几种常见氧化锰矿物的电化学性质研究
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摘要
土壤、海洋及其湖泊沉积物中含有大量锰结核,氧化锰矿物是其主要组成成分之一,其资源属性日益受到关注。深入开展研究氧化锰矿物的性质,促进氧化锰矿物资源的开发与利用具有重要的理论和实践意义。氧化锰矿物的种类多种多样,按空间结构大致可分为一维隧道、二维层状以及三维网状结构；因其资源丰富、价格低廉、环境友好,在锂离子二次电池正极材料、超级电容器、催化剂、吸附剂、磁性材料以及核废料固定材料等方面有着重要的应用前景。
锂离子二次电池是以嵌入锂化合物作为正、负极材料的最新一代高比能蓄电池。它具有电池电压高、比能量大、循环寿命长、自放电小以及有利于环保等优点。近年来,锂离子蓄电池在各方面均在不断改进。负极与电解质进步较快,但作为锂离子电池的重要组成部分的正极材料性能已经成为制约其大规模推广应用的瓶颈,是进一步提高电池性能、降低成本的关键。另一方面,锂-锰正极材料的电池性能与合成方法有很大关系,例如采用传统高温固相法能耗大、周期长,合成的正极材料晶粒和颗粒的可调控性差,团聚现象比较严重,电池性能较差且不稳定。近年来,针对这些问题,虽然进行了广泛的研究,但一直没有得到很好的解决,所以寻找合适的合成技术及方法来制备性能优良、成本低廉的正极材料仍是目前研究的热点、难点之一。
本论文主要从提高氧化锰正极材料的放电容量、循环稳定性以及降低锂离子电池的生产成本出发,研究了几种常见的氧化锰矿物(钙锰矿、锰钾矿和水钠锰矿)的制备方法以及通过掺杂对氧化锰矿物改性,并采用X-射线衍射(XRD)、Rietveld结构精修、热重分析(TGA)、成分分析、比表面测试、X-射线光电子能谱(XPS)、扫描电镜(SEM)以及透射电镜(TEM)等测试手段对合成材料进行物化表征以及电化学性能测试,考察其在锂离子电池中的应用。取得的主要结果如下：
1.以掺钴水钠锰矿为前驱物,采用常压回流条件下的一步氧化法合成制备了—系列掺钴不同浓度的钙锰矿,对其晶胞参数、水分含量、Mn氧化度、以及晶体形貌(包括颗粒的尺寸)等性质表征表明,样品中钴离子均为+3价,Rietveld结构精修表明掺杂的钴离子替代了Mn2和Mn4两个等效位点,金属离子和氧离子的平均键长发生了系统改变；进一步的结合电化学分析表明,由于钻离子掺杂提高了钙锰矿晶体结构的稳定以及放电电压平台,掺钴钙锰矿的放电比容量和循环稳定性也得以改善。掺钴量在10-15%之间的钙锰矿电化学性能最好,其中Tod-Co10%电极的首次放电比容量为219mAh/g,经过100周充放电循环后放电比容量仍有102mAh/g;粉末微电极结合循环伏安扫描进一步辅证了钴离子掺杂能显著提高钙锰矿的电化学性能。
2.采用新兴的微波加热法制备了不同掺钴浓度的钙锰矿。与回流法不同的是：1)微波加热制备的样品衍射峰峰强较大,半峰宽较窄,其结晶度均较好；2)Mn氧化度随钴掺杂量的增加而略有增加；3)Tod-Co20%片状颗粒最小,钴掺杂量最高,首次放电容量最低,其循环稳定性最好,充放电的库仑效率也高。与回流法相同的是：1)钙锰矿水分含量和晶胞体积随掺钴量的增加而增加；2)钙锰矿主要由互成1200的片状三连晶组成,片状颗粒有减小的趋势,并且团聚成近似球状的二次颗粒；3)掺钴钙锰矿的放电比容量和循环稳定性均比未掺杂的好。
3.采用3种不同合成方法(回流法、溶胶-凝胶法和高温煅烧法)均能制备出纯的锰钾矿。由于制备方法不同,3个样品的物理化学性质也相差较大。Cry-60和Cry-sol-gel两者的颗粒形貌差别较大,但电池性能较接近,前者的循环容量更好；Cry-calcine由煅烧合成,由于其水分含量低,晶胞体积小,表面积小,晶体颗粒较大,且尺寸大小不一和形貌不规则,以致于其循环容量最低。回流法合成的锰钾矿电池性能相对较好,Cry-80样品因具有适中的预处理温度、比表面积、水分含量和晶粒尺寸,其电池性能最好。并且所有回流法合成的锰钾矿电极经过50周循环以后隧道结构依然保持完好。
