婴幼儿自我调节的发展机制
|
摘要
婴幼儿自我调节的概念结构与发展机制至今无统一定论。本文作者在回顾关于婴幼儿自我调节的文献时发现该领域出现过两次不同研究取向的整合:第一次整合是包含气质-行为领域的整合以及纳入生理调节与情绪调节的整合,第二次整合是行为-气质研究与认知领域研究的整合。本文总结两次研究取向的整合后提出了以生理-情绪-注意调节为基础、认知-气质-行为调节为核心的新的婴幼儿自我调节发展模型,为该领域的研究方向提供了理论基础。
Self-regulation is important for young children considering its profound relations with later mental health and social and cognitive competence. Although psychologists pay much attention to self-regulation for more than 100 years with the aim to investigate individual's optimal development, the structure of self-regulation and its developmental mechanisms in early ages are still unclear. Following the chronological sequence of the literature, this review shows that the different research perspectives on self-regulation in young children have integrated twice:(1) From 2000 to 2010, researchers attempted to integrate several mainstream perspectives of self-regulation in last century. For example, Kochanska's model(2006) focused on combining the viewpoints of temperamental and behavioral self-regulation; Calkins' s model(2002) focused on combining the viewpoints of physiological, attentional and emotional self-regulation; and Feldman(2009) constructed a multilevel interdisciplinary model of self-regulation from infancy to preschool ages.(2) In the latest decade, psychologists started to call for the fusion of two research directions and investigate young children's self-regulation comprehensively. Those two directions are temperamental mechanism of self-regulation—effortful control and "higher-ordered" cognitive mechanism of self-regulation—executive function. After summarizing the previous representative models, the current study further presents a developmental hierarchical-integrative perspective of self-regulation in young children: a physiology-emotion-attention-based and temperament-behavior-cognition-modulated model.
Self-regulation is important for young children considering its profound relations with later mental health and social and cognitive competence. Although psychologists pay much attention to self-regulation for more than 100 years with the aim to investigate individual's optimal development, the structure of self-regulation and its developmental mechanisms in early ages are still unclear. Following the chronological sequence of the literature, this review shows that the different research perspectives on self-regulation in young children have integrated twice:(1) From 2000 to 2010, researchers attempted to integrate several mainstream perspectives of self-regulation in last century. For example, Kochanska's model(2006) focused on combining the viewpoints of temperamental and behavioral self-regulation; Calkins' s model(2002) focused on combining the viewpoints of physiological, attentional and emotional self-regulation; and Feldman(2009) constructed a multilevel interdisciplinary model of self-regulation from infancy to preschool ages.(2) In the latest decade, psychologists started to call for the fusion of two research directions and investigate young children's self-regulation comprehensively. Those two directions are temperamental mechanism of self-regulation—effortful control and "higher-ordered" cognitive mechanism of self-regulation—executive function. After summarizing the previous representative models, the current study further presents a developmental hierarchical-integrative perspective of self-regulation in young children: a physiology-emotion-attention-based and temperament-behavior-cognition-modulated model.
引文
陈英和.(2013).认知发展心理学(新世纪高等学校教材).北京师范大学出版社.
董书阳,梁熙,张莹,王争艳.(2017).母亲积极养育行为对儿童顺从行为的早期预测与双向作用:从婴儿到学步儿.心理学报,49(4),460-471.
Baumeister,R.F.,Vohs,K.D.,&Tice,D.M.(2007).The strength model of self-control.Current Directions in Psychological Science,16(6),351-355.
Bernier,A.,Carlson,S.M.,&Whipple,N.(2010).From external regulation to self-regulation:Early parenting precursors of young children’s executive functioning.Child Development,81(1),326-339
Bridgett,D.J.,Oddi,K.B.,Laake,L.M.,Murdock,K.W.,&Bachmann,M.N.(2013).Integrating and differentiating aspects of self-regulation:Effortful control,executive functioning,and links to negative affectivity.Emotion,13(1),47-63.
Calkins,S.D.(2007).The emergence of self-regulation:Biological and behavioral control mechanisms supporting toddler competencies.In C.A.Brownell&C.B.Kopp(Eds.),Socioemotional development in the toddler years:Transitions and transformations(pp.261-284).New York:Guilford Press.
