美国公立学校教师工资改革研究
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摘要
教育研究已经表明,教师素质是影响学生成绩最重要的因素。但在美国,教师素质低、教师教育薄弱、教师流动频繁及教师短缺等现象正在加剧。而且当前在美国96%公立学校中实施的单一工资制已经无法适应劳动力市场的需求,也无法有效激励教师们去积极投入工作。
本论文首先回顾了十九世纪至今美国公立学校的三次教师工资改革,通过大量的文献综述,全面地展示教师工资改革与社会、经济和文化变迁因素之间的关系。其次,论文搜集了一系列美国教师劳动力市场的最新数据,进行了定量研究,并分析了教师和非教师的从教倾向。研究显示,目前美国公立学校教师工资水平及制度令人担忧。再次,本文重点关注美国现行的教师绩效工资改革计划,分类该计划的实施难点并提出可能的解决办法。此外,论文还深入探索了实施新工资制度的体制及结构阻力:教师工会影响、学区及州的利益及公共教育机构的迟滞。最后,基于上述研究,本论文给出了一些有关美国教师工资改革的新观点、展望及建议。
尽管我国教育界已经对美国教育进行了很多年的研究,但美国公立学校教师工资制度的引进、介绍和探索还有待完备。希望本论文的研究能够填补这一空白,并为中国教育管理领域的改革提供借鉴。
Education research convincingly shows that teacher quality is the most important schooling factor influencing student achievement. But stories abound concerning the quality of teachers, the poor quality of teacher preparation, the rate at which teachers are leaving the profession and worsening shortages of teachers. Data from national surveys show that close to 96 percent of traditional public school teachers are employed in school districts that make use of the single salary schedules, which could neither meets the demands of teacher labor market nor implements an effective incentive to the teachers.
Firstly, this paper examines the history of three teacher pay reforms in the American public schools, beginning with 1800(?)and continuing on to the present day. It is largely a review and synthesis of existing educational literature, with the aim of providing more comprehensive views and relations of teacher pay in light of changing social, economic and cultural factors. Secondly, this paper collects a series of most recent datum from the American teacher labor market, exerts many quantitative studies and analyzes the psychological tendency of teachers and non-teachers towards teaching, which show that both the level and the nature of teacher pay are troubling. Thirdly, following the presentation of current performance-related pay programs are the classified inherent difficulties of this pay system and the possible solution. Fourthly, several political and systematical hurdles to carrying out alternative teacher pay system are explained: union power, school district and state politics, institutional inertia and etc. Last but not least, some new conclusions, prospects and suggestions of teacher pay reform are given based on all studies above.
While there have been numerous experiments in US education study in our country, the introductions and researches on American teacher pay reform in public schools are very slender. The US experience study in this paper will serve as an instructive guide for our reform measures of school management in China.
本论文首先回顾了十九世纪至今美国公立学校的三次教师工资改革,通过大量的文献综述,全面地展示教师工资改革与社会、经济和文化变迁因素之间的关系。其次,论文搜集了一系列美国教师劳动力市场的最新数据,进行了定量研究,并分析了教师和非教师的从教倾向。研究显示,目前美国公立学校教师工资水平及制度令人担忧。再次,本文重点关注美国现行的教师绩效工资改革计划,分类该计划的实施难点并提出可能的解决办法。此外,论文还深入探索了实施新工资制度的体制及结构阻力:教师工会影响、学区及州的利益及公共教育机构的迟滞。最后,基于上述研究,本论文给出了一些有关美国教师工资改革的新观点、展望及建议。
尽管我国教育界已经对美国教育进行了很多年的研究,但美国公立学校教师工资制度的引进、介绍和探索还有待完备。希望本论文的研究能够填补这一空白,并为中国教育管理领域的改革提供借鉴。
Education research convincingly shows that teacher quality is the most important schooling factor influencing student achievement. But stories abound concerning the quality of teachers, the poor quality of teacher preparation, the rate at which teachers are leaving the profession and worsening shortages of teachers. Data from national surveys show that close to 96 percent of traditional public school teachers are employed in school districts that make use of the single salary schedules, which could neither meets the demands of teacher labor market nor implements an effective incentive to the teachers.
Firstly, this paper examines the history of three teacher pay reforms in the American public schools, beginning with 1800(?)and continuing on to the present day. It is largely a review and synthesis of existing educational literature, with the aim of providing more comprehensive views and relations of teacher pay in light of changing social, economic and cultural factors. Secondly, this paper collects a series of most recent datum from the American teacher labor market, exerts many quantitative studies and analyzes the psychological tendency of teachers and non-teachers towards teaching, which show that both the level and the nature of teacher pay are troubling. Thirdly, following the presentation of current performance-related pay programs are the classified inherent difficulties of this pay system and the possible solution. Fourthly, several political and systematical hurdles to carrying out alternative teacher pay system are explained: union power, school district and state politics, institutional inertia and etc. Last but not least, some new conclusions, prospects and suggestions of teacher pay reform are given based on all studies above.