4.进一步通过钴离子掺杂在回流条件下制备了一系列掺钴不同浓度的锰钾矿,其晶胞体积随掺钴量的增加而减小,钴离子均为+3价,水分含量逐渐增加,其隧道水含量对电池的循环容量影响较大：300℃加热处理的锰钾矿隧道水脱出较多,充放电过程中隧道结构容易塌陷,其制备的电极整体放电性能较差；而140℃下隧道水大部分保留,起到支撑隧道的作用,Li+嵌入-脱出时隧道可以弹性地收缩,电极的循环稳定性较好；钴离子掺杂进一步提高了锰钾矿电极的循环稳定性,但掺杂量过大会降低嵌锂容量,所以,Cry-Co5%(140℃热处理)电极的放电性能最佳,其首次放电比容量高达254 mAh/g,50周循环后仍有138mAh/g。
5.以02作氧化剂在强碱条件下一步氧化不同比例的MnCl2和CoCl2混合液合成了掺钴不同浓度的水钠锰矿,研究了掺钴含量的变化对水钠锰矿的晶胞参数、晶粒大小、水分含量、比表面积、Mn氧化度、Co的价态、各种氧的化学态及比例以及晶体形貌(包括颗粒的尺寸)等性质的影响。结合热重和成分分析,通过改变水钠锰矿的热处理温度,得到了不同层间水含量的电极。恒流充放电方法分析这些电极的循环容量表明：未掺钴水钠锰矿放电容量衰减迅速,掺钻后水钠锰矿的循环稳定性都得到提高,其中掺钴10%的水钠锰矿循环稳定性最好,在适当热处理(130℃热处理4小时)后,脱去部分层间水,增加了Li+嵌入-脱出位点,剩余层间水又起到支撑层结构的作用,加之钴离子掺杂使Mn06八面体骨架更牢固。样品在20 mA/g电流密度下,充放电截止电压为2.0-3.8 V (vs. Li/Li+),其首次放电比容量高达224mAh/g,经过100周循环后还有115mAh/g。不同倍率的放电测试表明,由于其较大的比表面积,在高电流密度下也展示了较好的放电容量。
6.首次使用高锰酸钾、蔗糖和乙酸钴为原材料,采用溶胶-凝胶法通过控制乙酸钴的添加量合成了不同掺钴浓度的水钠锰矿,XRD结果表明所有样品主要成分为单斜结构的水钠锰矿,并含有极少量黑锰矿杂质,且随掺钻浓度的增加,黑锰矿的含量有所增加。溶胶-凝胶法合成的掺钴水钠锰矿表面有一层钝化膜,其电极的开路电压较低,电池内阻较大,所有供试样品首次放电比容量均较低,经过一周充电活化后,电极的放电比容量在第2周达到最大。随着掺钴浓度加大,水钠锰矿中杂质相黑锰矿的含量也逐渐增加,,导致电池性能恶化。脱去适量层间水的未掺杂水钠锰矿(130℃热处理4小时)中黑锰矿含量最低,其循环稳定性最好；循环伏安扫描表明,经过60周充放电循环后Bir-CoO%电极依然保持良好的电化学活性,其氧化还原峰对称性较好,峰电位相差小,峰电流几乎没有衰减。
Soils, the bottom of ocean and lake sediments contain large amounts of manganese nodules, of which manganese oxide minerals are the main component. The applications of manganese oxide in many fields are growing concerned. There is an important theoretical and practical significance for further investigating manganese oxide properties and promoting the development and resource use of manganese oxides. There are many types of manganese oxides, which can be divided into one-dimensional tunneled, two-dimensional layered and three-dimensional network structures according to spatial structure. Manganese oxides are resource-rich, low cost, environmentally friendly materials, which have important applications, such as in the field of lithium-ion secondary battery cathode materials, super capacitors, catalysts, adsorbents, magnetic materials and nuclear waste fixed materials.
