Snow damages on trees of an uneven age in mixed broadleaf forests:effects of topographical conditions and tree characteristics
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摘要
Snow damage on natural stands is an important problem concerning mountainous forest management.In the present research,the frequency and intensity of heavy snow damage on natural stands and the relationship of damages with characteristics of trees,stand and topography were studied in mountainous forests of northern Iran.A systematic sampling design was applied to the study area(140 ha),with 122 circular plots.The grid dimension was100 m and each plot area was 1000 m~2.The four types of snow damage to trees include:crown damage(8.6%),stem breakage(5.4%),uprooting(3.2%),and bending(1.4%).The frequency of crown damage grew with an increase inthe diameter at breast height(DBH),while the frequency of stem breakage,uprooting and bending decreased with an increase the DBH.The frequency of crown damage,stem breakage,and total damages was related to tree species(p<0.01).Not all tree species were equally susceptible to snow damage.The amount of damage grew with increasing elevation and slope angle and decreased with increasing soil depth.Young trees(DBH<25 cm) were more susceptible to snow damage than other trees.Snow damage decreased by as the trees in the stand became more mixed in age.The susceptibility of trees to snow damage increased by height and slenderness coefficient.With adequate silvicultural operation,snow damage can be reduced to a minimum level in these natural forests.
Snow damage on natural stands is an important problem concerning mountainous forest management.In the present research,the frequency and intensity of heavy snow damage on natural stands and the relationship of damages with characteristics of trees,stand and topography were studied in mountainous forests of northern Iran.A systematic sampling design was applied to the study area(140 ha),with 122 circular plots.The grid dimension was100 m and each plot area was 1000 m~2.The four types of snow damage to trees include:crown damage(8.6%),stem breakage(5.4%),uprooting(3.2%),and bending(1.4%).The frequency of crown damage grew with an increase inthe diameter at breast height(DBH),while the frequency of stem breakage,uprooting and bending decreased with an increase the DBH.The frequency of crown damage,stem breakage,and total damages was related to tree species(p<0.01).Not all tree species were equally susceptible to snow damage.The amount of damage grew with increasing elevation and slope angle and decreased with increasing soil depth.Young trees(DBH<25 cm) were more susceptible to snow damage than other trees.Snow damage decreased by as the trees in the stand became more mixed in age.The susceptibility of trees to snow damage increased by height and slenderness coefficient.With adequate silvicultural operation,snow damage can be reduced to a minimum level in these natural forests.
Snow damage on natural stands is an important problem concerning mountainous forest management.In the present research,the frequency and intensity of heavy snow damage on natural stands and the relationship of damages with characteristics of trees,stand and topography were studied in mountainous forests of northern Iran.A systematic sampling design was applied to the study area(140 ha),with 122 circular plots.The grid dimension was100 m and each plot area was 1000 m~2.The four types of snow damage to trees include:crown damage(8.6%),stem breakage(5.4%),uprooting(3.2%),and bending(1.4%).The frequency of crown damage grew with an increase inthe diameter at breast height(DBH),while the frequency of stem breakage,uprooting and bending decreased with an increase the DBH.The frequency of crown damage,stem breakage,and total damages was related to tree species(p<0.01).Not all tree species were equally susceptible to snow damage.The amount of damage grew with increasing elevation and slope angle and decreased with increasing soil depth.Young trees(DBH<25 cm) were more susceptible to snow damage than other trees.Snow damage decreased by as the trees in the stand became more mixed in age.The susceptibility of trees to snow damage increased by height and slenderness coefficient.With adequate silvicultural operation,snow damage can be reduced to a minimum level in these natural forests.