While there have been numerous experiments in US education study in our country, the introductions and researches on American teacher pay reform in public schools are very slender. The US experience study in this paper will serve as an instructive guide for our reform measures of school management in China.
引文
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17 Consortium for Policy Research in Education(2007).History of Teacher Pay[DB/OL]
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19 Tyack,D.B.(1974).The one best system:A history of American urban Education[M].Cambridge:Harvard University Press.p260
20 Kate Rousmaniere(2005).Chicago Teachers Federation[DB/OL]
21 Diane Ravitch(2007)Why Teacher Unions Are Good for Teachers and the Public[DB/OL]
22 参见 Tyack,D.B.(1974)The one best system:A history of American urban Education[M].Cambridge:Harvard University Press.p259-267
22 Goldhaber,Dan.(2006).Teacher Pay,Reforms棗 The Political Implications of Recent Research[R/OL]
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25 Joel Spring(1994).The American school,1642-1993[M].NewYork:Longman.p283
26 Clardy,Alan(1988).Compensation Systems and School Effectiveness:Merit Pay As an Incentive for School Improvement[R/OL]
27 A.W.Hart and M.J.Murphy(1990).New Teachers React to Redesigned Teacher Work[J].American Journal of Education.Vol.98,No.3.p235
28 可参见:Hoxby,C.M.and Leigh,A.(2005).Wage Distortion:Why America(?)Top Female College Graduates Aren(?)Teaching[P/OL];Goldhaber,D.and Liu,A.(2003).Occupational Choices and the Academic Proficiency of the Teacher Workforce[R/OL]:Henke,R.,Chen,X.,and Geis,S.(2000).Progress Through the Teacher Pipeline:1992-93 College Graduates and Elementary/Secondary School Teaching as of 1997 [R/OL]。
29 National Commission on Excellence in Education(1983).A Nation at Risk:The Imperative for Educational Reform[R/OL].
30 English,Fenwick(1992).History and criticalissues of educational compensation system[A].In rase,L.E.(Ed.)."Teacher Compensation and Motivation"[C].Lancaster,PA:Technomic Publishing Co.p 6
31 H.P.Harry,J.M.Greiner,and B.G.Ashford(1994).Issues and Case Studies in Teacher Incentive P/ans,2~(nd)Edition[M].Washington:Urban Institute.p131-136
32 R.J.Murnane and D.K.Cohen(1986).Merit Pay and the Evaluation Problem:Why Most Merit Pay Plans Fail and a Few Survive[J].Harvard Educational Review.Vol.56,No.1.p1-17
33 Lavy,V.(2002).Evaluating the Effect of Teachers? Group Performance Incentives on Pupil Achievement [J].Journal of Political Economy.Vol.110,No.6.p1286-1317
34 Figlio,D.and Kenny,L.(2006).Individual Teacher Incentives Boost Student Performance[R/OL]
35 Susan J.Rosenholtz(1986).Career Ladders and Merit Pay.:Capricious Fads or Fundamental Reforms?[J].The Elementary School Journal.Vol.86,No4.p527
36 Sharon Contey and Allan Odden(1995)Linking Teacher Compensation to Teacher Career Development [J].Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis.Vol.17,No.2.p8-9
37 Jan Dowling,et al(2007).The Effects of the Career Ladder Program on Student Achievement[R/OL].
38 Oddcn,A.and Kelley,C.(1996).Paying Teachers for What They Know and Do:New and Smarter Compensation Strategies to Improve Schools[M].Thousand Oaks,CA:Corwin Press.p75
39 参见http://www.doe.state.la.us/lde/pd/626.htmt
40 Odden,A.and Kelley,C.(1996).Paying Teachers for What They Know and Do:New and Smarter Compensation Strategies to Improve Schools[M].Thousand Oaks,CA:Corwin Press.p79
41 Hanusek,E.A.and Rivkin,S.G.(2004).How to lmprove the Supply of High-quality Teachers[A].In D.Ravitch(Ed.).Brookings Papers on Education Policy:2004[C].Washington,DC:Brookings Institution Press.p 7-25
42 Cavalluzzo,L.C.(2004).Is National Board Certification an Effective Signal of Teacher Quality?[R/OL]
43 Sanders,W.L.,Ashton,J.J.and Wright,S.P.(2005).Comparison of the Effects of NBPTS Certified Teachers with Other Teachers on the Rate of Student Academic Progress[R/OL]
44 Cynthia D.Prince(2002).Higher Pay in Hard-to-Staff Schools:The Case for Financial Incentives[R/OL]
45 Heather G.Peske & Kati Haycock(2006).Teaching Inequality棗 How Poor and Minority Students Are Shortchanged on Teacher Quality[R/OL]
46 Title One Program.美国联邦政府的最大的一项专项教育拨款计划,用于低收入的学区为学习成绩不佳的学生提供教学帮助,使低收入家庭的孩子不因其家庭贫穷而降低学业成绩。全美大约有三分之二的小学可得到此项拨款。
47 Useem,E.and Farley,E.(2004).Philadelphia抯Teacher Hiring and School Assignment Practices:Comparisons with Other Districts[R/OL]
