都市山地景观的多中心治理与韧性构建:美国圣莫妮卡山案例
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摘要
随着全球城市化进程的加快,越来越多的山地景观被纳入都市圈的水源地、居住用地或娱乐空间。都市山地景观往往具有极为多元的治理主体,其可持续发展很大程度上取决于是否能建立有效的机制协调集体行为。本文以美国加利福尼亚州圣莫妮卡山为研究案例,通过分析相关口述历史、法规条例、研究报告、规划方案和地理信息数据,系统性地探究了其合作规划与管理的演变过程。研究发现,圣莫妮卡山多中心治理模式是在自然资源不断破坏和户外娱乐需求与日俱增等城市化背景下出现的,其中加州政府主要采取制定海岸区保护导则、建立保护协会等策略,联邦政府则通过设立国家游憩区与地方政府和社区合作。这些策略帮助相关治理主体有效地应对了房地产开发热潮、政治气候变化、财政拨款减少、土地价格上涨、环保理念转变等变化。这一模式还被推广到圣莫妮卡山周边其他山区,以构建区域尺度的韧性景观。作者指出,圣莫妮卡山案例揭示了多中心治理与韧性景观之间的紧密关系,其经验对当代中国有重要启示意义。
Globally, accelerated urbanization has wrapped more and more mountain landscapes into metropolitan areas as water sources or residential and recreational spaces. Such mountain landscapes are usually governed by multiple agencies, which means that its sustainable development largely depends on the effectiveness of the collective actions among these agencies. This paper examines the case of the Santa Monica Mountains in California, the United States by analyzing relevant oral histories, acts and ordinances,study reports, planning documents, and GIS data to depict the whole picture of the evolution of its cooperative planning and management. It is found that the polycentric governance in the Santa Monica Mountains emerged as a response to the deterioration of natural resource and the increasing outdoor recreation needs against the backdrop of urbanization. The California State government developed coastal zone protection guidelines and established conservancies, while the federal government cooperated with local governments and communities by forming a national recreation area. These methods helped the governing agencies tactically cope with the real estate development,changing political climate, shrinking financial allocation, rising land prices, and conceptual shifts in environmental protection. This polycentric governance mode was also applied to other mountain areas in the vicinity to form a regionalscale resilient landscape. The authors argue that the case of the Santa Monica Mountains reveals how the polycentric governance works on strengthening landscape resilience, which shows an important reference for contemporary China.
Globally, accelerated urbanization has wrapped more and more mountain landscapes into metropolitan areas as water sources or residential and recreational spaces. Such mountain landscapes are usually governed by multiple agencies, which means that its sustainable development largely depends on the effectiveness of the collective actions among these agencies. This paper examines the case of the Santa Monica Mountains in California, the United States by analyzing relevant oral histories, acts and ordinances,study reports, planning documents, and GIS data to depict the whole picture of the evolution of its cooperative planning and management. It is found that the polycentric governance in the Santa Monica Mountains emerged as a response to the deterioration of natural resource and the increasing outdoor recreation needs against the backdrop of urbanization. The California State government developed coastal zone protection guidelines and established conservancies, while the federal government cooperated with local governments and communities by forming a national recreation area. These methods helped the governing agencies tactically cope with the real estate development,changing political climate, shrinking financial allocation, rising land prices, and conceptual shifts in environmental protection. This polycentric governance mode was also applied to other mountain areas in the vicinity to form a regionalscale resilient landscape. The authors argue that the case of the Santa Monica Mountains reveals how the polycentric governance works on strengthening landscape resilience, which shows an important reference for contemporary China.
引文
[1]Ding,Y.,&Peng,J.(2018).Impacts of urbanization of mountainous areas on resources and environment:Based on ecological footprint model.Sustainability,10(3),765.doi:10.3390/su10030765
[2]Li,Z.,&Li,X.(2016).How to study hillside development and protection in the context of urbanization:A review of the English literature concerning research methods and technology.Chinese Landscape Architecture,32(4),62-67.
[3]Dung-Gwom,J.Y.,&Jugu,A.S.(2017).Characteristics and planning challenges of hilltop settlements in Jos Metropolis,Nigeria.UPLanD-Journal of Urban Planning,Landscape and Environmental Design,2(2),129-149.