引文
Achim A,Nicoll BC(2009)Modelling the anchorage of shallowrooted trees.Forestry 82(3):273-284
Akhavan R,Namiranian M(2007)Slenderness coefficient of five major tree species in the Hyrcanian forests of Iran.Iran J For Poplar Res 15(2):165-180
Akhavan R,Sagheb-Talebi Kh,Zenner EK,Safavimanesh F(2012)Spatial patterns in different forest development stages of an intact old-growth Oriental beech forest in the Caspian region of Iran.Eur J For Res 131:1355-1366
Angers VA,Messier C,Beaudet M,Leduc A(2005)Comparing composition and structure in old growth and harvested(selection and diameter-limit cuts)northern hardwood stands in Quebec.For Ecol Manag 217(2-3):275-293
Attiwill PM(1994)The disturbance of forest ecosystems:the ecological basis for conservative management.For Ecol Manag63(2-3):247-300
Beach RH,Sills EO,Liu TM,Pattanayak S(2010)The influence of forest management on vulnerability of forests to severe weather.USDA For Serv PNW-GTR 802:185-206
Bonyad A,Tavankar F(2014)Resistance of tree species to snow damage in Nav Asalem forests,Guilan province.Iran J For Poplar Res 22(3):496-508
Bragg DC,Shelton MG,Zeide B(2003)Impacts and management implications of ice storms on forests in the southern United States.For Ecol Manag 186:99-123
Day RW,Quinn GP(1989)Comparisons of treatments after an analysis of variance.Ecol Monogr 54:433-463
De Martonne E(1925)Traitede Geographie Physique,3 tomes,Armand Colin,Paris,4th ed.p 1519
Dobbertin M(2002)Influence of stand structure and site factors on wind damage comparing the storms Vivian and Lothar.For Snow Landsc Res 77(1-2):187-205
Dutra E,Balsamo G,Viterbo P,Miranda PM,Beljaars A,Scha CR,Elder K(2010)An improved snow scheme for the ECMWF land surface model:description and offline validation.J Hydrometeorol 11(4):899-916
Dvorak L,Bachmann P,Mandallaz D(2001)Sturmschaden in ungleichformigen Bestanden(Storm damage in irregular stands).Schweizerische Zeitschrift fur Forstwesen 152(11):445-452
Hanewinkel M,Breidenbach J,Neeff T,Kublin E(2008)Seventyseven years of natural disturbances in a mountain forest areathe influence of storm,snow and insect damage analysed with a long-term time-series.Can J For Res 38(8):2249-2261
Hanewinkel M,Hummel S,Albrecht A(2011)Assessing natural hazards in forestry for risk management:a review.Eur J For Res130:329-351
Hanewinkel M,Kuhn T,Bugmann H,Lanz A,Brang P(2014)Vulnerability of uneven-aged forests to storm damage.Forestry87(4):525-534
Harja D,Vincent G,Mulia R,Van Noordwijk M(2012)Tree shape plasticity in relation to crown exposure.Trees 26(4):1275-1285
Heshmati GA(2007)Vegetation characteristics of four ecological zones of Iran.Int J Plant Prod 1(2):215-224
Hlasny T,Kr?stek S,Holusa J,Trombik J,UrbancovaN(2011)Snow disturbances in secondary Norway spruce forests in Central Europe:regression modeling and its implications for forest management.For Ecol Manag 262(1-2):2151-2161
Homma K(1997)Effects of snow pressure on growth form and life history of tree species in Japanese beech forest.J Veg Sci8(6):781-788
Hurtalova T,Matejka F,Janous D,Pokorny R,Roznovsky J(2007)Influence of snow damage on aerodynamic characteristics of spruce stand.In:Proceedings of international conference of bioclimatology and natural hazards,Sep 17-20,Polana and Detvou,Slovakia,pp 1-6
Jalkanen A,Mattila U(2000)Logistic regression models for wind and snow damage in northern Finland based on the National Forest Inventory data.For Ecol Manag 135(1-3):315-330
Kane B,Finn JT(2014)Factors affecting branch failures in opengrown trees during a snowstorm in Massachusetts,USA.SpringerPlus 3:720