Up to now, people have realized that the Li-ion battery is a new generation of high specific capacity battery for high voltage, long-cycle life, low self-discharge and environment-friendly etc. Recently, more and more research has been focused on improving the performance of Li secondary battery. The investigation of negative and electrolytes have great progress, while the development of the Li-ion battery has been limited by its positive materials, which is one of the key components of the Li-ion battery system. On the other hand, it is known that the performance of manganese oxide cathode materials is greatly influenced by the synthesis methods. For example, solid state method, which is used in industry widely, wastes more power and time. At the same time, the materials synthesized using this method seriously agglomerate and its crystals and particles can not be well controlled, which leads to the degradation of materials' performance. Therefore, more and more researchers focus on looking for new methods to prepare the cathode materials with excellent performance.
Based on enhancing the discharge capacity and cyclic stability of manganese oxide materials and decreasing the production cost of Li-ion battery, this work study the synthetic methods of common manganese oxides (todorokite, cryptomelane and birnessite) and the modifiedmanganese oxides by doping, characterize the physical and chemical properties, and investigated the electrochemical performances of as-prepared materials for cathode of lithium ion battery using X-ray diffraction (XRD), Rietveld structure refinement, thermal gravimetric analysis (TGA), component analysis, specific surface area tests, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), galvanostatic charge/discharge and cyclic voltammetry, etc. The main results obtained are as follows:
1. A series of cobalt-doped todorokites were synthesized by refluxing process at atmospheric pressure from the transformation of birnessites. Their unit cell parameters, water content, the average oxidation state of Mn (AOS), and crystal morphology (including grain size) were characterized, and the valence state of cobalt ions in all cobalt-doped samples was +3. Rietveld structure refinement showed that doped cobalt ions replaced the equivalent sites of Mn2 and Mn4, and the average bond lengths between metal ions and oxygen anions changed systematically. It was further shown that the cobalt doping improved the stability of the crystal structure and the voltage platform of discharge for todorokites with the combination of electrochemical analysis, and so the discharge capacity and cyclic stability of cobalt-doped todorokites were improved. Among them, doped todorokites with Co content of 10%-15% displayed better discharge performance. Tod-Co10% showed a high initial discharge capacity of 219 mAh/g and cycling capacity of 102 mAh/g after 100 cycles. The effect of doping cobalt on electrochemical performance of todorokite was further proved with cyclic voltammetry by using powder microelectrode.
2. A newly arisen method——microwave heating method was used to prepare todorokite with different concentrations of cobalt doping. The differences with refluxing method were that,1) The intensity of diffraction peaks in all samples prepared by microwave heating was strong, and the peak width at half height was narrow, exhibiting that they all had high crystallinity; 2) The AOS of Mn increased slightly with increasing dopant amount; 3) Tod-Co20% had a minimum flake particles, a highest cobalt doping and a lowest initial discharge capacity, but a best cyclic stability and a high coulombic efficiency of charge/discharge. The same as refluxing method were that,1) The water content and the cell volume in todorokites increased by elevating cobalt amount; 2) Todorokite samples primarily consisted of trilling at 120°to each other with flake crystal particles, and with the increase of doped-cobalt content, the particle size decreased and aggregated into spherical secondary particles with high content of cobalt; 3) The specific discharge capacity and the cyclic stability of cobalt-doped todorokites were all better than those of undoped todorokite.