Calkins,S.D.&Fox,N.A.(2002).Self-regulatory processes in early personality development:A multilevel approach to the study of childhood social withdrawal and aggression.Dev Psychopathol,14(3),477-498.
Carlson,S.M.,Mandell,D.J.,&Williams,L.(2004).Executive function and theory of mind:Stability and prediction from ages 2 to 3.Developmental Psychology,40(6),1105-1122.
Cassidy,A.R.,White,M.T.,Demaso,D.R.,Newburger,J.W.,&Bellinger,D.C.(2016).Processing speed,executive function,and academic achievement in children with dextro-transposition of the great arteries:Testing a longitudinal developmental cascade model.Neuropsychology,30(7),874-885.
Cicchetti,D.,Ganiban,J.,&Barnett,D.(1991).Contributions from the study of high-risk populations to understanding the development of emotion regulation.In J.Garber&K.A.Dodge(Eds.),The development of emotion regulation and dysregulation(pp.69-88).US:Cambridge University Press.
Cox,M.J.,Mills-Koonce,R.,Propper,C.,&Gariépy,J.L.(2010).Systems theory and cascades in developmental psychopathology.Development and Psychopathology,22(3),497-506.
Cuevas,K.,&Bell,M.A.(2014).Infant attention and early childhood executive function.Child Development,85(2),397-404.
Denham,S.A.,Warren-khot,H.K.,Bassett,H.H.,Wyatt,T.,&Perna,A.(2012).Factor structure of self-regulation in preschoolers:Testing models of a field-based assessment for predicting early school readiness.Journal of Experimental Child Psychology,111(3),386-404.
Derryberry,D.,&Rothbart,M.K.(1997).Reactive and effortful processes in the organization of temperament.Development and Psychopathology,9(4),633-652.
Diamond,A.(2013).Executive functions.Annual Review of Psychology,64(1),135-168.
Eisenberg,N.,&Zhou,Q.,(2016).Conceptions of executive functioning and regulation:When and to what degree do they overlap?In J.A.Griffin,L.S.Freund,&P.McCardle(Eds.),Executive function in preschool-age children:Integrating measurement,neurodevelopment and translational research.Washington,DC:American Psychological Association.
Espy,K.A.,Sheffield,T.D.,Wiebe,S.A.,Clark,C.A.C.,&Moehr,M.J.(2011).Executive control and dimensions of problem behaviors in preschool children.Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry,52(1),33-46.
Feldman,R.(2009).The development of regulatory functions from birth to 5 years:Insights from premature infants.Child Development,80(2),544-561.
Flavell,J.H.,Green,F.L.,&Flavell,E.R.(1995).The development of children's knowledge about attentional focus.Developmental Psychology,31(4),706-712.
Fox,E.,&Riconscente,M.(2008).Metacognition and self-regulation in james,piaget,and vygotsky.Educational Psychology Review,20(4),373-389.
Garon,N.,Bryson,S.E.,&Smith,I.M.(2008).Executive function in preschoolers:A review using an integrative framework.Psychological Bulletin,134(1),31-60.
Hofmann,W.,Schmeichel,B.J.,&Baddeley,A.D.(2012).Executive functions and self-regulation.Trends in Cognitive Sciences,16(3),174-180.
Johansson,M.,Marciszko,C.,Brocki,K.,&Bohlin,G.(2015).Individual differences in early executive functions:A longitudinal study from 12 to 36 months.Infant and Child Development,25(6),533-549.
Kagan,J.,Reznick,J.S.,&Snidman,N.(1988).The physiology and psychology of behavioral inhibition in children.Child Development,58(6),1459-1473.
Kaplan,S.,&Berman,M.G.(2010).Directed attention as a common resource for executive functioning and selfregulation.Perspectives on Psychological Science A Journal of the Association for Psychological Science,5(1),43-57.
Kopp,C.B.(1982).Antecedents of self-regulation:Adevelopmental perspective.Developmental Psychology,18(2),199-214.
Kochanska,G.(1991).Socialization and temperament in the development of guilt and conscience.Child Development,62(6),1379-1392
Kochanska,G.(2002).Committed compliance,moral self,and internalization:A mediational model.Developmental Psychology,38(3),339-351.
Kochanska,G.,&Aksan,N.(2006).Children's conscience and self-regulation.Journal of Personality,74(6),1587-1618.
