还原性土壤中镉活性变化及其制约机理研究
摘要
近年来,面对全球土壤Cd污染日益严重的现状,国内外的许多专家和学者对土壤中Cd的迁移转化进行了大量的探索和研究。但是,随着研究范围的扩大和方法的改进,有关淹水土壤中Cd活性变化及其制约机理的研究常常出现截然不同甚至相反的报道。在这些报道中,尽管不同的专家和学者对Cd活性的升高和降低都给出了合理的解释,但是,由于淹水土壤类型的繁多、土壤自身性质的复杂性、外界影响因素的多样性以及研究手段的局限性,至今对淹水土壤中Cd活性的变化及其制约机理仍未给出较为直观的证据。
在淹水土壤中,铁是主要的氧化还原体系之一。铁的氧化还原过程不仅影响着土壤的表面化学性质,而且还带动着其它氧化还原敏感性元素的氧化还原循环。相比较而言,Cd为非变价元素,不参与氧化还原反应。然而,淹水土壤中因氧化还原过程所导致的一系列物理、化学和生物学方面的变化将直接或间接地影响Cd在土壤中的吸附与解吸、沉淀(包括共沉淀)与溶解以及配位与螯合。因此,还原条件下土壤中铁的氧化还原过程很可能是影响Cd活性变化的重要因素。基于这方面的考虑,本文以中国南方两种土壤——红壤和潮黄土为例,首先通过静置培养试验初步研究了淹水和非淹水条件下土壤中Cd的形态转化及其与CAI(Cadmium-availability index,Cd的生物有效性指标)的关系；进而通过淹水通N2试验深入探讨了还原条件下Fe(Ⅱ)的溶解度的变化及其控制矿物；然后在不同的pH和pe+pH值范围内对Cd的溶解度的变化及其制约机理进行深入研究；最后基于土壤固相中Cd形态转化与Fe形态转化之间的关系进一步揭示铁矿物还原溶解对Cd形态转化影响的可能的机理。本研究不仅首次从淹水后土壤的pH和pe+pH值的演变中明确了Cd活性升高和降低的机理,而且更重要的是基于铁的氧化还原过程揭示了淹水土壤中Cd活性变化的制约机理。其研究的成果不仅对淹水土壤的物理化学理论的拓展,还是对Cd污染土壤的修复和治理都有着十分重要的意义。本研究主要的结果如下：
1)不论红壤还是潮黄土,与非淹水相比,淹水不仅减小了CAI,而且还减小了交换态Cd的含量、增大了碳酸盐结合态Cd和铁锰氧化物结合态Cd的含量。逐步线性回归分析表明,淹水后红壤和潮黄土中交换态Cd的含量与CAI呈显著正相关关系、与铁锰氧化物结合态Cd的含量呈显著负相关关系。由此推测,淹水后红壤和潮黄土中Cd由交换态向铁锰氧化物结合态的转化是导致CAI减小的主要原因。
2)淹水通N：过程增大了红壤和潮黄土中Fe(Ⅱ)的溶解度。对于红壤,当pH值由5.51升高至5.65、pe+pH值由9.58下降至8.60时,悬液中Fe(Ⅱ)的溶解度由Fe3O4(magnetite)控制；而当pH值由5.70升高至5.82、pe+pH值由8.28下降至7.52时,悬液中Fe(Ⅱ)的溶解度由γ-Fe2O3(maghemite)控制。然而,对于潮黄土,当pH值在7.52～7.56之间、pe+pH值在8.93～8.47之间保持稳定时,Fe3(OH)8(ferrosic hydroxide)控制着悬液中Fe(Ⅱ)的溶解度。
3)随着还原程度逐渐增强,红壤中Cd的溶解度持续增大,而潮黄土中Cd的溶解度先增大后减小。并且.在不同的pH和pe+pH值范围内,Cd的溶解度的制约机理不同。对于红壤,当pH值从5.61下降至5.51、pe+pH值从11.09下降至9.58时,pH值的下降、锰矿物的还原溶解以及DOC、A13+、K+和Mg2+对土壤表面吸附点位的竞争增大了Cd的溶解度；而当pH值从5.51升高至5.82、pe+pH值从8.91下降至7.52时,DOC的分解、Fe3O44(magnetite)和γ-Fe2O3(maghemite)的还原溶解以及K+、Mg2+对土壤表面吸附点位的竞争是Cd的溶解度增大的重要原因。对于潮黄土，当pe+pH值从11.29下降至9.10时,溶液中Ca2+、K+、Mg2+和Na+对土壤表面吸附点位的竞争和DOC与Cd2+的螯合是Cd的溶解度增大的重要原因；而当pe+pH值在8.93～8.47之间保持稳定时,Cd的溶解度减小的原因在于DOC的分解、新形成的铁矿物表面和碳酸盐表面对Cd2+的吸附。逐步线性回归分析的结果表明：红壤中Cd的溶解度增大的主要原因在于pH值的下降和Fe3O4(magnetite),γ-Fe2O3(magnetite)的还原溶解；而潮黄土中Cd的溶解度先增大后减小的主要原因在于DOC的消长。