[4]Yu,K.,Yuan,H.,Li,D.,Wang,S.,&Qiao,Q.(2009).Difficulties and solutions of the sustainable land use strategy in suburban hilly area in Beijing.China Land Science,23(11),3-8,20.
[5]Yu,K.,Xu,L.,You,H.,&Hu,Y.(2010).The socio-economical zoning of the suburb hilly rural area in Beijing a two-step cluster approach.Urban Development Studies,17(12),66-71.
[6]Stradling,D.(2007).Making mountains:New York City and the Catskills.Seattle:University of Washington Press.
[7]Olshansky,R.B.(1998).Regulation of hillside development in the United States.Environmental Management,22(3),383-392.doi:10.1007/s002679900113
[8]Debarbieux,B.(1998).The mountain in the city:Social uses and transformations of a natural landform in urban space.Ecumene,5(4),399-431.doi:10.1177/096746089800500402
[9]Debarbieux,B.(2012).Les Figures de la montagne dans le projet urbanistique(1870-2010):Montréal,San Francisco,Vancouver,Chong Qing,Berlin.Les Carnets du Paysage,(22),172-204.
[10]Fourny,M.C.(2018).Alpine Metropolis.Towards a New Partnership between Towns and Mountains?Journal of Alpine Research,106(2),1-6.doi:10.4000/rga.4223
[11]Manyena,S.B.(2006).The concept of resilience revisited.Disasters,30(4),434-450.doi:10.1111/j.0361-3666.2006.00331.x
[12]Lebel,L.,Anderies,J.M.,Campbell,B.,Folke,C.,HatfieldDodds,S.,Hughes,T.P.,&Wilson,J.(2006).Governance and the capacity to manage resilience in regional social-ecological systems.Ecology and Society,11(1),9.
[13]Fabricius,C.,Folke,C.,Cundill,G.,&Schultz,L.(2007).Powerless spectators,coping actors,and adaptive comanagers:A synthesis of the role of communities in ecosystem management.Ecology and Society,12(1),29.
[14]Wyborn,C.(2015).Cross-scale linkages in connectivity conservation:Adaptive governance challenges in spatially distributed networks.Environmental Policy and Governance,25(1),1-15.doi:10.1002/eet.1657
[15]Carlisle,K.,&Gruby,R.L.(2017).Polycentric Systems of Governance:A Theoretical Model for the Commons.Policy Studies Journal.doi:10.1111/psj.12212
[16]Carlisle,K.M.,&Gruby,R.L.(2018).Why the Path to Polycentricity Matters:Evidence from Fisheries Governance in Palau.Environmental Policy and Governance,28(4),223-235.doi:10.1002/eet.1811
[17]Dennis,M.,Armitage,R.P.,&James,P.(2016).Appraisal of social-ecological innovation as an adaptive response by stakeholders to local conditions:Mapping stakeholder involvement in horticulture orientated green space management.Urban Forestry and Urban Greening,(18),86-94.doi:10.1016/j.ufug.2016.05.010
[18]Ward,S.,&Butler,D.(2016).Rainwater Harvesting and Social Networks:Visualising Interactions for Niche Governance,Resilience and Sustainability.Water,8(11),526.doi:10.3390/w8110526
[19]Li,Z.(2018).Towards co-governance:Regulating hillside development in metropolitan Los Angeles.Landscape Architecture Magazine,(12),23-29.doi:10.14085/j.fjyl.2018.12.0023.07
[20]Pitt,L.(2015).A Touch of Wilderness:Oral Histories on the Formation of the Santa Monica Mountains National Recreation Area.Los Angeles:National Park Service.
[21]Christensen,L.B.,Johnson,B.,&Turner,L.A.(2011).Research methods,design,and analysis.Boston:Allyn&Bacon.
[22]Jaffe,M.,&Gamache,T.(2007).The Santa Monica Mountains:Range on the Edge.Los Angeles:Angel City Press.
[23]Meares,H.(2015,June 25).A Cast of Characters:The Creation of the Santa Monica Mountains National Recreation Area.KCET.Retrieved from https://www.kcet.org/shows/californiacoastal-trail/a-cast-of-characters-the-creation-of-the-santamonica-mountains
[24]Reagan,R.,Livermore,N.B.,&Stearns,J.G.(1971).Environmental Impact of Urbanization on the Foothill and Mountainous Lands of California.Sacramento:State of California.