Kochanska,G.,Aksan,N.,&Joy,M.E.(2007).Children's fearfulness as a moderator of parenting in early socialization:Two longitudinal studies.Developmental Psychology,43(1),222-237
Kochanska,G.,Coy,K.C.,&Murray,K.T.(2001).The development of self-regulation in the first four years of life.Child development,72(4),1091-1111.
Kochanska,G.,Gross,J.N.,Lin,M.H.,&Nichols,K.E.(2002).Guilt in young children:Development,determinants,and relations with a broader system of standards.Child Development,73(2),461-482
Kochanska,G.,&Knaack,A.(2003).Effortful control as a personality characteristic of young children:Antecedents,correlates,and consequences.Journal of Personality,71(6),1087-1112.
Kochanska,G.,Koenig,J.L.,Barry,R.A.,Kim,S.,&Yoon,J.E.(2010).Children's conscience during toddler and preschool years,moral self,and a competent,adaptive developmental trajectory.Developmental Psychology,46(5),1320-1332.
Kochanska,G.,Murray,K.T.,&Harlan,E.T.(2000).Effortful control in early childhood:Continuity and change,antecedents,and implications for social development.Developmental Psychology,36(2),220-232.
Kochanska,G.,Tjebkes,J.L.,&Fortnan,D.R.(1998).Children's emerging regulation of conduct:Restraint,compliance,and internalization from infancy to the second year.Child Development,69(5),1378-1389.
LeCuyer,E.A.,&Zhang,Y.(2015).An integrative review of ethnic and cultural variation in socialization and children's self-regulation.Journal of Advanced Nursing,71(4),735-750.
Masten,A.S.,&Cicchetti,D.(2010).Developmental cascades.Development and Psychopathology,22(3),491-495.
Miller,S.E.(2015).Examining executive function in the second year of life:Coherence,stability,and relations to joint attention and language.Developmental Psychology,51(1),101-114.
Mirjam,W.,Gisela,T.,&Lorena,M.(2016).Children's self-regulation and school achievement in cultural contexts:The role of maternal restrictive control.Frontiers in Psychology,7,722.
Nigg,J.T.(2017).Annual research review:On the relations among self-regulation,self-control,executive functioning,effortful control,cognitive control,impulsivity,risk-taking,and inhibition for developmental psychopathology.Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry,58(4),361-383.
Panksepp,J.(1998).The periconscious substrates of consciousness:Affective states and evolutionary origins of the self.Journal of Consciousness Studies,5(5-6),566-582.
Petitclerc,A.,Briggs-Gowan,M.J.,Estabrook,R.,Burns,J.L.,Anderson,E.L.,McCarthy,K.J.,&Wakschlag,L.S.(2015).Contextual variation in young children’s observed disruptive behavior on the DB-DOS:Implications for early identification.Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry,56(9),1008-1016.
Posner,M.I.,&Rothbart,M.K.(1998).Attention,self-regulation and consciousness.Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London,353(1377),1915-1927.
Posner,M.I.,Rothbart,M.K.,Sheese,B.E.,&Tang,Y.(2007).The anterior cingulate gyrus and the mechanism of self-regulation.Cognitive,Affective,&Behavioral Neuroscience,7(4),391-395
Posner,M.I.,Rothbart,M.K.,&Tang.Y.,(2013).Developing self-regulation in early childhood.Trends in Neuroscience and Education,2(3-4),107-110.
Rothbart,M.K.,Sheese,B.E.,&Posner,M.I.(2007).Executive attention and effortful control:Linking temperament,brain networks,and genes.Child Development Perspectives,1(1),2-7.
Rothbart,M.K.,Sheese,B.E.,Rueda,M.R.,&Posner,M.I.(2011).Developing mechanisms of self-regulation in early life.Emotion Review,3(2),207-213.
Rothbart,M.K.,Ziaie,H.,&O’Boyle,C.G.(1992).Self-regulation and emotion in infancy.In N.Eisenberg,&R.Fabes,(Eds.).Emotion and its regulation in early development.New directions for child development,No.55:The Jossey-Bass education series.(pp.7-23).San Francisco,CA,US:Jossey-Bass/Pfeiffer.