48 Hanushek,E.A.,Kain,J.E,and Rivkin,S.G.(2004).Why Public Schools Lose Teachers?[R/OL]
49 Cynthia D.Prince(2002).Higher Pay in Hard-to-Staff Schools:The Case for Financial lncentives[R/OL]
50 Goldhaber,Dan.(2006).Teacher Pay Reforms棗 The Political Implications of Recent Research[R/OL].
1 本图数据中教师工资指数以1966年教师工资=100来计算。
2 郭朝红(2006).《影响教师政策的中介组织》[M].天津:天津教育出版社.p35
3 1966-2005年教师平均工资、居民消费价格指数及人均国内生产总值数据来源于ATF Research and Information Services Department.Survey and Analysis of Teacher Salary Trends 2005
4 2006年教师平均工资数据来源:NEA.Rankings of the Sates 2006 and Estimates of School Statistics 2007(该数据实为公立学校代课教师工资,虽略高于教师平均工资但与之相差不到1%,因此这里借用这一数据来展示工资的变化趋势)
5 2006年CPI数据来源:Bureau of Labor Statistics,http://www.bls.gov/cpi/
6 2006年人均国内生产总值数据来源:Econ Stats,http://www.econstats.com/gdp/gdp__q1.htm
7 数据来源同图 3.1
8 此表摘自:ATF Research and Information Services Department(2007).Survey and Analysis of Teacher Salary Trends 2005[R/OL]。数据来源:Nalional Survey of Professional,Administrative,Technical and Clerical Pay,U.S.Department of Labor:National Compensation Survey.U.S.Department of Labor;American Association of University Professors,Acadamie;AFT,数年来各州教育部民意调查。
9 Allegretto,Sylvia A.,Sean P.Corcoran and Lawrence Mishel(2004).How Does Teacher Pay Compare?Methodological Challenges and Answers[R/OL]
10 Goldhaber,Dan(2006).Teacher Pay Reforms棗 The Political Implications of Recent Research[R/OL]
11 参见:Robert 1.Cusick(2007).Who are Government Workers and How can Management Improve Worker Ethical Sensitivity[R/OL]
12 Ballou,D.and Podgursky,M.(1997).Teacher Pay and Teacher Quality[R/OL]
13 Allegretto,Sylvia A.,Sean P.Corcoran and Lawrence Mishel(2004).How Does Teacher Pay Compare?Methodological Challenges and Answers[R/OL]
14 参见ATF Research and Information Services Department.Survey and Analysis of Teacher Salary Trends 2005[R/OL]
15 原始数据来源:ATF Research and Information Services Department.Survey and Analysis of Teacher Salary Trends 2005[R/OL];且所有的教师和政府工作人员工资均换算为2005年的通货膨胀率来比较。
16 数据来源:美国大专院校与雇主协会1995-2005统计数据http://www.naceweb.org/;美国教师联合会教师工资1995-2005统计数据http://www.aft.org/pubs-reports/index.htm。
17 National Association of Colleges and Employers(2006).Salary Survey September 2006.A Study of 2005-06Beginning Offers[J].Winter2006.Vol.45,Issue 1.p137-150
18参见ATF Research and Information Services Department(2005).Survey and Analysis of Teacher Salary Trends 2005[R/OL]
19 National Commission on Teaching and America抯Future(2003).No Dream Denied:A Pledge to America抯 Children[R/OL]
20 Richard M.Ingersoll(2003).Is There Really a Teacher Shortage?[R/OL]
21 Robin R.Henke,Xianglei Chen,and Sonya Gels(2000).Progress through the Teacher Pipeline:1992-93College Graduates and Elementary/ Secondary School Teaching as of 1997[R/OL]