4)随着还原程度逐渐增强,红壤和潮黄土的固相中Cd和Fe的形态都出现了再分配。并且,Cd形态的再分配与Fe形态的再分配存在着密切的关系,这种关系反映了铁矿物还原溶解对土壤固相中Cd形态转化影响的可能的机理：对于红壤,Fe3O4(magnetite)和y-Fe2O3(maghemite)的还原溶解对自身吸附的Cd的释放及其对土壤固相吸附能力的改变导致了Cd由铁锰氧化物结合态向碳酸盐结合态转化；但是,对于潮黄土Fe3(OH)8(ferrosic hydroxide)的还原溶解一方面促进了Fe在碳酸盐表面的吸附以致碳酸盐对Cd的吸附能力增强,另一方面也导致了新的铁矿物表面的形成致使自身对Cd的吸附容量增大,这两方面综合作用的结果则导致了Cd由交换态向碳酸盐结合态和铁锰氧化物结合态转化。
Cadmium contamination in soil has been a world-wide problem in decades. Cadmium activity may vary differently in the submerged soils but the mechanisms underlying these variations have been remained conflicting and ambiguous although numerous studies have been conducted to determine the mobility and transformation of Cd in the past. Although some different and reasonable mechanisms have been concluded in the previous literatures in order to explain the increase or decrease of Cd activity in submerged soils, some more restricted visual evidences have not been provided up to now because of the variety of the submerged soil types, the complexity of the characteristics of the submerged soils, the diversity of the external factors and the limitations of the research techniques.
In the submerged soils.the iron system is one of the main redox systems. The redox process of iron not only influences the changes in soil surface characteristics, but also brings along the other redox-sensitive elements'redox cycles. In comparison, the change in the valence state as a result of Eh changes and the redox reaction in natural submerged soils are not observed for Cd. Nevertheless, a series of physical, chemical and biological changes as a result of the redox processes in submerged soils will influence directly or indirectly the mobility and transformation of Cd, including adsorption-desorption, precipitation (or co-precipitation)-dissolution, coordination and chelation. Therefore, the redox process of iron under the reductive conditions is likely to be an important factor affecting the activity of Cd. Based on these considerations, two typical soils from the southern China, a red soil and a fluvo-aquic soil, were sampled to investigate the mobility and transformation of Cd under the reductive conditions.