Kato A,Nakatani K(2000)An approach for estimating resistance of Japanese cedar to snow accretion damage.For Ecol Manag135(1-3):83-96
Kenk G,Guehne S(2001)Management of transformation in central Europe.For Ecol Manag 151(1-3):107-119
Klopcic M,Poljanec A,Gartner A,Boncina A(2009)Factors related to natural disturbances in mountain Norway spruce(Picea abies)forests in the Julian Alps.Eco Sci 16(1):48-57
Lehtonen I,Kamarainen M,Gregow H,Venalainen A,Peltola H(2016)Heavy snow loads in Finnish forests respond regionally asymmetrically to projected climate change.Nat Hazards Earth Sys Sci 16:2259-2271
Li XF,Jin L,Zhu JJ,Liu LM,Zhang JX,Yi Wang,Zhu CY(2018)Response of species and stand types to snow/wind damage in a temperate secondary forest,Northeast China.J For Res29(2):395-404
Lo Monaco A,Calienno L,Pelosi C,Balletti F,Agresti G,Picchio R(2015)Technical properties of beech wood from aged coppices in central Italy.iForest 8:82-88
Mart?n-Alcon S,Gonzales-olabarria JR,Coll L(2010)Wind and snow damage in the Pyrenees pin forests:effects of stand attributes and location.Silva Fennica 44(3):399-410
Martin?k A,Mauer O(2012)Snow damage to birch stands in Northern Moravia.J For Sci 58(4):181-192
Mason WL(2002)Are irregular stands more wind firm?Forestry75(4):347-355
Montes F,Sanchez M,Del Rio M,Canellas I(2005)Using historic management records to characterize the effects of management on the structural diversity of forests.For Ecol Manag207(1-2):279-293
Nasiri M,Fallah A(2012)The effect of snow weight on trees bending at the edge of the Hyrcanian forest roads.Afr J Agric Res7(22):3367-3374
Nicolescu NV,Petritan IC,Vasilescu MM(2004)The early and heavy snowfalls,a major threat to the young European beech(Fagus sylvatica L.)stands.In:Proceedings of IUFRO international beech symposium:Improvement and silviculture of beech,10-29 May,Tehran,Iran,pp 96-101
Nishimura TB(2005)Tree characteristics related to stem breakage of Picea glehnii and Abies sachalinensis.For Ecol Manag215(1-3):295-306
Notaro S,Paletto A,Raffaelli R(2009)Economic impact of forest damage in an Alpine environment.Acta Silvatica Lignaria Hungarica 5:131-143
Nykanen ML,Peltola H,Quine C,Kellomaki S,Broadgate M(1997)Factors affecting snow damage of trees with particular reference to European conditions.Silva Fennica 31(2):193-213
Paatalo ML(2000)Risk of snow damage in unmanaged and managed stands of Scots Pine,Norway spruce and Birch.Scand J For Res15(5):530-541
Paatalo ML,Peltola H,Kellomaki S(1999)Modeling the risk of snow damage to forests under short-term snow loading.For Ecol Manag 116(1-3):51-70
Peltola H,Nykanen ML,Kellomaki S(1997)Model computations on the critical combination of snow loading and wind speed for snow damage of Scots pine,Norway spruce and birch sp.at stand edge.For Ecol Manag 95(3):229-241
Persson P(1972)Wind and snow damage associated with stand treatment,a survey of thinning experiments in comparatively young stands.Skogshogskolan,Institutionen for skogsproduktion,Rapporter och Uppsatser 23.p 205(In Swedish)
Proulx OJ,Greene DF(2001)The relationship between ice thickness and northern hardwood tree damage during ice storms.Can J For Res 31(10):1758-1767
Sadegh AN,Rakhshani H(2011)Mechanical properties of beech wood(Fagus orientalis Lipsky)naturally grown in north of Iran.Indian J Sci Technol 4(12):1685-1686
Sayyad E,Hosseini SM,Mokhtari J,Mahdavi R,Jalali SG,Akbarinia M,Tabari M(2006)Comparison of growth,nutrition and soil properties of pure and mixed stands of Populus deltoides and Alnus subcordata.Silva Fennica 40(1):27-35