3. Three different methods (refluxing method, sol-gel method and high temperature calcination method) could be used to prepare pure cryptomelane. Because of different synthetic methods, the physical and chemical properties of the three samples were quite different. There were marked differences between Cry-60 and Cry-sol-gel in morphology, but the battery performance was similar with each other. The former had a better cyclic capacity. Because of its low water content, small cell volume and surface area, the larger crystal particles, and the irregular sizes and morphology, Cry-calcine synthesized by the calcination method showed the minimum cycle capacity. Cryptomelane synthesized by reflux method had a better battery performance. Owing to a moderate pretreatment temperature, specific surface area, water content and grain size, Cry-80 sample exhibited the best battery performance, and the tunneled structure of all cryptomelane electrodes synthesized by reflux method is still stable after 50 cycles of charge/discharge.
4. By further doping cobalt ions, a series of cryptomelanes with different cobalt concentrations were prepared at reflux condition. The unit cell volume decreased with the increase of doped cobalt content, the valence state of cobalt ions are +3, but the water content increased gradually. The tunnel water content of cryptomelanes influenced the cycle capacity of the battery:more tunnel water were extracted for cryptomelane heat treated at 300℃, leading to the easy collapse of tunnel structure during charge/discharge, and all electrodes showed the poor discharge performance; Most of the tunnel water was not removed after sinter at 140℃, and played the role of supporting the tunnel which could elastically expand or shrink during the insertion/extraction of Li+, increase the cycle stability of electrodes materials. Doping cobalt ions further improved the cycle stability of the cryptomelane, but the excessive doped-content will reduce the capacity of inserting lithium. Therefore, Cry-Co5% electrode heat treated at 140℃displayed the best discharge performance, its initial discharge capacity was up to 254 mAh/g, and maintained at 138mAh/g after 50 cycles.
5. A series of birnessites with different cobalt concentration were prepared by a one-step oxidation of the mixture of MnCl2 and CoCl2 using O2 at strong alkaline condition. The influences of the doped cobalt content on the unit cell parameters, crystal size, water content, surface area, AOS of Mn, valence state of Co, proportion of O with different chemical state and crystal morphology (including the particles size) were investigated. Combining TG and component analysis, the birnessite with different layered water content could be prepared by changing the temperature of heat treatment. The galvanostatic charge/discharge results were that the discharge capacity of undoped birnessite decreased rapidly, and the cycle stability of birnessites were all promoted by doping cobalt. Because a part of layered water was extracted by fit heat treatment (at 130℃for 4 h) to increase the insertion/extraction sites of Li+, the residual layered water supported the layer structure, and doping cobalt made the skeleton of MnO6 octahedra more firm, birnessite with doping cobalt 10% showed the best cycle stability, whose initial discharge capacity was as high as 224 mAh/g, and kept at 115 mAh/g after 100 cycles at 20 mA/g between 2.0 and 3.8 V (vs. Li/Li+). The discharge test with different rate showed that Bir-Co10% electrode had a better discharge capacity at high current density, because of its large surface area.
6. A series of birnessites with different doped cobalt contents were firstly synthesized by controlling the added amount of Co(CH3COO)2 using sol-gel method with the raw materials of KMnO4, sucrose and Co(CH3COO)2. The XRD results showed that the main compositions of all samples were monoclinic structural birnessites, containing a few impurity of hausmannite, whose content increased a little with increasing dopant amount. Owing to the passive film at the surface of cobalt-doped birnessites synthesized by sol-gel method, their open circuit voltages were low, and the internal resistances of the batteries were large. The discharge capacity for all samples were small at first cycle, and up to the largest discharge capacity by the activation of charge at first cycle. The content of hausmannite in birnessites increased gradually with increasing dopant amount, resulting in the deterioration of the battery performance. Undoped birnessite heat-treated at 130℃for 4 h with fit layered water extracted and the lowest content of hausmannite showed the best cycle stability; the cyclic voltammogram exhibited that Bir-Co0% electrode still retained high electrochemical activation after 60 cycles of charge/discharge. The redox peaks of Bir-Co0% electrode had fine symmetry, lesser voltage difference, and few decay of current.