Firstly, the relationship between the different fractions of Cd among soil solid phases and the CAI (Cadmium-availability index) after flooding was examined through the static incubation experiment. Secondly, the continuous N2bubbling experiment was conducted to study the variations of Cd activity and investigate the mechanisms underlying these variations within the different ranges of pH and pe+pH values, as well as the minerals controlling the solubility of Fe (Ⅱ). Finally. the possible mechanisms controlling the transformation of Cd among several different soil solid phases were elucidated on the basis of the relationship between the Fe distribution and the Cd distribution. On one hand, the mechanisms controlling the solubility of Cd were investigated and elucidated according to the different ranges of pH and pe+pH values. On the other hand, the mechanisms controlling the transformation among the soil solid phases of Cd were speculated through the iron-based redox processes for the first time. Therefore, the results of this study not only extend the basic theory of soil chemistry, but also are of great significance for the remediation of the Cd contaminated soil. The major experimental results were summarized below:
1) Compared to nonflooding. flooding of the red and fluvo-aquic soils not only decreased the CAI, but also decreased the exchangeable Cd concentration and increased the carbonate-and Fe-Mn oxides-bound Cd concentrations significantly. Stepwise linear regression analysis for the CAI and the different fractions of Cd among solid phases of the flooded red and fluvo-aquic soils showed that the exchangeable Cd concentration correlated positively with the CAI and did negatively with the Fe-Mn oxides-bound Cd concentration, respectively, indicating that the Cd transformation from the exchangeable fraction to the Fe-Mn oxides-bound fraction was the main reason for the CAI decrease after flooding of the red and fluvo-aquic soils.
2) The Fe (Ⅱ) solubility increased during the continuous N2bubbling experiment of the red or fluvo-aquic soil. For the red soil, the reductive dissolution of Fe3O4(magnetite) took place when pH increased from5.51to5.65and pe+pH decreased from9.58to8.60, whereas the reductive dissolution of γ-Fe2O3(maghemite) did when pH increased from5.70to5.82and pe+pH decreased from8.28to7.52. However, for the fluvo-aquic soil, the Fe3(OH)8(ferrosic hydroxide) begun to dissolve reductively when pH fluctuated between7.52and7.56and pe+pH did between8.93-8.47.
3) As the degree of reduction increased, the solubility of Cd in the red soil increased continuously, while in the fluvo-aquic soil increased first and then decreased. More importantly, whether the red soil or the fluvo-aquic soil, the mechanisms controlling the Cd solubility were different within the different ranges of pH and pe+pH values. For the red soil, the decrease of pH. the reductive dissolution of Mn minerals and the competitive adsorption of DOC,Al3+, K+and Mg2+for the soil surface adsorptive positions led to the increase of the Cd solubility when pH decreased from5.61to5.51and pe+pH did from11.09to9.67, whereas the decomposition of DOC. the reductive dissolutions of Fe3O4(magnetite),γ-Fe2O3(maghemite) and Mn minerals and the competitive adsorptions of Mg2+and K+for the soil surface adsorptive positions accelerated the release of Cd to the soil solution when pH increased from5.51to5.82and pe+pH decreased from8.91to7.52. In comparison, the competitive adsorption of Ca2+, K+, Mg2+and Na+for the soil surface adsorptive positions and the chelation of DOC with Cd2+increased the solubility of Cd when pe+pH decreased from11.29to9.10, whereas the solubility of Cd decreased due to the decomposition of DOC and the adsorption of Cd2+onto the surfaces of neoformed Fe and carbonates minerals when pe+pH fluctuated between8.93-8.47. The results of stepwise linear regression analysis showed the decrease of pH and the reductive dissolutions of Fe3O4(magnetite) and γ-Fe2O3(maghemite) were the major mechanisms leading to the increase of Cd solubility in the red soil, whereas the increase and decrease of Cd solubility in the fluvo-aquic soil were primarily due to the release and decomposition of DOC.
4) Whether in the red soil or the fluvo-aquic soil, the Fe redistribution and the Cd redistribution among the soil solid phases took place when soil became more reducing. And. the mechanisms controlling the transformation of Cd among several chemical fractions were speculated on the basis of the relationship between the Fe redistribution and the Cd redistribution. For the red soil, the reductive dissolutions of Fe3O4(magnetite) and γ-Fe2O3(maghemite) and their impacts on the soil surface chemical properties resulted in the transformation of Cd from the Fe-Mn oxides-bound fraction to the carbonate-bound fraction. However, for the fluvo-aquic soil, the readsorptions of Cd onto the carbonates surface covered by Fe resulting from the reductive dissolution of Fe3(OH)8(ferrosic hydroxide) and onto the neoformed surfaces of Fe minerals induced the transformation of Cd from the exchangeable fraction to the carbonate-and Fe-Mn oxides-bound fractions.