Schelhaas MJ,Nabuurs GJ,Schuck A(2003)Natural disturbances in the European forests in the 19th and 20th centuries.Glob Change Biol 9(11):1620-1633
Schroeder LM,Eidmann HH(1993)Attacks of bark-and woodboring Coleoptera on snow-broken conifers over a two-year period.Scand J For Res 8(2):257-265
Schutz JP(2006)Modeling the demographic sustainability of pure beech plenter forests in Eastern Germany.Ann For Sci63(1):93-100
Schutz JP,Gotz M,Schmid W,Mandallaz D(2006)Vulnerability of spruce(Picea abies)and beech(Fagus sylvatica)forest stands to storms and consequences for silviculture.Eur J For Res125(3):291-302
Solantie R(1994)Effect of weather and climatological background on snow damage of forests in southern Finland in November1991.Silva Fennica 28(3):203-211
Tavankar F(2000)Logging damages on stand and soil.Ph.D.Thesis,Tehran,Islamic Azad University,p 185
Tavankar F,Bonyad A(2015a)Effects of timber harvest on structural diversity and species composition in hardwood forests.Biodiversitas 16(1):1-9
Tavankar F,Bonyad A(2015b)Snow damages in related to physiographic factors in Asalem-nav forests,Guilan province.J Wood For Sci Technol 22(2):95-117
Tavankar F,Picchio R,Lo Monaco A,Bonyad AE(2014)Forest management and snag characteristics in Northern Iran lowland forests.J For Sci 60(10):431-441
Tavankar F,Bonyad A,Karamdost Marian B(2015)Snow damages on trees in natural and managed stands of the Caspian forests,North of Iran.Iran J For 7(3):419-431
Tavankar F,Picchio R,Nikooy M,Lo Monaco A,Venanzi R,Iranparast Bodaghi A(2017)Healing rate of logging wounds on broadleaf trees in Hyrcanian forest with some technological implications.Drewno 60(199):16
Teste FP,Lieffers VJ(2011)Snow damage in lodge pole pine stands brought into thinning and fertilization regimes.For Ecol Manag261(11):2096-2104
Turcotte RM,Elliott TR,Fajvan MA,Park YL,Snider DA,Tobin PC(2012)Effects of ice storm damage on hardwood survival and growth in Ohio.North J Appl For 29(2):53-59
Valinger E,Fridman J(1997)Modelling probability of snow and wind damage in Scots pine stands using tree characteristics.For Ecol Manag 97(3):215-222
Valinger E,Lundqvist L(1992)The influence of thinning and nitrogen fertilization on the frequency of snow and wind induced stand damage in forests.Scott For 46(4):311-320
Valinger E,Pettersson N(1996)Wind and snow damage in a thinning and fertilization experiment in Picea abies in southern Sweden.Forestry 69(1):25-33
Van Dyke O(1999)A literature review of ice storm impact on forests in eastern North America.SCSS Tech.Rep.112.Pembroke,Ontario:Landmark Consulting.33 pp
Wallentin C,Nilsson U(2014)Storm and snow damage in a Norway spruce thinning experiment in southern Sweden.Forestry87(2):229-238
Wang Y,Titus SJ,LeMay VM(1998)Relationships between tree slenderness coefficients and tree or stand characteristics for major species in boreal mixed wood forests.Can J For Res28(8):1171-1183
Wonn HT,O’Hara KL(2001)Height:diameter ratios and stability relationships for four Northern Rocky Mountain tree species.Wes J Appl For 16(2):87-94
Zeide B(2002)Density and the growth of even-aged stands.For Sci48(4):743-754
Zhu JJ,Li X,Liu ZG,Cao W,Gonda Y,Matsuzaki T(2006)Factors affecting the snow and wind induced damage of a mountain secondary forest in northeastern China.Silva Fennica40(1):37-51
Zhu LR,Zhou T,Chen BM,Peng SL(2015)How does tree age influence damage and recovery in forests impacted by freezing rain and snow?Sci China Life Sci 58(5):472-479
