying examples and solving problems to skill acquisition.In:Polson M ed. Proceedings of the Fifteenth Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society Hillsdale.NJ:Erlbaum, 1993:1017–1022.
[30]Chi M T H,Bassok M,Lewis M W,Reimann P,Glaser R. Self-explanations:how students study and use examples in learning to solve problems.Cognitive Science,1984,13:145–182.
[31]Chi M T H. Self-explaining expository texts:The dual processes of generating inferences and repairing mental models.In R Glaser (Ed.),Advances in Instructional Psychology,Hillsdale. NJ:Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2000:161–238.
[32]Paas F. Training strategies for attaining transfer of problem-solving skill in statistic:A cognitive-load approach. Journal of Educational Psychology,1992,84:429–434.
[33]Renkl A,Atkinson R K. Structuring the transition from example study to problem solving in cognitive skill acquisition:A cognitive load perspective. Educational Psychologist,2003,38:15–22.
[34]Stark R. Learning by worked-out examples:The impact of incomplete solution steps on example elaboration,motivation,and learning outcomes.Bern,CH:Huber,1999.
[35]林洪新,张奇.小学生数学运算规则的样例学习.心理学报,2007,39: 257–266.
[36]Siegler R S. Microgenetic studies of self-explanation. In N Granott,J Parziale(Eds). Microdevelopment Transition processes in development and learning. New York ,NY:Cambridge University Press,2002:31–58.
[37]Tennyson R D,Cocchiarella M J. An empirically based instructional design theory for teaching concepts. Review of Educational Research,1986,56:40–71.
[38]Bransford J D,Schwartz D L. Rethinking transfer:a simple proposal with multiple implications. Review of Educational Research,1999,24:61–100.
[39]Vanlehn K. Cognitive skill acquisition. Annual Review of Psychology,1996,47:513–539.
[40]Vanlehn K. Rule-learning events in the acquisition of a complex skill:an evaluation of CASCADE. The Journal of the Learning Sciences,1999,8:71–125.
[41] Groβe C S , Renkl A. Finding and fixing errors in worked examples: Can this foster learning outcomes? Learning and Instruction,2007,17:612–634.