锂离子二次电池是以嵌入锂化合物作为正、负极材料的最新一代高比能蓄电池。它具有电池电压高、比能量大、循环寿命长、自放电小以及有利于环保等优点。近年来,锂离子蓄电池在各方面均在不断改进。负极与电解质进步较快,但作为锂离子电池的重要组成部分的正极材料性能已经成为制约其大规模推广应用的瓶颈,是进一步提高电池性能、降低成本的关键。另一方面,锂-锰正极材料的电池性能与合成方法有很大关系,例如采用传统高温固相法能耗大、周期长,合成的正极材料晶粒和颗粒的可调控性差,团聚现象比较严重,电池性能较差且不稳定。近年来,针对这些问题,虽然进行了广泛的研究,但一直没有得到很好的解决,所以寻找合适的合成技术及方法来制备性能优良、成本低廉的正极材料仍是目前研究的热点、难点之一。
本论文主要从提高氧化锰正极材料的放电容量、循环稳定性以及降低锂离子电池的生产成本出发,研究了几种常见的氧化锰矿物(钙锰矿、锰钾矿和水钠锰矿)的制备方法以及通过掺杂对氧化锰矿物改性,并采用X-射线衍射(XRD)、Rietveld结构精修、热重分析(TGA)、成分分析、比表面测试、X-射线光电子能谱(XPS)、扫描电镜(SEM)以及透射电镜(TEM)等测试手段对合成材料进行物化表征以及电化学性能测试,考察其在锂离子电池中的应用。取得的主要结果如下：
1.以掺钴水钠锰矿为前驱物,采用常压回流条件下的一步氧化法合成制备了—系列掺钴不同浓度的钙锰矿,对其晶胞参数、水分含量、Mn氧化度、以及晶体形貌(包括颗粒的尺寸)等性质表征表明,样品中钴离子均为+3价,Rietveld结构精修表明掺杂的钴离子替代了Mn2和Mn4两个等效位点,金属离子和氧离子的平均键长发生了系统改变；进一步的结合电化学分析表明,由于钻离子掺杂提高了钙锰矿晶体结构的稳定以及放电电压平台,掺钴钙锰矿的放电比容量和循环稳定性也得以改善。掺钴量在10-15%之间的钙锰矿电化学性能最好,其中Tod-Co10%电极的首次放电比容量为219mAh/g,经过100周充放电循环后放电比容量仍有102mAh/g;粉末微电极结合循环伏安扫描进一步辅证了钴离子掺杂能显著提高钙锰矿的电化学性能。
2.采用新兴的微波加热法制备了不同掺钴浓度的钙锰矿。与回流法不同的是：1)微波加热制备的样品衍射峰峰强较大,半峰宽较窄,其结晶度均较好；2)Mn氧化度随钴掺杂量的增加而略有增加；3)Tod-Co20%片状颗粒最小,钴掺杂量最高,首次放电容量最低,其循环稳定性最好,充放电的库仑效率也高。与回流法相同的是：1)钙锰矿水分含量和晶胞体积随掺钴量的增加而增加；2)钙锰矿主要由互成1200的片状三连晶组成,片状颗粒有减小的趋势,并且团聚成近似球状的二次颗粒；3)掺钴钙锰矿的放电比容量和循环稳定性均比未掺杂的好。
3.采用3种不同合成方法(回流法、溶胶-凝胶法和高温煅烧法)均能制备出纯的锰钾矿。由于制备方法不同,3个样品的物理化学性质也相差较大。Cry-60和Cry-sol-gel两者的颗粒形貌差别较大,但电池性能较接近,前者的循环容量更好；Cry-calcine由煅烧合成,由于其水分含量低,晶胞体积小,表面积小,晶体颗粒较大,且尺寸大小不一和形貌不规则,以致于其循环容量最低。回流法合成的锰钾矿电池性能相对较好,Cry-80样品因具有适中的预处理温度、比表面积、水分含量和晶粒尺寸,其电池性能最好。并且所有回流法合成的锰钾矿电极经过50周循环以后隧道结构依然保持完好。
4.进一步通过钴离子掺杂在回流条件下制备了一系列掺钴不同浓度的锰钾矿,其晶胞体积随掺钴量的增加而减小,钴离子均为+3价,水分含量逐渐增加,其隧道水含量对电池的循环容量影响较大：300℃加热处理的锰钾矿隧道水脱出较多,充放电过程中隧道结构容易塌陷,其制备的电极整体放电性能较差；而140℃下隧道水大部分保留,起到支撑隧道的作用,Li+嵌入-脱出时隧道可以弹性地收缩,电极的循环稳定性较好；钴离子掺杂进一步提高了锰钾矿电极的循环稳定性,但掺杂量过大会降低嵌锂容量,所以,Cry-Co5%(140℃热处理)电极的放电性能最佳,其首次放电比容量高达254 mAh/g,50周循环后仍有138mAh/g。