22 National Center for Education Statistics(2004).Teacher Attrition and Mobility:Results from the Teacher Follow-up Survey.2000-01[R/OL]
23 National Commission on Teaching and America抯Future(2003).No Dream Denied:A Pledge to America抯 Children[R/OL].文中的数据显示经济条件较好的学校教师高职率达12.9%,而贫困学校的这个比例达到20%。
24 Richard M.Ingersoll(2003),Is There Really a Teacher Shortage?[R/OL]
25 数据来源:Alliance For Excellent Education(2005).Teacher Attrition:A Costly Loss to the Nation and to the States[R/OL]
26 Goldhaber,D.and Liu,A.(2003).Occupational Choices and the Academic Proficiency of the Teacher Workforce[R/OL]
27 Hoxby,C.M.and Leigh,A.(2005).Wage Distortion:Why America抯Top Female College Graduates Aren(?)Teaching[R/OL]
28 资料来源:Public Agenda(2000).A Sense of Calling:Who Teaches and Why?[DB/OL]
29 MetLife,Inc.(2006),The MetLife Survey of the American Teacher 2006:Expectations and Experience [R/OL]
30 MetLife,Inc,(2006).The MetLife Survey of the American Teacher 2006:Expectotions and Experiences [R/OL]
31 PASSHE Research Office(2004).The Fall 2004 Freshman Survey:A Profile of Pennsylvania State System of Higher Education Freshmen[R/OL]
32大学一年级有从事教师工作意愿的学生比例数据来源:ATF Research and Information Services Department (2005).Survey and Analysis of Teacher Salary Trends 2004[R/OL];1976-2004年教师平均工资数据来源:ATF Research and Information Services Department(2007).Survey and Analysis of Teacher Salary Trends 2005[R/OL]。
33 相关分析和回归分析分析都是对客观事物数量依存关系的分析。只有存在相关关系的变量才能进一步进行回归分析,且相关程度越高,回归测定的结果愈可靠。但是相关分析是研究变量之间的共变关系,变量见不分主或从、因或果:而回归分析则是在控制或给定一个或几个变量条件下观察对应的某一变量的变化。本研究由此计算教师工资与有意愿从事教师工作的大学新生比例之间的依存关系。
34 当0＜∣r∣≤0.3为微弱相关;当0.3＜∣r∣≤0.5为低度相关;当0＜∣r∣≤0.8为显著相关:0.3＜∣r∣＜1为高度相关。
35 回归模型是对具有相关关系的变量建立一个数学方程,也就是回归分析。描述变量之间的变动关系,通过控制或给定自变量的数值来估计或预测因变量可能的数值。
1 Sclafani.S.,and Tucker,M.S.(2006).Teacher and principal compensation An international Review[R/OL]
2 Ballou,D.and Podgursky,M.(1997).Teacher Pay and Teacher Quality[R/OL]
3 Community Training and Assistance Center(2004).Catalyst for Change:Pay for Performance in Denver Final Report[R/OL]
4 Texas Education Agency(2006).Governor抯Educator Excellence Award Grant--Texas Educator Excellence Grant 2006-2007[R/OL]
5 相关信息可参见:http://www.talentedteachers.org/。
1 Murnane,Richard J.and Cohen,David.K.(1986).Merit Pay and the Evaluation Problem:Why Most Merit Pay Plans Fail and a Few Survive[J].Harvard Education Review.Vol56,No1.p1? 7
2 Koretz,D.M.(2002).Limitations in the Use of Achievement Tests as Measures of Educators?Productivity [J].The Journal of Human Resources.Vol.37,No.4.p752-777
3 Murnane,Richard J.and Cohen,David.K.(1986).Merit Pay and the Evaluation Problem:Why Most Merit Pay Plans Fail and a Few Survive[J].Harvard Education Review.Vol.56,No.1.p 1? 7.