Akhavan R,Namiranian M(2007)Slenderness coefficient of five major tree species in the Hyrcanian forests of Iran.Iran J For Poplar Res 15(2):165-180
Akhavan R,Sagheb-Talebi Kh,Zenner EK,Safavimanesh F(2012)Spatial patterns in different forest development stages of an intact old-growth Oriental beech forest in the Caspian region of Iran.Eur J For Res 131:1355-1366
Angers VA,Messier C,Beaudet M,Leduc A(2005)Comparing composition and structure in old growth and harvested(selection and diameter-limit cuts)northern hardwood stands in Quebec.For Ecol Manag 217(2-3):275-293
Attiwill PM(1994)The disturbance of forest ecosystems:the ecological basis for conservative management.For Ecol Manag63(2-3):247-300
Beach RH,Sills EO,Liu TM,Pattanayak S(2010)The influence of forest management on vulnerability of forests to severe weather.USDA For Serv PNW-GTR 802:185-206
Bonyad A,Tavankar F(2014)Resistance of tree species to snow damage in Nav Asalem forests,Guilan province.Iran J For Poplar Res 22(3):496-508
Bragg DC,Shelton MG,Zeide B(2003)Impacts and management implications of ice storms on forests in the southern United States.For Ecol Manag 186:99-123
Day RW,Quinn GP(1989)Comparisons of treatments after an analysis of variance.Ecol Monogr 54:433-463
De Martonne E(1925)Traitede Geographie Physique,3 tomes,Armand Colin,Paris,4th ed.p 1519
Dobbertin M(2002)Influence of stand structure and site factors on wind damage comparing the storms Vivian and Lothar.For Snow Landsc Res 77(1-2):187-205
Dutra E,Balsamo G,Viterbo P,Miranda PM,Beljaars A,Scha CR,Elder K(2010)An improved snow scheme for the ECMWF land surface model:description and offline validation.J Hydrometeorol 11(4):899-916
Dvorak L,Bachmann P,Mandallaz D(2001)Sturmschaden in ungleichformigen Bestanden(Storm damage in irregular stands).Schweizerische Zeitschrift fur Forstwesen 152(11):445-452
Hanewinkel M,Breidenbach J,Neeff T,Kublin E(2008)Seventyseven years of natural disturbances in a mountain forest areathe influence of storm,snow and insect damage analysed with a long-term time-series.Can J For Res 38(8):2249-2261
Hanewinkel M,Hummel S,Albrecht A(2011)Assessing natural hazards in forestry for risk management:a review.Eur J For Res130:329-351
Hanewinkel M,Kuhn T,Bugmann H,Lanz A,Brang P(2014)Vulnerability of uneven-aged forests to storm damage.Forestry87(4):525-534
Harja D,Vincent G,Mulia R,Van Noordwijk M(2012)Tree shape plasticity in relation to crown exposure.Trees 26(4):1275-1285
Heshmati GA(2007)Vegetation characteristics of four ecological zones of Iran.Int J Plant Prod 1(2):215-224
Hlasny T,Kr?stek S,Holusa J,Trombik J,UrbancovaN(2011)Snow disturbances in secondary Norway spruce forests in Central Europe:regression modeling and its implications for forest management.For Ecol Manag 262(1-2):2151-2161
Homma K(1997)Effects of snow pressure on growth form and life history of tree species in Japanese beech forest.J Veg Sci8(6):781-788
Hurtalova T,Matejka F,Janous D,Pokorny R,Roznovsky J(2007)Influence of snow damage on aerodynamic characteristics of spruce stand.In:Proceedings of international conference of bioclimatology and natural hazards,Sep 17-20,Polana and Detvou,Slovakia,pp 1-6
Jalkanen A,Mattila U(2000)Logistic regression models for wind and snow damage in northern Finland based on the National Forest Inventory data.For Ecol Manag 135(1-3):315-330
Kane B,Finn JT(2014)Factors affecting branch failures in opengrown trees during a snowstorm in Massachusetts,USA.SpringerPlus 3:720