5.以02作氧化剂在强碱条件下一步氧化不同比例的MnCl2和CoCl2混合液合成了掺钴不同浓度的水钠锰矿,研究了掺钴含量的变化对水钠锰矿的晶胞参数、晶粒大小、水分含量、比表面积、Mn氧化度、Co的价态、各种氧的化学态及比例以及晶体形貌(包括颗粒的尺寸)等性质的影响。结合热重和成分分析,通过改变水钠锰矿的热处理温度,得到了不同层间水含量的电极。恒流充放电方法分析这些电极的循环容量表明：未掺钴水钠锰矿放电容量衰减迅速,掺钻后水钠锰矿的循环稳定性都得到提高,其中掺钴10%的水钠锰矿循环稳定性最好,在适当热处理(130℃热处理4小时)后,脱去部分层间水,增加了Li+嵌入-脱出位点,剩余层间水又起到支撑层结构的作用,加之钴离子掺杂使Mn06八面体骨架更牢固。样品在20 mA/g电流密度下,充放电截止电压为2.0-3.8 V (vs. Li/Li+),其首次放电比容量高达224mAh/g,经过100周循环后还有115mAh/g。不同倍率的放电测试表明,由于其较大的比表面积,在高电流密度下也展示了较好的放电容量。
6.首次使用高锰酸钾、蔗糖和乙酸钴为原材料,采用溶胶-凝胶法通过控制乙酸钴的添加量合成了不同掺钴浓度的水钠锰矿,XRD结果表明所有样品主要成分为单斜结构的水钠锰矿,并含有极少量黑锰矿杂质,且随掺钻浓度的增加,黑锰矿的含量有所增加。溶胶-凝胶法合成的掺钴水钠锰矿表面有一层钝化膜,其电极的开路电压较低,电池内阻较大,所有供试样品首次放电比容量均较低,经过一周充电活化后,电极的放电比容量在第2周达到最大。随着掺钴浓度加大,水钠锰矿中杂质相黑锰矿的含量也逐渐增加,,导致电池性能恶化。脱去适量层间水的未掺杂水钠锰矿(130℃热处理4小时)中黑锰矿含量最低,其循环稳定性最好；循环伏安扫描表明,经过60周充放电循环后Bir-CoO%电极依然保持良好的电化学活性,其氧化还原峰对称性较好,峰电位相差小,峰电流几乎没有衰减。
Soils, the bottom of ocean and lake sediments contain large amounts of manganese nodules, of which manganese oxide minerals are the main component. The applications of manganese oxide in many fields are growing concerned. There is an important theoretical and practical significance for further investigating manganese oxide properties and promoting the development and resource use of manganese oxides. There are many types of manganese oxides, which can be divided into one-dimensional tunneled, two-dimensional layered and three-dimensional network structures according to spatial structure. Manganese oxides are resource-rich, low cost, environmentally friendly materials, which have important applications, such as in the field of lithium-ion secondary battery cathode materials, super capacitors, catalysts, adsorbents, magnetic materials and nuclear waste fixed materials.