4 Moehlman,A.B.(1927).Public School Finance.转引自Michael J.Podgursky and Matthew G.Springer (2007).Teacher Performance Pay:A Review[J].Journal of Policy Analysis and Management.Vol.26,No.4.p 909-949
5 McCaffrey,D.F.,Lockwood,J.R.,Koretz,D.,Louis,T.A.,and Hamilton,L.S.(2004).Models for Value-Added Modeling of Teacher Effects[R/OL]
6 MeCaffrey,D.F.and Hamilton,L.S.(2007).Value-Added Assessment in Practice:Lessons from the Pennsylvania Value-Added System Pilot Project[R/OL]
7 Ballou,D.,Sanders,W.,and Wright.P.(2004).Controlling for Student Background in Value-Added Assessment of Teachers[J].Journal of Educational and Behavioral Statistics.Vol.29,No.1.p 37-66
8 相关文献均提到了英格兰和威尔士的一些学者做过这类的研究,如 Adnett,N.(2003).Reforming Teachers?Pay:Incentive Payments,Collegiate Ethos and UK Policy[J].Cambridge Journal of Economies.Vol.27.No.1.p145-157
9 Prendergast,C.(1999).The Provision of Incentives in Firm[J].Journal of Economic Literature.Vol.37,No.1.p7-63
10 Michael J.Podgursky and Matthew G.Springer(2007).Teacher Performance Pay:A Review[J].Journal of Policy Analysis and Management.Vol.26,No.4.p 909-949
11 详见NCPI的网站:http://performanceincentives.org/
12 Dixit,A.(2002).Incentives and Organizations in the Public Sector:An Interpretative Review[J].Journal of Human Resources.Vol.37,No.4.p696-727
13 Jacob,B.,and Levitt,S.(2003).Rotten Apples:An Investigation of the Prevalence and Predictors of Teacher Cheating.Quarterly Journal of Economics[R/OL]
14 Jacob,B.,and Levitt,S.(2003).Rotten Apples:An Investigation of the Prevalence and Predictors of Teacher Cheating.Quarterly Journal of Economics[R/OL]
15 Dixit,A.(2002).Incentives and Organizalions in the Public Sector:An Interpretative Review[J].Journal of Human Resources.Vol.37,No.4.p.719,认为评估问题提做了这样一个简洁的评估,“总结起来,公立学校教育系统任务是多样化的、多人负责的、多周期的、目标空泛,无法观察目标的近乎垄断的组织”
16 美国公立学校教师绩效工资只占基本工资2%,而私立学校中这个比例要将近10%。
17 Ballou,D.(2001).Pay for performance in public and private schools[J].Economics of Education Review,Vol.20,No.1.p51? 1
1 Goldhaber,Dan(2006).Teacher Pay Reforms棗 The Political Implications of Recent Research[R/OL]
2 James W.Guthrie(ed.)(2003).Enclopedia of Education[M].New York:Maemillan.p2479
3 有关NEA的历史参见:Sabrina Holcomb(2006).The History of the National Education Association[DB/OL]
4 AFT(2008).History[DB/OL]
5 U.S.Department of Labor(2006),Education and Community and Social Services[R/OL]
6 Goldhaber,Dan.,Choi H.J.,DeArmond M.,and Player D.(2005).Why Do So Few Public School Districts Use Merit Pay?[R],Presented at APPAM Fall Research Conference,November 3-5,in Washington D.C.
7 Cynthia D.Prince(2002).Higher Pay in Hard-to-Staff Schools:The Case for Financial Incentives[R/OL]
8 NEA(2008).Compensation Systems Report of the NEA Professional Standards and Practice Committee [R/OL]
9 NEA(2006).The 2006 NEA Handbook[DB/OL]
10 NEA(2008).The 2008 NEA Handbook[DB/OL]
11 参见AFT网站:Professional Compensation[DB/OL].http://www.aft.org/topics/teacher-quality/comp.htm
12 参见AFT网站:Professional Compensation[DB/OL].http://www.aft.org/topics/teacher-quality/comp.htm
13 Kate Bronfenbrenner(2005).The Future of Organized Labor in the U.S.:Reinventing Trade Unionism for the 21" Century[R/OL]
14 Julia Koppich(2005).Addressing Teacher Quality Through Induction,Professional Compensation,and Evaluation:The Effects on Labor-Management Relations[J].Educational Policy.Vol.19,No.1.p91
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25 Joel Spring(1994).The American school,1642-1993[M].NewYork:Longman.p283
26 Clardy,Alan(1988).Compensation Systems and School Effectiveness:Merit Pay As an Incentive for School Improvement[R/OL]
27 A.W.Hart and M.J.Murphy(1990).New Teachers React to Redesigned Teacher Work[J].American Journal of Education.Vol.98,No.3.p235
28 可参见:Hoxby,C.M.and Leigh,A.(2005).Wage Distortion:Why America(?)Top Female College Graduates Aren(?)Teaching[P/OL];Goldhaber,D.and Liu,A.(2003).Occupational Choices and the Academic Proficiency of the Teacher Workforce[R/OL]:Henke,R.,Chen,X.,and Geis,S.(2000).Progress Through the Teacher Pipeline:1992-93 College Graduates and Elementary/Secondary School Teaching as of 1997 [R/OL]。