Rueda,M.R.,Posner,M.I.,&Rothbart,M.K.(2005).The development of executive attention:Contributions to the emergence of self-regulation.Developmental Neuropsychology,28(2),573-594.
Schoemaker,K.,Mulder,H.,Dekovi?,M.,&Matthys,W.(2013).Executive functions in preschool children with externalizing behavior problems:A meta-analysis.Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology,41(3),457-471.
van Hecke,A.V.,Mundy,P.,Block,J.J.,Delgado,C.E.F.,Parlade,M.V.,&Pomares,Y.B.(2012).Infant responding to joint attention,executive processes,and self-regulation in preschool children.Infant Behavior and Development,35(2),303-311.
Wang,F.L.,Chassin,L.,Eisenberg,N.,&Spinrad,T.L.(2015).Effortful control predicts adolescent antisocialaggressive behaviors and depressive symptoms:Co-occurrence and moderation by impulsivity.Child Development,86(6),1812-1829
Woodward,L.J.,Lu,Z.,Morris,A.R.,&Healey,D.M.(2017).Preschool self regulation predicts later mental health and educational achievement in very preterm and typically developing children.Clinical Neuropsychologist,31(2),404-422.
Zhou,Q.,Chen,S.H.,&Main,A.(2012).Commonalities and differences in the research on children’s effortful control and executive function:A call for an integrated model of self-regulation.Child Development Perspectives,6(2),112-121.
Zucker,R.A.,Heitzeg,M.M.,&Nigg,J.T.(2011).Parsing the undercontrol-disinhibition pathway to substance use disorders:A multilevel developmental problem.Child Development Perspectives,5(4),248-255
董书阳,梁熙,张莹,王争艳.(2017).母亲积极养育行为对儿童顺从行为的早期预测与双向作用:从婴儿到学步儿.心理学报,49(4),460-471.
Baumeister,R.F.,Vohs,K.D.,&Tice,D.M.(2007).The strength model of self-control.Current Directions in Psychological Science,16(6),351-355.
Bernier,A.,Carlson,S.M.,&Whipple,N.(2010).From external regulation to self-regulation:Early parenting precursors of young children’s executive functioning.Child Development,81(1),326-339
Bridgett,D.J.,Oddi,K.B.,Laake,L.M.,Murdock,K.W.,&Bachmann,M.N.(2013).Integrating and differentiating aspects of self-regulation:Effortful control,executive functioning,and links to negative affectivity.Emotion,13(1),47-63.
Calkins,S.D.(2007).The emergence of self-regulation:Biological and behavioral control mechanisms supporting toddler competencies.In C.A.Brownell&C.B.Kopp(Eds.),Socioemotional development in the toddler years:Transitions and transformations(pp.261-284).New York:Guilford Press.
Calkins,S.D.&Fox,N.A.(2002).Self-regulatory processes in early personality development:A multilevel approach to the study of childhood social withdrawal and aggression.Dev Psychopathol,14(3),477-498.
Carlson,S.M.,Mandell,D.J.,&Williams,L.(2004).Executive function and theory of mind:Stability and prediction from ages 2 to 3.Developmental Psychology,40(6),1105-1122.
Cassidy,A.R.,White,M.T.,Demaso,D.R.,Newburger,J.W.,&Bellinger,D.C.(2016).Processing speed,executive function,and academic achievement in children with dextro-transposition of the great arteries:Testing a longitudinal developmental cascade model.Neuropsychology,30(7),874-885.
Cicchetti,D.,Ganiban,J.,&Barnett,D.(1991).Contributions from the study of high-risk populations to understanding the development of emotion regulation.In J.Garber&K.A.Dodge(Eds.),The development of emotion regulation and dysregulation(pp.69-88).US:Cambridge University Press.
Cox,M.J.,Mills-Koonce,R.,Propper,C.,&Gariépy,J.L.(2010).Systems theory and cascades in developmental psychopathology.Development and Psychopathology,22(3),497-506.
Cuevas,K.,&Bell,M.A.(2014).Infant attention and early childhood executive function.Child Development,85(2),397-404.
Denham,S.A.,Warren-khot,H.K.,Bassett,H.H.,Wyatt,T.,&Perna,A.(2012).Factor structure of self-regulation in preschoolers:Testing models of a field-based assessment for predicting early school readiness.Journal of Experimental Child Psychology,111(3),386-404.
