当代美国等级体系与古代中国朝贡体系之比较研究
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摘要
中国自秦统一之后,与各国在封建社会的基础上建立起严格的等级秩序,形成朝贡体系;美国自二战后凭借自身的实力优势将各国纳入等级秩序之中,形成美国主导的国际等级体系。古代中国的朝贡体系与当代美国的等级体系既有相同点也有不同点:第一,虽都以绝对的物质实力为前提,但前者建立在小农经济基础上而后者建立在自由经济基础上;第二,虽在本质上都是一种非对称关系,但前者是一种形式上的不平等而后者是一种实质上的不平等;第三,虽都强调以利益让渡和权威建立维持体系稳定,但前者更注重文化权威而后者更加注重制度权威;第四,虽都在于维护统治者国内外的安全稳定,但前者具有内向性与和平性而后者更具扩张性和侵略性。两种体系虽处于不同的时代背景,但都以"等级"为核心且具有相同的结构因素,且朝贡体系中的一些积极因素仍然适用于当今国际社会,并在未来的体系构建中发挥重要作用。
After the reunification of China,a strict hierarchical order was established between central government and the feudal kingdoms on the basis of federal society,forming a tributary system.Since the World War II,the United States has formed an American-led hierarchy system by virtue of its own strength.There are similarities and differences between the two kinds of systems.First,although they both depend on absolute strength,the former is based on small-scale peasant economy while the latter is based on free economy.Second,although both of them are essentially asymmetric,the former is a formal inequality while the latter is a real inequality.Third,although both emphasize the transfer of interests and the establishment of authority to maintain the stability of the system,the former pays more attention to cultural authority while the latter pays more attention to institutional authority.Forth,although both of them are aimed at maintaining the security and stability of the rulers at home and abroad,the former is more inward and peaceful while the latter is more expansionary and aggressive.Although the historical background of the two systems is different,they both take hierarchy as the core and have the same structural factors.Moreover,some positive factors in the tributary system are still effective on contemporary society and will play an important role in system construction in the future.
After the reunification of China,a strict hierarchical order was established between central government and the feudal kingdoms on the basis of federal society,forming a tributary system.Since the World War II,the United States has formed an American-led hierarchy system by virtue of its own strength.There are similarities and differences between the two kinds of systems.First,although they both depend on absolute strength,the former is based on small-scale peasant economy while the latter is based on free economy.Second,although both of them are essentially asymmetric,the former is a formal inequality while the latter is a real inequality.Third,although both emphasize the transfer of interests and the establishment of authority to maintain the stability of the system,the former pays more attention to cultural authority while the latter pays more attention to institutional authority.Forth,although both of them are aimed at maintaining the security and stability of the rulers at home and abroad,the former is more inward and peaceful while the latter is more expansionary and aggressive.Although the historical background of the two systems is different,they both take hierarchy as the core and have the same structural factors.Moreover,some positive factors in the tributary system are still effective on contemporary society and will play an important role in system construction in the future.
引文
[1]邝云峰.美国的朝贡体系[J].国际政治科学,2013(04):37.
[2][美]康灿雄.西方之前的东亚——朝贡贸易五百年[M].陈昌煦,译.北京:社会科学文献出版社,2016.
[3][美]罗伯特·基欧汉.等级之后:世界政治经济中的合作与纷争[M].苏长和等,译.上海:上海人民出版社,2001.
[4]李云泉.朝贡制度史论——中国古代对外关系体制研究[M].北京:新华出版社,2004.
[5]何芳川.“华夷秩序”论[J].史学集刊,2014(04):39.
[6][美]金德尔伯格.1929-1939世界经济萧条[M].宋承先等,译.上海:上海译文出版社,1986.
[7]黄连枝.天朝礼治体系研究(上卷)——亚洲的华夏秩序:中国与亚洲国家关系形态论[M].北京:中国人民大学出版社,1992.
[8]Global Fire Power.2018 United States Military Strength[EB/OL].[2018-09-17].https://www.globalfirepower.com/country-military-strength-detail.asp?country_id=united-states-of-america.
[9]Stockholm International Peace Research Institute.SIPRI Yearbook 2017[EB/OL].[2018-09-17].https://www.sipri.org/node/4290.