[25]Hise,G.,&Deverell,W.F.(2000).Eden by Design:The 1930Olmsted-Bartholomew Plan for the Los Angeles Region.Los Angeles:University of California Press.
[26]Guldimann,S.(2018,December 2).Three women fought to create the Santa Monica Mountains parkland now burned by the Woolsey fire.Los Angeles Times.Retrieved from https://www.latimes.com/opinion/op-ed/la-oe-guldimann-santamonica-mountains-national-recreation-area-woolsey-fire-20181202-story.html
[27]Guldimann S.(2019,May 3).Mothers of the Mountains.Messenger Mountain News.Retrieved from https://messengermountainnews.com/news/mothers-of-themountains/
[28]Jiang,C.,Ma,D.,Wang,Q.,Kong,S.,Ma,X.,&Zong,C.(2016).Spatial distribution pattern of five major categories of protected area in China.Chinese Journal of Wildlife,37(1),61-66.doi:10.19711/j.cnki.issn2310-1490.2016.01.012
[29]Li,Z.,&Li,X.(2019).Managing hillside landscapes as national Forests:Lessons learned from the Beijing Western Hills.Landscape Research,44(2),200-211.doi:10.1080/01426397.2018.1441389
[30]Su,Y.(2019).Life community comes into being only if all stakeholders participate in governance and work to the best of their abilities.China Development Observation,(7),50-54.
[31]Su,Y.(2018).How to divide benefits in planning,boundary demarcation,and zoning.China Development Observation,(17),42-47.
[32]Su,Y.(2019).A mountain-water-forest-farmland-lakegrassland-human life community can be established in a protected area through conservation easement.China Development Observation,(3-4),88-93.
[2]Li,Z.,&Li,X.(2016).How to study hillside development and protection in the context of urbanization:A review of the English literature concerning research methods and technology.Chinese Landscape Architecture,32(4),62-67.
[3]Dung-Gwom,J.Y.,&Jugu,A.S.(2017).Characteristics and planning challenges of hilltop settlements in Jos Metropolis,Nigeria.UPLanD-Journal of Urban Planning,Landscape and Environmental Design,2(2),129-149.
[4]Yu,K.,Yuan,H.,Li,D.,Wang,S.,&Qiao,Q.(2009).Difficulties and solutions of the sustainable land use strategy in suburban hilly area in Beijing.China Land Science,23(11),3-8,20.
[5]Yu,K.,Xu,L.,You,H.,&Hu,Y.(2010).The socio-economical zoning of the suburb hilly rural area in Beijing a two-step cluster approach.Urban Development Studies,17(12),66-71.
[6]Stradling,D.(2007).Making mountains:New York City and the Catskills.Seattle:University of Washington Press.
[7]Olshansky,R.B.(1998).Regulation of hillside development in the United States.Environmental Management,22(3),383-392.doi:10.1007/s002679900113
[8]Debarbieux,B.(1998).The mountain in the city:Social uses and transformations of a natural landform in urban space.Ecumene,5(4),399-431.doi:10.1177/096746089800500402
[9]Debarbieux,B.(2012).Les Figures de la montagne dans le projet urbanistique(1870-2010):Montréal,San Francisco,Vancouver,Chong Qing,Berlin.Les Carnets du Paysage,(22),172-204.
[10]Fourny,M.C.(2018).Alpine Metropolis.Towards a New Partnership between Towns and Mountains?Journal of Alpine Research,106(2),1-6.doi:10.4000/rga.4223
[11]Manyena,S.B.(2006).The concept of resilience revisited.Disasters,30(4),434-450.doi:10.1111/j.0361-3666.2006.00331.x
[12]Lebel,L.,Anderies,J.M.,Campbell,B.,Folke,C.,HatfieldDodds,S.,Hughes,T.P.,&Wilson,J.(2006).Governance and the capacity to manage resilience in regional social-ecological systems.Ecology and Society,11(1),9.