Derryberry,D.,&Rothbart,M.K.(1997).Reactive and effortful processes in the organization of temperament.Development and Psychopathology,9(4),633-652.
Diamond,A.(2013).Executive functions.Annual Review of Psychology,64(1),135-168.
Eisenberg,N.,&Zhou,Q.,(2016).Conceptions of executive functioning and regulation:When and to what degree do they overlap?In J.A.Griffin,L.S.Freund,&P.McCardle(Eds.),Executive function in preschool-age children:Integrating measurement,neurodevelopment and translational research.Washington,DC:American Psychological Association.
Espy,K.A.,Sheffield,T.D.,Wiebe,S.A.,Clark,C.A.C.,&Moehr,M.J.(2011).Executive control and dimensions of problem behaviors in preschool children.Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry,52(1),33-46.
Feldman,R.(2009).The development of regulatory functions from birth to 5 years:Insights from premature infants.Child Development,80(2),544-561.
Flavell,J.H.,Green,F.L.,&Flavell,E.R.(1995).The development of children's knowledge about attentional focus.Developmental Psychology,31(4),706-712.
Fox,E.,&Riconscente,M.(2008).Metacognition and self-regulation in james,piaget,and vygotsky.Educational Psychology Review,20(4),373-389.
Garon,N.,Bryson,S.E.,&Smith,I.M.(2008).Executive function in preschoolers:A review using an integrative framework.Psychological Bulletin,134(1),31-60.
Hofmann,W.,Schmeichel,B.J.,&Baddeley,A.D.(2012).Executive functions and self-regulation.Trends in Cognitive Sciences,16(3),174-180.
Johansson,M.,Marciszko,C.,Brocki,K.,&Bohlin,G.(2015).Individual differences in early executive functions:A longitudinal study from 12 to 36 months.Infant and Child Development,25(6),533-549.
Kagan,J.,Reznick,J.S.,&Snidman,N.(1988).The physiology and psychology of behavioral inhibition in children.Child Development,58(6),1459-1473.
Kaplan,S.,&Berman,M.G.(2010).Directed attention as a common resource for executive functioning and selfregulation.Perspectives on Psychological Science A Journal of the Association for Psychological Science,5(1),43-57.
Kopp,C.B.(1982).Antecedents of self-regulation:Adevelopmental perspective.Developmental Psychology,18(2),199-214.
Kochanska,G.(1991).Socialization and temperament in the development of guilt and conscience.Child Development,62(6),1379-1392
Kochanska,G.(2002).Committed compliance,moral self,and internalization:A mediational model.Developmental Psychology,38(3),339-351.
Kochanska,G.,&Aksan,N.(2006).Children's conscience and self-regulation.Journal of Personality,74(6),1587-1618.
Kochanska,G.,Aksan,N.,&Joy,M.E.(2007).Children's fearfulness as a moderator of parenting in early socialization:Two longitudinal studies.Developmental Psychology,43(1),222-237
Kochanska,G.,Coy,K.C.,&Murray,K.T.(2001).The development of self-regulation in the first four years of life.Child development,72(4),1091-1111.
Kochanska,G.,Gross,J.N.,Lin,M.H.,&Nichols,K.E.(2002).Guilt in young children:Development,determinants,and relations with a broader system of standards.Child Development,73(2),461-482
Kochanska,G.,&Knaack,A.(2003).Effortful control as a personality characteristic of young children:Antecedents,correlates,and consequences.Journal of Personality,71(6),1087-1112.
Kochanska,G.,Koenig,J.L.,Barry,R.A.,Kim,S.,&Yoon,J.E.(2010).Children's conscience during toddler and preschool years,moral self,and a competent,adaptive developmental trajectory.Developmental Psychology,46(5),1320-1332.
Kochanska,G.,Murray,K.T.,&Harlan,E.T.(2000).Effortful control in early childhood:Continuity and change,antecedents,and implications for social development.Developmental Psychology,36(2),220-232.
Kochanska,G.,Tjebkes,J.L.,&Fortnan,D.R.(1998).Children's emerging regulation of conduct:Restraint,compliance,and internalization from infancy to the second year.Child Development,69(5),1378-1389.
LeCuyer,E.A.,&Zhang,Y.(2015).An integrative review of ethnic and cultural variation in socialization and children's self-regulation.Journal of Advanced Nursing,71(4),735-750.