在淹水土壤中,铁是主要的氧化还原体系之一。铁的氧化还原过程不仅影响着土壤的表面化学性质,而且还带动着其它氧化还原敏感性元素的氧化还原循环。相比较而言,Cd为非变价元素,不参与氧化还原反应。然而,淹水土壤中因氧化还原过程所导致的一系列物理、化学和生物学方面的变化将直接或间接地影响Cd在土壤中的吸附与解吸、沉淀(包括共沉淀)与溶解以及配位与螯合。因此,还原条件下土壤中铁的氧化还原过程很可能是影响Cd活性变化的重要因素。基于这方面的考虑,本文以中国南方两种土壤——红壤和潮黄土为例,首先通过静置培养试验初步研究了淹水和非淹水条件下土壤中Cd的形态转化及其与CAI(Cadmium-availability index,Cd的生物有效性指标)的关系；进而通过淹水通N2试验深入探讨了还原条件下Fe(Ⅱ)的溶解度的变化及其控制矿物；然后在不同的pH和pe+pH值范围内对Cd的溶解度的变化及其制约机理进行深入研究；最后基于土壤固相中Cd形态转化与Fe形态转化之间的关系进一步揭示铁矿物还原溶解对Cd形态转化影响的可能的机理。本研究不仅首次从淹水后土壤的pH和pe+pH值的演变中明确了Cd活性升高和降低的机理,而且更重要的是基于铁的氧化还原过程揭示了淹水土壤中Cd活性变化的制约机理。其研究的成果不仅对淹水土壤的物理化学理论的拓展,还是对Cd污染土壤的修复和治理都有着十分重要的意义。本研究主要的结果如下：
1)不论红壤还是潮黄土,与非淹水相比,淹水不仅减小了CAI,而且还减小了交换态Cd的含量、增大了碳酸盐结合态Cd和铁锰氧化物结合态Cd的含量。逐步线性回归分析表明,淹水后红壤和潮黄土中交换态Cd的含量与CAI呈显著正相关关系、与铁锰氧化物结合态Cd的含量呈显著负相关关系。由此推测,淹水后红壤和潮黄土中Cd由交换态向铁锰氧化物结合态的转化是导致CAI减小的主要原因。
2)淹水通N：过程增大了红壤和潮黄土中Fe(Ⅱ)的溶解度。对于红壤,当pH值由5.51升高至5.65、pe+pH值由9.58下降至8.60时,悬液中Fe(Ⅱ)的溶解度由Fe3O4(magnetite)控制；而当pH值由5.70升高至5.82、pe+pH值由8.28下降至7.52时,悬液中Fe(Ⅱ)的溶解度由γ-Fe2O3(maghemite)控制。然而,对于潮黄土,当pH值在7.52～7.56之间、pe+pH值在8.93～8.47之间保持稳定时,Fe3(OH)8(ferrosic hydroxide)控制着悬液中Fe(Ⅱ)的溶解度。
3)随着还原程度逐渐增强,红壤中Cd的溶解度持续增大,而潮黄土中Cd的溶解度先增大后减小。并且.在不同的pH和pe+pH值范围内,Cd的溶解度的制约机理不同。对于红壤,当pH值从5.61下降至5.51、pe+pH值从11.09下降至9.58时,pH值的下降、锰矿物的还原溶解以及DOC、A13+、K+和Mg2+对土壤表面吸附点位的竞争增大了Cd的溶解度；而当pH值从5.51升高至5.82、pe+pH值从8.91下降至7.52时,DOC的分解、Fe3O44(magnetite)和γ-Fe2O3(maghemite)的还原溶解以及K+、Mg2+对土壤表面吸附点位的竞争是Cd的溶解度增大的重要原因。对于潮黄土，当pe+pH值从11.29下降至9.10时,溶液中Ca2+、K+、Mg2+和Na+对土壤表面吸附点位的竞争和DOC与Cd2+的螯合是Cd的溶解度增大的重要原因；而当pe+pH值在8.93～8.47之间保持稳定时,Cd的溶解度减小的原因在于DOC的分解、新形成的铁矿物表面和碳酸盐表面对Cd2+的吸附。逐步线性回归分析的结果表明：红壤中Cd的溶解度增大的主要原因在于pH值的下降和Fe3O4(magnetite),γ-Fe2O3(magnetite)的还原溶解；而潮黄土中Cd的溶解度先增大后减小的主要原因在于DOC的消长。
4)随着还原程度逐渐增强,红壤和潮黄土的固相中Cd和Fe的形态都出现了再分配。并且,Cd形态的再分配与Fe形态的再分配存在着密切的关系,这种关系反映了铁矿物还原溶解对土壤固相中Cd形态转化影响的可能的机理：对于红壤,Fe3O4(magnetite)和y-Fe2O3(maghemite)的还原溶解对自身吸附的Cd的释放及其对土壤固相吸附能力的改变导致了Cd由铁锰氧化物结合态向碳酸盐结合态转化；但是,对于潮黄土Fe3(OH)8(ferrosic hydroxide)的还原溶解一方面促进了Fe在碳酸盐表面的吸附以致碳酸盐对Cd的吸附能力增强,另一方面也导致了新的铁矿物表面的形成致使自身对Cd的吸附容量增大,这两方面综合作用的结果则导致了Cd由交换态向碳酸盐结合态和铁锰氧化物结合态转化。
Cadmium contamination in soil has been a world-wide problem in decades. Cadmium activity may vary differently in the submerged soils but the mechanisms underlying these variations have been remained conflicting and ambiguous although numerous studies have been conducted to determine the mobility and transformation of Cd in the past. Although some different and reasonable mechanisms have been concluded in the previous literatures in order to explain the increase or decrease of Cd activity in submerged soils, some more restricted visual evidences have not been provided up to now because of the variety of the submerged soil types, the complexity of the characteristics of the submerged soils, the diversity of the external factors and the limitations of the research techniques.