29 National Commission on Excellence in Education(1983).A Nation at Risk:The Imperative for Educational Reform[R/OL].
30 English,Fenwick(1992).History and criticalissues of educational compensation system[A].In rase,L.E.(Ed.)."Teacher Compensation and Motivation"[C].Lancaster,PA:Technomic Publishing Co.p 6
31 H.P.Harry,J.M.Greiner,and B.G.Ashford(1994).Issues and Case Studies in Teacher Incentive P/ans,2~(nd)Edition[M].Washington:Urban Institute.p131-136
32 R.J.Murnane and D.K.Cohen(1986).Merit Pay and the Evaluation Problem:Why Most Merit Pay Plans Fail and a Few Survive[J].Harvard Educational Review.Vol.56,No.1.p1-17
33 Lavy,V.(2002).Evaluating the Effect of Teachers? Group Performance Incentives on Pupil Achievement [J].Journal of Political Economy.Vol.110,No.6.p1286-1317
34 Figlio,D.and Kenny,L.(2006).Individual Teacher Incentives Boost Student Performance[R/OL]
35 Susan J.Rosenholtz(1986).Career Ladders and Merit Pay.:Capricious Fads or Fundamental Reforms?[J].The Elementary School Journal.Vol.86,No4.p527
36 Sharon Contey and Allan Odden(1995)Linking Teacher Compensation to Teacher Career Development [J].Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis.Vol.17,No.2.p8-9
37 Jan Dowling,et al(2007).The Effects of the Career Ladder Program on Student Achievement[R/OL].
38 Oddcn,A.and Kelley,C.(1996).Paying Teachers for What They Know and Do:New and Smarter Compensation Strategies to Improve Schools[M].Thousand Oaks,CA:Corwin Press.p75
39 参见http://www.doe.state.la.us/lde/pd/626.htmt
40 Odden,A.and Kelley,C.(1996).Paying Teachers for What They Know and Do:New and Smarter Compensation Strategies to Improve Schools[M].Thousand Oaks,CA:Corwin Press.p79
41 Hanusek,E.A.and Rivkin,S.G.(2004).How to lmprove the Supply of High-quality Teachers[A].In D.Ravitch(Ed.).Brookings Papers on Education Policy:2004[C].Washington,DC:Brookings Institution Press.p 7-25
42 Cavalluzzo,L.C.(2004).Is National Board Certification an Effective Signal of Teacher Quality?[R/OL]
43 Sanders,W.L.,Ashton,J.J.and Wright,S.P.(2005).Comparison of the Effects of NBPTS Certified Teachers with Other Teachers on the Rate of Student Academic Progress[R/OL]
44 Cynthia D.Prince(2002).Higher Pay in Hard-to-Staff Schools:The Case for Financial Incentives[R/OL]
45 Heather G.Peske & Kati Haycock(2006).Teaching Inequality棗 How Poor and Minority Students Are Shortchanged on Teacher Quality[R/OL]
46 Title One Program.美国联邦政府的最大的一项专项教育拨款计划,用于低收入的学区为学习成绩不佳的学生提供教学帮助,使低收入家庭的孩子不因其家庭贫穷而降低学业成绩。全美大约有三分之二的小学可得到此项拨款。
47 Useem,E.and Farley,E.(2004).Philadelphia抯Teacher Hiring and School Assignment Practices:Comparisons with Other Districts[R/OL]
48 Hanushek,E.A.,Kain,J.E,and Rivkin,S.G.(2004).Why Public Schools Lose Teachers?[R/OL]
49 Cynthia D.Prince(2002).Higher Pay in Hard-to-Staff Schools:The Case for Financial lncentives[R/OL]
50 Goldhaber,Dan.(2006).Teacher Pay Reforms棗 The Political Implications of Recent Research[R/OL].
1 本图数据中教师工资指数以1966年教师工资=100来计算。
2 郭朝红(2006).《影响教师政策的中介组织》[M].天津:天津教育出版社.p35
3 1966-2005年教师平均工资、居民消费价格指数及人均国内生产总值数据来源于ATF Research and Information Services Department.Survey and Analysis of Teacher Salary Trends 2005
4 2006年教师平均工资数据来源:NEA.Rankings of the Sates 2006 and Estimates of School Statistics 2007(该数据实为公立学校代课教师工资,虽略高于教师平均工资但与之相差不到1%,因此这里借用这一数据来展示工资的变化趋势)
5 2006年CPI数据来源:Bureau of Labor Statistics,http://www.bls.gov/cpi/
6 2006年人均国内生产总值数据来源:Econ Stats,http://www.econstats.com/gdp/gdp__q1.htm
7 数据来源同图 3.1
8 此表摘自:ATF Research and Information Services Department(2007).Survey and Analysis of Teacher Salary Trends 2005[R/OL]。数据来源:Nalional Survey of Professional,Administrative,Technical and Clerical Pay,U.S.Department of Labor:National Compensation Survey.U.S.Department of Labor;American Association of University Professors,Acadamie;AFT,数年来各州教育部民意调查。
9 Allegretto,Sylvia A.,Sean P.Corcoran and Lawrence Mishel(2004).How Does Teacher Pay Compare?Methodological Challenges and Answers[R/OL]
10 Goldhaber,Dan(2006).Teacher Pay Reforms棗 The Political Implications of Recent Research[R/OL]