Up to now, people have realized that the Li-ion battery is a new generation of high specific capacity battery for high voltage, long-cycle life, low self-discharge and environment-friendly etc. Recently, more and more research has been focused on improving the performance of Li secondary battery. The investigation of negative and electrolytes have great progress, while the development of the Li-ion battery has been limited by its positive materials, which is one of the key components of the Li-ion battery system. On the other hand, it is known that the performance of manganese oxide cathode materials is greatly influenced by the synthesis methods. For example, solid state method, which is used in industry widely, wastes more power and time. At the same time, the materials synthesized using this method seriously agglomerate and its crystals and particles can not be well controlled, which leads to the degradation of materials' performance. Therefore, more and more researchers focus on looking for new methods to prepare the cathode materials with excellent performance.
Based on enhancing the discharge capacity and cyclic stability of manganese oxide materials and decreasing the production cost of Li-ion battery, this work study the synthetic methods of common manganese oxides (todorokite, cryptomelane and birnessite) and the modifiedmanganese oxides by doping, characterize the physical and chemical properties, and investigated the electrochemical performances of as-prepared materials for cathode of lithium ion battery using X-ray diffraction (XRD), Rietveld structure refinement, thermal gravimetric analysis (TGA), component analysis, specific surface area tests, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), galvanostatic charge/discharge and cyclic voltammetry, etc. The main results obtained are as follows:
1. A series of cobalt-doped todorokites were synthesized by refluxing process at atmospheric pressure from the transformation of birnessites. Their unit cell parameters, water content, the average oxidation state of Mn (AOS), and crystal morphology (including grain size) were characterized, and the valence state of cobalt ions in all cobalt-doped samples was +3. Rietveld structure refinement showed that doped cobalt ions replaced the equivalent sites of Mn2 and Mn4, and the average bond lengths between metal ions and oxygen anions changed systematically. It was further shown that the cobalt doping improved the stability of the crystal structure and the voltage platform of discharge for todorokites with the combination of electrochemical analysis, and so the discharge capacity and cyclic stability of cobalt-doped todorokites were improved. Among them, doped todorokites with Co content of 10%-15% displayed better discharge performance. Tod-Co10% showed a high initial discharge capacity of 219 mAh/g and cycling capacity of 102 mAh/g after 100 cycles. The effect of doping cobalt on electrochemical performance of todorokite was further proved with cyclic voltammetry by using powder microelectrode.
2. A newly arisen method——microwave heating method was used to prepare todorokite with different concentrations of cobalt doping. The differences with refluxing method were that,1) The intensity of diffraction peaks in all samples prepared by microwave heating was strong, and the peak width at half height was narrow, exhibiting that they all had high crystallinity; 2) The AOS of Mn increased slightly with increasing dopant amount; 3) Tod-Co20% had a minimum flake particles, a highest cobalt doping and a lowest initial discharge capacity, but a best cyclic stability and a high coulombic efficiency of charge/discharge. The same as refluxing method were that,1) The water content and the cell volume in todorokites increased by elevating cobalt amount; 2) Todorokite samples primarily consisted of trilling at 120°to each other with flake crystal particles, and with the increase of doped-cobalt content, the particle size decreased and aggregated into spherical secondary particles with high content of cobalt; 3) The specific discharge capacity and the cyclic stability of cobalt-doped todorokites were all better than those of undoped todorokite.