In the submerged soils.the iron system is one of the main redox systems. The redox process of iron not only influences the changes in soil surface characteristics, but also brings along the other redox-sensitive elements'redox cycles. In comparison, the change in the valence state as a result of Eh changes and the redox reaction in natural submerged soils are not observed for Cd. Nevertheless, a series of physical, chemical and biological changes as a result of the redox processes in submerged soils will influence directly or indirectly the mobility and transformation of Cd, including adsorption-desorption, precipitation (or co-precipitation)-dissolution, coordination and chelation. Therefore, the redox process of iron under the reductive conditions is likely to be an important factor affecting the activity of Cd. Based on these considerations, two typical soils from the southern China, a red soil and a fluvo-aquic soil, were sampled to investigate the mobility and transformation of Cd under the reductive conditions.
Firstly, the relationship between the different fractions of Cd among soil solid phases and the CAI (Cadmium-availability index) after flooding was examined through the static incubation experiment. Secondly, the continuous N2bubbling experiment was conducted to study the variations of Cd activity and investigate the mechanisms underlying these variations within the different ranges of pH and pe+pH values, as well as the minerals controlling the solubility of Fe (Ⅱ). Finally. the possible mechanisms controlling the transformation of Cd among several different soil solid phases were elucidated on the basis of the relationship between the Fe distribution and the Cd distribution. On one hand, the mechanisms controlling the solubility of Cd were investigated and elucidated according to the different ranges of pH and pe+pH values. On the other hand, the mechanisms controlling the transformation among the soil solid phases of Cd were speculated through the iron-based redox processes for the first time. Therefore, the results of this study not only extend the basic theory of soil chemistry, but also are of great significance for the remediation of the Cd contaminated soil. The major experimental results were summarized below:
1) Compared to nonflooding. flooding of the red and fluvo-aquic soils not only decreased the CAI, but also decreased the exchangeable Cd concentration and increased the carbonate-and Fe-Mn oxides-bound Cd concentrations significantly. Stepwise linear regression analysis for the CAI and the different fractions of Cd among solid phases of the flooded red and fluvo-aquic soils showed that the exchangeable Cd concentration correlated positively with the CAI and did negatively with the Fe-Mn oxides-bound Cd concentration, respectively, indicating that the Cd transformation from the exchangeable fraction to the Fe-Mn oxides-bound fraction was the main reason for the CAI decrease after flooding of the red and fluvo-aquic soils.