11 参见:Robert 1.Cusick(2007).Who are Government Workers and How can Management Improve Worker Ethical Sensitivity[R/OL]
12 Ballou,D.and Podgursky,M.(1997).Teacher Pay and Teacher Quality[R/OL]
13 Allegretto,Sylvia A.,Sean P.Corcoran and Lawrence Mishel(2004).How Does Teacher Pay Compare?Methodological Challenges and Answers[R/OL]
14 参见ATF Research and Information Services Department.Survey and Analysis of Teacher Salary Trends 2005[R/OL]
15 原始数据来源:ATF Research and Information Services Department.Survey and Analysis of Teacher Salary Trends 2005[R/OL];且所有的教师和政府工作人员工资均换算为2005年的通货膨胀率来比较。
16 数据来源:美国大专院校与雇主协会1995-2005统计数据http://www.naceweb.org/;美国教师联合会教师工资1995-2005统计数据http://www.aft.org/pubs-reports/index.htm。
17 National Association of Colleges and Employers(2006).Salary Survey September 2006.A Study of 2005-06Beginning Offers[J].Winter2006.Vol.45,Issue 1.p137-150
18参见ATF Research and Information Services Department(2005).Survey and Analysis of Teacher Salary Trends 2005[R/OL]
19 National Commission on Teaching and America抯Future(2003).No Dream Denied:A Pledge to America抯 Children[R/OL]
20 Richard M.Ingersoll(2003).Is There Really a Teacher Shortage?[R/OL]
21 Robin R.Henke,Xianglei Chen,and Sonya Gels(2000).Progress through the Teacher Pipeline:1992-93College Graduates and Elementary/ Secondary School Teaching as of 1997[R/OL]
22 National Center for Education Statistics(2004).Teacher Attrition and Mobility:Results from the Teacher Follow-up Survey.2000-01[R/OL]
23 National Commission on Teaching and America抯Future(2003).No Dream Denied:A Pledge to America抯 Children[R/OL].文中的数据显示经济条件较好的学校教师高职率达12.9%,而贫困学校的这个比例达到20%。
24 Richard M.Ingersoll(2003),Is There Really a Teacher Shortage?[R/OL]
25 数据来源:Alliance For Excellent Education(2005).Teacher Attrition:A Costly Loss to the Nation and to the States[R/OL]
26 Goldhaber,D.and Liu,A.(2003).Occupational Choices and the Academic Proficiency of the Teacher Workforce[R/OL]
27 Hoxby,C.M.and Leigh,A.(2005).Wage Distortion:Why America抯Top Female College Graduates Aren(?)Teaching[R/OL]
28 资料来源:Public Agenda(2000).A Sense of Calling:Who Teaches and Why?[DB/OL]
29 MetLife,Inc.(2006),The MetLife Survey of the American Teacher 2006:Expectations and Experience [R/OL]
30 MetLife,Inc,(2006).The MetLife Survey of the American Teacher 2006:Expectotions and Experiences [R/OL]
31 PASSHE Research Office(2004).The Fall 2004 Freshman Survey:A Profile of Pennsylvania State System of Higher Education Freshmen[R/OL]
32大学一年级有从事教师工作意愿的学生比例数据来源:ATF Research and Information Services Department (2005).Survey and Analysis of Teacher Salary Trends 2004[R/OL];1976-2004年教师平均工资数据来源:ATF Research and Information Services Department(2007).Survey and Analysis of Teacher Salary Trends 2005[R/OL]。
33 相关分析和回归分析分析都是对客观事物数量依存关系的分析。只有存在相关关系的变量才能进一步进行回归分析,且相关程度越高,回归测定的结果愈可靠。但是相关分析是研究变量之间的共变关系,变量见不分主或从、因或果:而回归分析则是在控制或给定一个或几个变量条件下观察对应的某一变量的变化。本研究由此计算教师工资与有意愿从事教师工作的大学新生比例之间的依存关系。
34 当0＜∣r∣≤0.3为微弱相关;当0.3＜∣r∣≤0.5为低度相关;当0＜∣r∣≤0.8为显著相关:0.3＜∣r∣＜1为高度相关。
35 回归模型是对具有相关关系的变量建立一个数学方程,也就是回归分析。描述变量之间的变动关系,通过控制或给定自变量的数值来估计或预测因变量可能的数值。
1 Sclafani.S.,and Tucker,M.S.(2006).Teacher and principal compensation An international Review[R/OL]
2 Ballou,D.and Podgursky,M.(1997).Teacher Pay and Teacher Quality[R/OL]
3 Community Training and Assistance Center(2004).Catalyst for Change:Pay for Performance in Denver Final Report[R/OL]
4 Texas Education Agency(2006).Governor抯Educator Excellence Award Grant--Texas Educator Excellence Grant 2006-2007[R/OL]
5 相关信息可参见:http://www.talentedteachers.org/。
1 Murnane,Richard J.and Cohen,David.K.(1986).Merit Pay and the Evaluation Problem:Why Most Merit Pay Plans Fail and a Few Survive[J].Harvard Education Review.Vol56,No1.p1? 7
2 Koretz,D.M.(2002).Limitations in the Use of Achievement Tests as Measures of Educators?Productivity [J].The Journal of Human Resources.Vol.37,No.4.p752-777
3 Murnane,Richard J.and Cohen,David.K.(1986).Merit Pay and the Evaluation Problem:Why Most Merit Pay Plans Fail and a Few Survive[J].Harvard Education Review.Vol.56,No.1.p 1? 7.