Kato A,Nakatani K(2000)An approach for estimating resistance of Japanese cedar to snow accretion damage.For Ecol Manag135(1-3):83-96
Kenk G,Guehne S(2001)Management of transformation in central Europe.For Ecol Manag 151(1-3):107-119
Klopcic M,Poljanec A,Gartner A,Boncina A(2009)Factors related to natural disturbances in mountain Norway spruce(Picea abies)forests in the Julian Alps.Eco Sci 16(1):48-57
Lehtonen I,Kamarainen M,Gregow H,Venalainen A,Peltola H(2016)Heavy snow loads in Finnish forests respond regionally asymmetrically to projected climate change.Nat Hazards Earth Sys Sci 16:2259-2271
Li XF,Jin L,Zhu JJ,Liu LM,Zhang JX,Yi Wang,Zhu CY(2018)Response of species and stand types to snow/wind damage in a temperate secondary forest,Northeast China.J For Res29(2):395-404
Lo Monaco A,Calienno L,Pelosi C,Balletti F,Agresti G,Picchio R(2015)Technical properties of beech wood from aged coppices in central Italy.iForest 8:82-88
Mart?n-Alcon S,Gonzales-olabarria JR,Coll L(2010)Wind and snow damage in the Pyrenees pin forests:effects of stand attributes and location.Silva Fennica 44(3):399-410
Martin?k A,Mauer O(2012)Snow damage to birch stands in Northern Moravia.J For Sci 58(4):181-192
Mason WL(2002)Are irregular stands more wind firm?Forestry75(4):347-355
Montes F,Sanchez M,Del Rio M,Canellas I(2005)Using historic management records to characterize the effects of management on the structural diversity of forests.For Ecol Manag207(1-2):279-293
Nasiri M,Fallah A(2012)The effect of snow weight on trees bending at the edge of the Hyrcanian forest roads.Afr J Agric Res7(22):3367-3374
Nicolescu NV,Petritan IC,Vasilescu MM(2004)The early and heavy snowfalls,a major threat to the young European beech(Fagus sylvatica L.)stands.In:Proceedings of IUFRO international beech symposium:Improvement and silviculture of beech,10-29 May,Tehran,Iran,pp 96-101
Nishimura TB(2005)Tree characteristics related to stem breakage of Picea glehnii and Abies sachalinensis.For Ecol Manag215(1-3):295-306
Notaro S,Paletto A,Raffaelli R(2009)Economic impact of forest damage in an Alpine environment.Acta Silvatica Lignaria Hungarica 5:131-143
Nykanen ML,Peltola H,Quine C,Kellomaki S,Broadgate M(1997)Factors affecting snow damage of trees with particular reference to European conditions.Silva Fennica 31(2):193-213
Paatalo ML(2000)Risk of snow damage in unmanaged and managed stands of Scots Pine,Norway spruce and Birch.Scand J For Res15(5):530-541
Paatalo ML,Peltola H,Kellomaki S(1999)Modeling the risk of snow damage to forests under short-term snow loading.For Ecol Manag 116(1-3):51-70
Peltola H,Nykanen ML,Kellomaki S(1997)Model computations on the critical combination of snow loading and wind speed for snow damage of Scots pine,Norway spruce and birch sp.at stand edge.For Ecol Manag 95(3):229-241
Persson P(1972)Wind and snow damage associated with stand treatment,a survey of thinning experiments in comparatively young stands.Skogshogskolan,Institutionen for skogsproduktion,Rapporter och Uppsatser 23.p 205(In Swedish)
Proulx OJ,Greene DF(2001)The relationship between ice thickness and northern hardwood tree damage during ice storms.Can J For Res 31(10):1758-1767
Sadegh AN,Rakhshani H(2011)Mechanical properties of beech wood(Fagus orientalis Lipsky)naturally grown in north of Iran.Indian J Sci Technol 4(12):1685-1686
Sayyad E,Hosseini SM,Mokhtari J,Mahdavi R,Jalali SG,Akbarinia M,Tabari M(2006)Comparison of growth,nutrition and soil properties of pure and mixed stands of Populus deltoides and Alnus subcordata.Silva Fennica 40(1):27-35
