饮用水含氯消毒工艺中副产物的生成及影响因素研究
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摘要
本论文在科技部小城镇科技发展重大项目支持下，根据我国城镇饮用水消毒工艺的实际现状和国际上饮用水消毒技术的发展趋势，针对采用二氧化氯、氯胺及氯作为消毒剂的消毒工艺，探讨受不同程度污染的原水的优化组合消毒工艺，借助现代分析测试技术手段和风险评价理论，对有关消毒工艺中副产物的形成规律和影响因素进行了深入研究，对有关消毒副产物及消毒工艺的健康风险进行了分析，提出了适合不同水质的优化消毒组合工艺，旨在为我国城镇不同水质供水企业的消毒工艺选择提供理论指导和技术支持。
研究内容和主要结果包括以下八个方面：
一．不同消毒工艺的消毒剂剂量与水质污染关系研究
结果表明，腐殖酸模拟水样的TOC、UV_(254)、A_(410)等参数与腐殖酸含量存在较好的相关性，可用于表征水样中腐殖酸含量的高低；ClO_2取代Cl_2消毒可以显著降低卤代消毒副产物生成量；研究确定的轻微、轻度、中度和重度污染模拟水样对应不同消毒工艺(ClO_2、ClO_2+NH_2Cl、90％ClO_2+NH_2Cl、Cl_2+NH_4Cl、ClO_2+Cl_2、90％ClO_2+Cl_2和Cl_2工艺)的CT值可以较为完全地灭活水中的细菌菌落和大肠菌群，达到我国饮用水卫生标准；消毒剂投加一定时间后，水样中的消毒剂浓度变化遵循二级反应衰减规律。
二．不同消毒工艺生成的副产物及影响因素研究
发展了使用短程色谱柱快速测定5种HAAs的GC-ECD的方法；研究发现TCM、TCAA和DCAA为腐殖酸模拟水样消毒中检出的主要DBPs，并确定了消毒各模拟水样时不同消毒工艺的优先使用顺序；发现Br~-的存在显著改变了THMs和HAAs的种类分布和生成量，活性碳处理可以显著降低DBPs生成量。
三．不同工艺消毒前后腐殖酸模拟水样中半挥发性有机物的变化研究
经固相萃取和GC／MS分析，首次对比研究了不同工艺消毒前后腐殖酸模拟水样中半挥发性有机物的变化，结果表明，不同工艺消毒后，半挥发性有机物部分消失，部分相对含量减少，另有部分的相对含量增加，并生成了新的半挥发性有机物。腐殖酸模拟水样消毒后生成的半挥发性有机物涵盖了自来水中的主要半挥发性有机物，可用腐殖酸水样来模拟给水水质进行相关消毒研究。
四．不同消毒工艺消毒前后模拟水样水质参数变化研究
结果显示，不同工艺消毒后，腐殖酸分子质量平均降低了71.5％～92.0％，水样的荧光强度降低了0.7％～27.6％。取代基效应和重原子效应是影响水样荧光强度的主要有机物结构因素。
五．不同分子质量区间腐殖酸的DBPs生成及影响因素研究
结果表明，HAAs和THMs的前体物不完全相同，50～100ku分子质量区间腐殖酸成份是THMs和HAAs的最主要前体物；不同分子质量区间的UV_(254)、A_(410)和A_(465)／A_(656)值的变化，从一定程度上间接反映出各分子质量区间的腐殖酸在形成THMs和HAAs过程中参与反应程度的相对大小。
六．卤乙酸的自然降解研究：
结果表明，有氧条件下，HAAs以一级反应速率自然降解，温度对HAAs的自然降解速率影响较大，四种卤乙酸的总体降解速率为：DBAA＞DCAA＞MBAA＞TCAA。HAAs在7～35℃的主要降解机理可能是微生物作用下的水解-氧化降解，而45℃时的降解机理可能主要是化学降解。
七．零价锌和铁对HAAs的降解研究
Zn~0和Fe~0对HAAs的降解研究表明，在缺氧状态下，HAAs以一级反应动力学模式降解；好氧状态下，DBAA在Zn~0作用下以二级反应速率降解，而在Fe~0作用下以一级反应速率降解。Zn~0比Fe~0更易降解HAAs。金属投加量、pH值、高浓度MBAA共存、溶解氧等因素对DBAA降解影响较大：Zn~0对MBAA和TCAA也有显著降解效果，但对DCAA的降解作用不明显；Zn~0和Fe~0降解DBAA的速率，同时受DBAA在零价金属表面的化学反应速率和溶液中的DBAA分子扩散到零价金属表面的扩散速率控制。Zn~0降解MBAA的速率仅受金属表面的化学反应速率控制；Zn~0和Fe~0对HAAs的降解机理为氢解作用；溶剂水通过提供H~+参与HAAs降解的氢解反应。
八．饮用水消毒的多途径健康风险评价与分析
结果表明，TCM和DCAA是腐殖酸模拟水样消毒后的致癌风险和非致癌性危害的主要来源，且TCM的致癌风险和非致癌性危害较DCAA为大；口腔摄入途径是致癌风险和非致癌性危害的主要途径；各消毒工艺的总致癌风险和非致癌性危害大小基本顺序为：Cl_2＞90％ClO_2+Cl_2＞ClO_2+Cl_2＞Cl_2+NH_4Cl＞90％ClO_2+NH_2Cl＞ClO_2+NH_2Cl＞ClO_2。水体中溴离子的存在，改变了产生致癌风险和非致癌性危害的主要DBPs类型；活性碳处理可以显著降低饮用水的健康风险。
Focussing on the situation of disinfection process of drinking water in small towns and recent development trend of this field, optimized combination of different disinfection processes for source water contaminated with different degrees was studied in this paper. These disinfection processes include three types of disinfectants that are chlorine dioxide, monochloramine and chlorine. Formation and influencing factors of disinfection by-products (DBPs) were studied by using modern analysis technologies. Health risk of correlative DBPs and disinfection process was evaluated, and optimized disinfection processes for water samples with various qualities were presented. Under the support of Key Project from Ministry of Science and Technology of China, the purpose of this research is to provide academic suggestion and technical guidance for drinking water works with various water qualities.