4 Moehlman,A.B.(1927).Public School Finance.转引自Michael J.Podgursky and Matthew G.Springer (2007).Teacher Performance Pay:A Review[J].Journal of Policy Analysis and Management.Vol.26,No.4.p 909-949
5 McCaffrey,D.F.,Lockwood,J.R.,Koretz,D.,Louis,T.A.,and Hamilton,L.S.(2004).Models for Value-Added Modeling of Teacher Effects[R/OL]
6 MeCaffrey,D.F.and Hamilton,L.S.(2007).Value-Added Assessment in Practice:Lessons from the Pennsylvania Value-Added System Pilot Project[R/OL]
7 Ballou,D.,Sanders,W.,and Wright.P.(2004).Controlling for Student Background in Value-Added Assessment of Teachers[J].Journal of Educational and Behavioral Statistics.Vol.29,No.1.p 37-66
8 相关文献均提到了英格兰和威尔士的一些学者做过这类的研究,如 Adnett,N.(2003).Reforming Teachers?Pay:Incentive Payments,Collegiate Ethos and UK Policy[J].Cambridge Journal of Economies.Vol.27.No.1.p145-157
9 Prendergast,C.(1999).The Provision of Incentives in Firm[J].Journal of Economic Literature.Vol.37,No.1.p7-63
10 Michael J.Podgursky and Matthew G.Springer(2007).Teacher Performance Pay:A Review[J].Journal of Policy Analysis and Management.Vol.26,No.4.p 909-949
11 详见NCPI的网站:http://performanceincentives.org/
12 Dixit,A.(2002).Incentives and Organizations in the Public Sector:An Interpretative Review[J].Journal of Human Resources.Vol.37,No.4.p696-727
13 Jacob,B.,and Levitt,S.(2003).Rotten Apples:An Investigation of the Prevalence and Predictors of Teacher Cheating.Quarterly Journal of Economics[R/OL]
14 Jacob,B.,and Levitt,S.(2003).Rotten Apples:An Investigation of the Prevalence and Predictors of Teacher Cheating.Quarterly Journal of Economics[R/OL]
15 Dixit,A.(2002).Incentives and Organizalions in the Public Sector:An Interpretative Review[J].Journal of Human Resources.Vol.37,No.4.p.719,认为评估问题提做了这样一个简洁的评估,“总结起来,公立学校教育系统任务是多样化的、多人负责的、多周期的、目标空泛,无法观察目标的近乎垄断的组织”
16 美国公立学校教师绩效工资只占基本工资2%,而私立学校中这个比例要将近10%。
17 Ballou,D.(2001).Pay for performance in public and private schools[J].Economics of Education Review,Vol.20,No.1.p51? 1
1 Goldhaber,Dan(2006).Teacher Pay Reforms棗 The Political Implications of Recent Research[R/OL]
2 James W.Guthrie(ed.)(2003).Enclopedia of Education[M].New York:Maemillan.p2479
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5 U.S.Department of Labor(2006),Education and Community and Social Services[R/OL]
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9 NEA(2006).The 2006 NEA Handbook[DB/OL]
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11 参见AFT网站:Professional Compensation[DB/OL].http://www.aft.org/topics/teacher-quality/comp.htm
12 参见AFT网站:Professional Compensation[DB/OL].http://www.aft.org/topics/teacher-quality/comp.htm
13 Kate Bronfenbrenner(2005).The Future of Organized Labor in the U.S.:Reinventing Trade Unionism for the 21" Century[R/OL]
14 Julia Koppich(2005).Addressing Teacher Quality Through Induction,Professional Compensation,and Evaluation:The Effects on Labor-Management Relations[J].Educational Policy.Vol.19,No.1.p91
15 Public Agenda(2000).A Sense of Calling:Who Teaches and Why?[DB/OL]
16 Public Agenda(2003).Stand by Me:What Teachers Really Think about Unions,Merit Pay and Other Professional Matters[DB/OL]
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18 Ballou,D.and Podgursky,M.(1993).Teachers? Attitudes toward Merit Pay:Examining Conventional Wisdom[J].Industrial and Labor Relations Review.Vol.47,No.1.p 50-61.
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