Schelhaas MJ,Nabuurs GJ,Schuck A(2003)Natural disturbances in the European forests in the 19th and 20th centuries.Glob Change Biol 9(11):1620-1633
Schroeder LM,Eidmann HH(1993)Attacks of bark-and woodboring Coleoptera on snow-broken conifers over a two-year period.Scand J For Res 8(2):257-265
Schutz JP(2006)Modeling the demographic sustainability of pure beech plenter forests in Eastern Germany.Ann For Sci63(1):93-100
Schutz JP,Gotz M,Schmid W,Mandallaz D(2006)Vulnerability of spruce(Picea abies)and beech(Fagus sylvatica)forest stands to storms and consequences for silviculture.Eur J For Res125(3):291-302
Solantie R(1994)Effect of weather and climatological background on snow damage of forests in southern Finland in November1991.Silva Fennica 28(3):203-211
Tavankar F(2000)Logging damages on stand and soil.Ph.D.Thesis,Tehran,Islamic Azad University,p 185
Tavankar F,Bonyad A(2015a)Effects of timber harvest on structural diversity and species composition in hardwood forests.Biodiversitas 16(1):1-9
Tavankar F,Bonyad A(2015b)Snow damages in related to physiographic factors in Asalem-nav forests,Guilan province.J Wood For Sci Technol 22(2):95-117
Tavankar F,Picchio R,Lo Monaco A,Bonyad AE(2014)Forest management and snag characteristics in Northern Iran lowland forests.J For Sci 60(10):431-441
Tavankar F,Bonyad A,Karamdost Marian B(2015)Snow damages on trees in natural and managed stands of the Caspian forests,North of Iran.Iran J For 7(3):419-431
Tavankar F,Picchio R,Nikooy M,Lo Monaco A,Venanzi R,Iranparast Bodaghi A(2017)Healing rate of logging wounds on broadleaf trees in Hyrcanian forest with some technological implications.Drewno 60(199):16
Teste FP,Lieffers VJ(2011)Snow damage in lodge pole pine stands brought into thinning and fertilization regimes.For Ecol Manag261(11):2096-2104
Turcotte RM,Elliott TR,Fajvan MA,Park YL,Snider DA,Tobin PC(2012)Effects of ice storm damage on hardwood survival and growth in Ohio.North J Appl For 29(2):53-59
Valinger E,Fridman J(1997)Modelling probability of snow and wind damage in Scots pine stands using tree characteristics.For Ecol Manag 97(3):215-222
Valinger E,Lundqvist L(1992)The influence of thinning and nitrogen fertilization on the frequency of snow and wind induced stand damage in forests.Scott For 46(4):311-320
Valinger E,Pettersson N(1996)Wind and snow damage in a thinning and fertilization experiment in Picea abies in southern Sweden.Forestry 69(1):25-33
Van Dyke O(1999)A literature review of ice storm impact on forests in eastern North America.SCSS Tech.Rep.112.Pembroke,Ontario:Landmark Consulting.33 pp
Wallentin C,Nilsson U(2014)Storm and snow damage in a Norway spruce thinning experiment in southern Sweden.Forestry87(2):229-238
Wang Y,Titus SJ,LeMay VM(1998)Relationships between tree slenderness coefficients and tree or stand characteristics for major species in boreal mixed wood forests.Can J For Res28(8):1171-1183
Wonn HT,O’Hara KL(2001)Height:diameter ratios and stability relationships for four Northern Rocky Mountain tree species.Wes J Appl For 16(2):87-94
Zeide B(2002)Density and the growth of even-aged stands.For Sci48(4):743-754
Zhu JJ,Li X,Liu ZG,Cao W,Gonda Y,Matsuzaki T(2006)Factors affecting the snow and wind induced damage of a mountain secondary forest in northeastern China.Silva Fennica40(1):37-51
Zhu LR,Zhou T,Chen BM,Peng SL(2015)How does tree age influence damage and recovery in forests impacted by freezing rain and snow?Sci China Life Sci 58(5):472-479