Masten,A.S.,&Cicchetti,D.(2010).Developmental cascades.Development and Psychopathology,22(3),491-495.
Miller,S.E.(2015).Examining executive function in the second year of life:Coherence,stability,and relations to joint attention and language.Developmental Psychology,51(1),101-114.
Mirjam,W.,Gisela,T.,&Lorena,M.(2016).Children's self-regulation and school achievement in cultural contexts:The role of maternal restrictive control.Frontiers in Psychology,7,722.
Nigg,J.T.(2017).Annual research review:On the relations among self-regulation,self-control,executive functioning,effortful control,cognitive control,impulsivity,risk-taking,and inhibition for developmental psychopathology.Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry,58(4),361-383.
Panksepp,J.(1998).The periconscious substrates of consciousness:Affective states and evolutionary origins of the self.Journal of Consciousness Studies,5(5-6),566-582.
Petitclerc,A.,Briggs-Gowan,M.J.,Estabrook,R.,Burns,J.L.,Anderson,E.L.,McCarthy,K.J.,&Wakschlag,L.S.(2015).Contextual variation in young children’s observed disruptive behavior on the DB-DOS:Implications for early identification.Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry,56(9),1008-1016.
Posner,M.I.,&Rothbart,M.K.(1998).Attention,self-regulation and consciousness.Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London,353(1377),1915-1927.
Posner,M.I.,Rothbart,M.K.,Sheese,B.E.,&Tang,Y.(2007).The anterior cingulate gyrus and the mechanism of self-regulation.Cognitive,Affective,&Behavioral Neuroscience,7(4),391-395
Posner,M.I.,Rothbart,M.K.,&Tang.Y.,(2013).Developing self-regulation in early childhood.Trends in Neuroscience and Education,2(3-4),107-110.
Rothbart,M.K.,Sheese,B.E.,&Posner,M.I.(2007).Executive attention and effortful control:Linking temperament,brain networks,and genes.Child Development Perspectives,1(1),2-7.
Rothbart,M.K.,Sheese,B.E.,Rueda,M.R.,&Posner,M.I.(2011).Developing mechanisms of self-regulation in early life.Emotion Review,3(2),207-213.
Rothbart,M.K.,Ziaie,H.,&O’Boyle,C.G.(1992).Self-regulation and emotion in infancy.In N.Eisenberg,&R.Fabes,(Eds.).Emotion and its regulation in early development.New directions for child development,No.55:The Jossey-Bass education series.(pp.7-23).San Francisco,CA,US:Jossey-Bass/Pfeiffer.
Rueda,M.R.,Posner,M.I.,&Rothbart,M.K.(2005).The development of executive attention:Contributions to the emergence of self-regulation.Developmental Neuropsychology,28(2),573-594.
Schoemaker,K.,Mulder,H.,Dekovi?,M.,&Matthys,W.(2013).Executive functions in preschool children with externalizing behavior problems:A meta-analysis.Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology,41(3),457-471.
van Hecke,A.V.,Mundy,P.,Block,J.J.,Delgado,C.E.F.,Parlade,M.V.,&Pomares,Y.B.(2012).Infant responding to joint attention,executive processes,and self-regulation in preschool children.Infant Behavior and Development,35(2),303-311.
Wang,F.L.,Chassin,L.,Eisenberg,N.,&Spinrad,T.L.(2015).Effortful control predicts adolescent antisocialaggressive behaviors and depressive symptoms:Co-occurrence and moderation by impulsivity.Child Development,86(6),1812-1829
Woodward,L.J.,Lu,Z.,Morris,A.R.,&Healey,D.M.(2017).Preschool self regulation predicts later mental health and educational achievement in very preterm and typically developing children.Clinical Neuropsychologist,31(2),404-422.
Zhou,Q.,Chen,S.H.,&Main,A.(2012).Commonalities and differences in the research on children’s effortful control and executive function:A call for an integrated model of self-regulation.Child Development Perspectives,6(2),112-121.
Zucker,R.A.,Heitzeg,M.M.,&Nigg,J.T.(2011).Parsing the undercontrol-disinhibition pathway to substance use disorders:A multilevel developmental problem.Child Development Perspectives,5(4),248-255