2) The Fe (Ⅱ) solubility increased during the continuous N2bubbling experiment of the red or fluvo-aquic soil. For the red soil, the reductive dissolution of Fe3O4(magnetite) took place when pH increased from5.51to5.65and pe+pH decreased from9.58to8.60, whereas the reductive dissolution of γ-Fe2O3(maghemite) did when pH increased from5.70to5.82and pe+pH decreased from8.28to7.52. However, for the fluvo-aquic soil, the Fe3(OH)8(ferrosic hydroxide) begun to dissolve reductively when pH fluctuated between7.52and7.56and pe+pH did between8.93-8.47.
3) As the degree of reduction increased, the solubility of Cd in the red soil increased continuously, while in the fluvo-aquic soil increased first and then decreased. More importantly, whether the red soil or the fluvo-aquic soil, the mechanisms controlling the Cd solubility were different within the different ranges of pH and pe+pH values. For the red soil, the decrease of pH. the reductive dissolution of Mn minerals and the competitive adsorption of DOC,Al3+, K+and Mg2+for the soil surface adsorptive positions led to the increase of the Cd solubility when pH decreased from5.61to5.51and pe+pH did from11.09to9.67, whereas the decomposition of DOC. the reductive dissolutions of Fe3O4(magnetite),γ-Fe2O3(maghemite) and Mn minerals and the competitive adsorptions of Mg2+and K+for the soil surface adsorptive positions accelerated the release of Cd to the soil solution when pH increased from5.51to5.82and pe+pH decreased from8.91to7.52. In comparison, the competitive adsorption of Ca2+, K+, Mg2+and Na+for the soil surface adsorptive positions and the chelation of DOC with Cd2+increased the solubility of Cd when pe+pH decreased from11.29to9.10, whereas the solubility of Cd decreased due to the decomposition of DOC and the adsorption of Cd2+onto the surfaces of neoformed Fe and carbonates minerals when pe+pH fluctuated between8.93-8.47. The results of stepwise linear regression analysis showed the decrease of pH and the reductive dissolutions of Fe3O4(magnetite) and γ-Fe2O3(maghemite) were the major mechanisms leading to the increase of Cd solubility in the red soil, whereas the increase and decrease of Cd solubility in the fluvo-aquic soil were primarily due to the release and decomposition of DOC.
4) Whether in the red soil or the fluvo-aquic soil, the Fe redistribution and the Cd redistribution among the soil solid phases took place when soil became more reducing. And. the mechanisms controlling the transformation of Cd among several chemical fractions were speculated on the basis of the relationship between the Fe redistribution and the Cd redistribution. For the red soil, the reductive dissolutions of Fe3O4(magnetite) and γ-Fe2O3(maghemite) and their impacts on the soil surface chemical properties resulted in the transformation of Cd from the Fe-Mn oxides-bound fraction to the carbonate-bound fraction. However, for the fluvo-aquic soil, the readsorptions of Cd onto the carbonates surface covered by Fe resulting from the reductive dissolution of Fe3(OH)8(ferrosic hydroxide) and onto the neoformed surfaces of Fe minerals induced the transformation of Cd from the exchangeable fraction to the carbonate-and Fe-Mn oxides-bound fractions.
引文
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