[13]Fabricius,C.,Folke,C.,Cundill,G.,&Schultz,L.(2007).Powerless spectators,coping actors,and adaptive comanagers:A synthesis of the role of communities in ecosystem management.Ecology and Society,12(1),29.
[14]Wyborn,C.(2015).Cross-scale linkages in connectivity conservation:Adaptive governance challenges in spatially distributed networks.Environmental Policy and Governance,25(1),1-15.doi:10.1002/eet.1657
[15]Carlisle,K.,&Gruby,R.L.(2017).Polycentric Systems of Governance:A Theoretical Model for the Commons.Policy Studies Journal.doi:10.1111/psj.12212
[16]Carlisle,K.M.,&Gruby,R.L.(2018).Why the Path to Polycentricity Matters:Evidence from Fisheries Governance in Palau.Environmental Policy and Governance,28(4),223-235.doi:10.1002/eet.1811
[17]Dennis,M.,Armitage,R.P.,&James,P.(2016).Appraisal of social-ecological innovation as an adaptive response by stakeholders to local conditions:Mapping stakeholder involvement in horticulture orientated green space management.Urban Forestry and Urban Greening,(18),86-94.doi:10.1016/j.ufug.2016.05.010
[18]Ward,S.,&Butler,D.(2016).Rainwater Harvesting and Social Networks:Visualising Interactions for Niche Governance,Resilience and Sustainability.Water,8(11),526.doi:10.3390/w8110526
[19]Li,Z.(2018).Towards co-governance:Regulating hillside development in metropolitan Los Angeles.Landscape Architecture Magazine,(12),23-29.doi:10.14085/j.fjyl.2018.12.0023.07
[20]Pitt,L.(2015).A Touch of Wilderness:Oral Histories on the Formation of the Santa Monica Mountains National Recreation Area.Los Angeles:National Park Service.
[21]Christensen,L.B.,Johnson,B.,&Turner,L.A.(2011).Research methods,design,and analysis.Boston:Allyn&Bacon.
[22]Jaffe,M.,&Gamache,T.(2007).The Santa Monica Mountains:Range on the Edge.Los Angeles:Angel City Press.
[23]Meares,H.(2015,June 25).A Cast of Characters:The Creation of the Santa Monica Mountains National Recreation Area.KCET.Retrieved from https://www.kcet.org/shows/californiacoastal-trail/a-cast-of-characters-the-creation-of-the-santamonica-mountains
[24]Reagan,R.,Livermore,N.B.,&Stearns,J.G.(1971).Environmental Impact of Urbanization on the Foothill and Mountainous Lands of California.Sacramento:State of California.
[25]Hise,G.,&Deverell,W.F.(2000).Eden by Design:The 1930Olmsted-Bartholomew Plan for the Los Angeles Region.Los Angeles:University of California Press.
[26]Guldimann,S.(2018,December 2).Three women fought to create the Santa Monica Mountains parkland now burned by the Woolsey fire.Los Angeles Times.Retrieved from https://www.latimes.com/opinion/op-ed/la-oe-guldimann-santamonica-mountains-national-recreation-area-woolsey-fire-20181202-story.html
[27]Guldimann S.(2019,May 3).Mothers of the Mountains.Messenger Mountain News.Retrieved from https://messengermountainnews.com/news/mothers-of-themountains/
[28]Jiang,C.,Ma,D.,Wang,Q.,Kong,S.,Ma,X.,&Zong,C.(2016).Spatial distribution pattern of five major categories of protected area in China.Chinese Journal of Wildlife,37(1),61-66.doi:10.19711/j.cnki.issn2310-1490.2016.01.012
[29]Li,Z.,&Li,X.(2019).Managing hillside landscapes as national Forests:Lessons learned from the Beijing Western Hills.Landscape Research,44(2),200-211.doi:10.1080/01426397.2018.1441389
[30]Su,Y.(2019).Life community comes into being only if all stakeholders participate in governance and work to the best of their abilities.China Development Observation,(7),50-54.
[31]Su,Y.(2018).How to divide benefits in planning,boundary demarcation,and zoning.China Development Observation,(17),42-47.
[32]Su,Y.(2019).A mountain-water-forest-farmland-lakegrassland-human life community can be established in a protected area through conservation easement.China Development Observation,(3-4),88-93.