[10]宋敏求.唐大诏令集[M].北京:中华书局,2008.
[11]彭治富,王潮生.中国古代的重农思想与重农政策[J].古今农业,1990(02):14.
[12]曹雯.清朝对外体制研究[M].北京:社会科学文献出版社,2010.
[13]李云泉.宾礼的演变与明清朝贡礼仪[J].河北师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2004(01):140-145.
[14]和洪勇.明前期中国与东南亚国家的朝贡贸易[J].云南社会科学,2003(01):88-89.
[15][美]何伟亚.怀柔远人:马嘎尔尼使华的中英礼仪冲突[M].邓常春,译.北京:社会科学文献出版社,2002.
[16]联合国人权事务.经济、社会、文化权利国际公约[DB/OL].[2018-09-17].http://www.un.org/chinese/hr/issue/esc.htm.
[17][美]克里斯托弗·科克尔.大国冲突的逻辑:中美之间如何避免战争[M].卿松竹,译.北京:新华出版社,2016.
[18][美]约翰·米尔斯海默.大国政治的悲剧[M].王义桅,唐小松,译.上海:上海人民出版社,2008.
[19]黄纯艳.宋代朝贡体系研究[M].北京:商务印书馆,2014.
[20]联合国数据.安全理事会常任理事国在公开会议上所投的反对票[DB/OL].[2018-9-17].http://www.un.org/zh/sc/meetings/veto/usa.shtml.
[21]万明.明代外交观念的演进——明太祖诏令文书所见之天下国家观[J].古代文明,2010(02):71-88.
[22][美]罗伯特·吉尔平.世界政治中的战争与变革[M].宋新宁,杜建平,译.上海:上海人民出版社,2007.
[23]梁亚滨.称霸密码:美国等级的金融逻辑[M].北京:新华出版社,2012.
[24]United States Department of Defense.Readout of Secretary Mattis’Meeting with Philippine Secretary of National Defense Delfin Lorenzana[EB/OL].[2018-9-17].http://www.defense.gov/News/News-Releases/News-Release-View/Article/1538982/readout-of-secretary-mattis-meeting-with-philippine-secretary-of-national-defen/.
(1)朝贡制度在明朝达到鼎盛,据《明会典》记载,朝贡国的数量达111个;《外夷朝贡考》将朝贡国分为“外国”和“四夷”两大类,共有90个左右;《明史》中的《外国传》中记载有86个朝贡国加上《西域传》中的62个朝贡国,一共148个。但一则由于各朝贡国的朝贡次数不一,有的国家仅朝贡一两次,二则史料记载有不加分辨地将一切对外关系概视为朝贡关系的疏漏,剔除一些不确切因素,与明朝存在的朝贡关系的约90多个国家。且在初期各朝贡国主要在三大重要节日(万寿节---皇帝的生日、冬至和元旦)来朝,后因节俭开支而对朝贡的次数、规模做出限制,发展出一年一贡、三年一贡、五年一贡等惯例。
(2)双边贸易数据来自Office of the United States Trade Representative.Southeast Asia&Pacific.https://ustr.gov/countries-regions/southeast-asia-pacific;GDP数据来自The World Bank.https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.KD.ZG?end=2016&locations=TH-ID-MY-PH-MM-SG-VN-US-BN-KH-TL-LA&start=2007&view=chart.
(3)J.K.Fairbank.Tributary Trade and China’s Relations with the West[J].This article is chiefly based upon the data presented in J.K.Fairbank and S.Y.Teng,“On the Ch'ing tributary system,”Harvard journal of Asiatic studies,1941(06),135-246.“贸易国家”也即与中国进行贸易但没有递送贡品的国家。
[2][美]康灿雄.西方之前的东亚——朝贡贸易五百年[M].陈昌煦,译.北京:社会科学文献出版社,2016.
[3][美]罗伯特·基欧汉.等级之后:世界政治经济中的合作与纷争[M].苏长和等,译.上海:上海人民出版社,2001.
[4]李云泉.朝贡制度史论——中国古代对外关系体制研究[M].北京:新华出版社,2004.
[5]何芳川.“华夷秩序”论[J].史学集刊,2014(04):39.
[6][美]金德尔伯格.1929-1939世界经济萧条[M].宋承先等,译.上海:上海译文出版社,1986.