3. Three different methods (refluxing method, sol-gel method and high temperature calcination method) could be used to prepare pure cryptomelane. Because of different synthetic methods, the physical and chemical properties of the three samples were quite different. There were marked differences between Cry-60 and Cry-sol-gel in morphology, but the battery performance was similar with each other. The former had a better cyclic capacity. Because of its low water content, small cell volume and surface area, the larger crystal particles, and the irregular sizes and morphology, Cry-calcine synthesized by the calcination method showed the minimum cycle capacity. Cryptomelane synthesized by reflux method had a better battery performance. Owing to a moderate pretreatment temperature, specific surface area, water content and grain size, Cry-80 sample exhibited the best battery performance, and the tunneled structure of all cryptomelane electrodes synthesized by reflux method is still stable after 50 cycles of charge/discharge.
4. By further doping cobalt ions, a series of cryptomelanes with different cobalt concentrations were prepared at reflux condition. The unit cell volume decreased with the increase of doped cobalt content, the valence state of cobalt ions are +3, but the water content increased gradually. The tunnel water content of cryptomelanes influenced the cycle capacity of the battery:more tunnel water were extracted for cryptomelane heat treated at 300℃, leading to the easy collapse of tunnel structure during charge/discharge, and all electrodes showed the poor discharge performance; Most of the tunnel water was not removed after sinter at 140℃, and played the role of supporting the tunnel which could elastically expand or shrink during the insertion/extraction of Li+, increase the cycle stability of electrodes materials. Doping cobalt ions further improved the cycle stability of the cryptomelane, but the excessive doped-content will reduce the capacity of inserting lithium. Therefore, Cry-Co5% electrode heat treated at 140℃displayed the best discharge performance, its initial discharge capacity was up to 254 mAh/g, and maintained at 138mAh/g after 50 cycles.
5. A series of birnessites with different cobalt concentration were prepared by a one-step oxidation of the mixture of MnCl2 and CoCl2 using O2 at strong alkaline condition. The influences of the doped cobalt content on the unit cell parameters, crystal size, water content, surface area, AOS of Mn, valence state of Co, proportion of O with different chemical state and crystal morphology (including the particles size) were investigated. Combining TG and component analysis, the birnessite with different layered water content could be prepared by changing the temperature of heat treatment. The galvanostatic charge/discharge results were that the discharge capacity of undoped birnessite decreased rapidly, and the cycle stability of birnessites were all promoted by doping cobalt. Because a part of layered water was extracted by fit heat treatment (at 130℃for 4 h) to increase the insertion/extraction sites of Li+, the residual layered water supported the layer structure, and doping cobalt made the skeleton of MnO6 octahedra more firm, birnessite with doping cobalt 10% showed the best cycle stability, whose initial discharge capacity was as high as 224 mAh/g, and kept at 115 mAh/g after 100 cycles at 20 mA/g between 2.0 and 3.8 V (vs. Li/Li+). The discharge test with different rate showed that Bir-Co10% electrode had a better discharge capacity at high current density, because of its large surface area.
6. A series of birnessites with different doped cobalt contents were firstly synthesized by controlling the added amount of Co(CH3COO)2 using sol-gel method with the raw materials of KMnO4, sucrose and Co(CH3COO)2. The XRD results showed that the main compositions of all samples were monoclinic structural birnessites, containing a few impurity of hausmannite, whose content increased a little with increasing dopant amount. Owing to the passive film at the surface of cobalt-doped birnessites synthesized by sol-gel method, their open circuit voltages were low, and the internal resistances of the batteries were large. The discharge capacity for all samples were small at first cycle, and up to the largest discharge capacity by the activation of charge at first cycle. The content of hausmannite in birnessites increased gradually with increasing dopant amount, resulting in the deterioration of the battery performance. Undoped birnessite heat-treated at 130℃for 4 h with fit layered water extracted and the lowest content of hausmannite showed the best cycle stability; the cyclic voltammogram exhibited that Bir-Co0% electrode still retained high electrochemical activation after 60 cycles of charge/discharge. The redox peaks of Bir-Co0% electrode had fine symmetry, lesser voltage difference, and few decay of current.
引文
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