[7]黄连枝.天朝礼治体系研究(上卷)——亚洲的华夏秩序:中国与亚洲国家关系形态论[M].北京:中国人民大学出版社,1992.
[8]Global Fire Power.2018 United States Military Strength[EB/OL].[2018-09-17].https://www.globalfirepower.com/country-military-strength-detail.asp?country_id=united-states-of-america.
[9]Stockholm International Peace Research Institute.SIPRI Yearbook 2017[EB/OL].[2018-09-17].https://www.sipri.org/node/4290.
[10]宋敏求.唐大诏令集[M].北京:中华书局,2008.
[11]彭治富,王潮生.中国古代的重农思想与重农政策[J].古今农业,1990(02):14.
[12]曹雯.清朝对外体制研究[M].北京:社会科学文献出版社,2010.
[13]李云泉.宾礼的演变与明清朝贡礼仪[J].河北师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2004(01):140-145.
[14]和洪勇.明前期中国与东南亚国家的朝贡贸易[J].云南社会科学,2003(01):88-89.
[15][美]何伟亚.怀柔远人:马嘎尔尼使华的中英礼仪冲突[M].邓常春,译.北京:社会科学文献出版社,2002.
[16]联合国人权事务.经济、社会、文化权利国际公约[DB/OL].[2018-09-17].http://www.un.org/chinese/hr/issue/esc.htm.
[17][美]克里斯托弗·科克尔.大国冲突的逻辑:中美之间如何避免战争[M].卿松竹,译.北京:新华出版社,2016.
[18][美]约翰·米尔斯海默.大国政治的悲剧[M].王义桅,唐小松,译.上海:上海人民出版社,2008.
[19]黄纯艳.宋代朝贡体系研究[M].北京:商务印书馆,2014.
[20]联合国数据.安全理事会常任理事国在公开会议上所投的反对票[DB/OL].[2018-9-17].http://www.un.org/zh/sc/meetings/veto/usa.shtml.
[21]万明.明代外交观念的演进——明太祖诏令文书所见之天下国家观[J].古代文明,2010(02):71-88.
[22][美]罗伯特·吉尔平.世界政治中的战争与变革[M].宋新宁,杜建平,译.上海:上海人民出版社,2007.
[23]梁亚滨.称霸密码:美国等级的金融逻辑[M].北京:新华出版社,2012.
[24]United States Department of Defense.Readout of Secretary Mattis’Meeting with Philippine Secretary of National Defense Delfin Lorenzana[EB/OL].[2018-9-17].http://www.defense.gov/News/News-Releases/News-Release-View/Article/1538982/readout-of-secretary-mattis-meeting-with-philippine-secretary-of-national-defen/.
(1)朝贡制度在明朝达到鼎盛,据《明会典》记载,朝贡国的数量达111个;《外夷朝贡考》将朝贡国分为“外国”和“四夷”两大类,共有90个左右;《明史》中的《外国传》中记载有86个朝贡国加上《西域传》中的62个朝贡国,一共148个。但一则由于各朝贡国的朝贡次数不一,有的国家仅朝贡一两次,二则史料记载有不加分辨地将一切对外关系概视为朝贡关系的疏漏,剔除一些不确切因素,与明朝存在的朝贡关系的约90多个国家。且在初期各朝贡国主要在三大重要节日(万寿节---皇帝的生日、冬至和元旦)来朝,后因节俭开支而对朝贡的次数、规模做出限制,发展出一年一贡、三年一贡、五年一贡等惯例。
(2)双边贸易数据来自Office of the United States Trade Representative.Southeast Asia&Pacific.https://ustr.gov/countries-regions/southeast-asia-pacific;GDP数据来自The World Bank.https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.KD.ZG?end=2016&locations=TH-ID-MY-PH-MM-SG-VN-US-BN-KH-TL-LA&start=2007&view=chart.
(3)J.K.Fairbank.Tributary Trade and China’s Relations with the West[J].This article is chiefly based upon the data presented in J.K.Fairbank and S.Y.Teng,“On the Ch'ing tributary system,”Harvard journal of Asiatic studies,1941(06),135-246.“贸易国家”也即与中国进行贸易但没有递送贡品的国家。
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