The content and main results of this paper include the following eight parts:
(1) The relationship of disinfectant dosages between various disinfection processes and contaminated degrees of water samples was investigated. The results showed that TOC, UV_(254) and A_(410) of humic acid can be used to denote concentrations of humic acid because of their good correlation. Formation of DBPs remarkably reduced when substituting ClO_2 for Cl_2 as disinfectant. In this study, seven disinfection processes, i.e. ClO_2, ClO_2+NH_2Cl, 90%ClO_2+NH_2Cl, Cl_2+NH_4Cl, ClO_2+Cl_2, 90%ClO_2+Cl_2 and Cl_2, were applied to investigate the disinfection processes for slight-polluted, low-polluted, medium-polluted and serious-polluted water samples simulated with humic acid solutions. Indicator microorganisms in water samples were inactivated by determined CT values of various disinfection processes, and the disinfected water can meet the need of national drinking water sanitation standard of China. Disinfectant concentration in water samples decreased according to second-order kinetic model after disinfectants were added to water
samples for certain time.
(2) Formation and influencing factors of DBPs using various disinfection processes were studied. In this part, a simple and rapid method for determination of five haloacetic acids (HAAs) in drinking water was developed using gas chromatography(GC) coupled with short capillary column and electron capture dectetor(ECD). TCM, TCAA and DCAA were primary DBPs detected from disinfected water samples. Preferential order of various disinfection processes for DBPs formation control was determined. Bromide in water remarkably affected the speciation and quantity of trihalomethanes (THMs) and HAAs. Active carbon filtration can reduce the formation of DBPs efficiently.
(3) By using gas chromatography and mass spectrometry method, it was investigated that semivolatile organic compounds (SVOCs) transformation in humic acid simulation water samples disinfected by various processes. It was found that some SVOCs disappeared, some SVOCs decreased, and others increased. Some new SVOCs produced when water sample was disinfected by various processes. Primary SVOCs in drinking water were determined in disinfected humic acid simulation water samples too. It was demonstrated that humic acid water solutions can be used to simulate source water in disinfection research processes.
(4) It was studied that variation of water quality parameters of humic acid simulation water samples disinfected with different processes. The results showed that molecular weight of humic acid reduced 71.5%-92.0% and fluorescence intensity decreased 0.7% -27.6%, Substituent effect and weighty atom effect were the possible dominating organic structure factors that affected fluorescence intensity of humic acid water sample.
(5) DBPs formation and influencing factor of humic acid in different molecular weight distribution were investigated. The results showed that the humic acid in the molecular weight range between 50-100ku was the most important precursor of THMs and HAAs, and the precursors of THMs and HAAs were not the same substances. Variation of UV_(254), A_(410) and A_(465)/A_(656) in different molecular weight range indirectly reflected the reactive variation of humic acid in corresponding molecular weight range.
(6) Research of aerobic degradation of HAAs indicated that HAAs spontaneously degradated according to first order kinetic model and HAAs degradation rate affected by temperature obviously. HAAs degradation rate order is: DBAA＞DCAA＞MBAA＞TCAA. The possible degradation mechanism of HAAs is hydrolysis-oxidation at 7-35℃and chemical degradation at 45℃respectively.
(7) Study of reduction of HAAs by Zn~0 and Fe~0 indicated that HAAs was reduced by first-order kinetic rate under anoxic conditions. However, DBAA was reduced according to second-order and first-order kinetic rate by Zn~0 and Fe~0 respectively in aerobic condition. Zn~0 reduced HAAs more rapidly than Fe~0 did. Degradation rate of DBAA was significantly affected by metal dosage, pH value, coexistence of MBAA with high concentration and dissolved oxygen. MBAA and TCAA significantly reduced by Zn~0 too, but no obvious reduction of DCAA by Zn~0 was observed. Reduction of DBAA by Zn~0 and Fe~0 was controlled by a mixture of chemical reaction and mass transfer, but Reduction of MBAA by Zn~0 was controlled only by chemical reaction. The reductive reaction proceeded via sequential hydrogenolysis. Water molecules participated in the reductive reaction by providing protons.
(8) Health risk of drinking water disinfection was assessed by using multi-pathway risk assessment method. It was found that TCM and DCAA are the primary source of lifetime cancer risk and noncarcinogenic hazard risk in disinfected humic acid simulation water samples. TCM has higher cancer risk and noncarcinogenic hazard risk than DCAA does. Ingestion route is the main route of cancer risk and noncarcinogenic hazard risk. In the following disinfection process order, cancer risk and noncarcinogenic hazard risk ranged from high to low: Cl_2＞90% ClO_2+Cl_2＞ClO_2+Cl_2＞Cl_2+NH_4Cl＞90% ClO_2+NH_2Cl＞ClO_2+NH_2Cl＞ClO_2. Bromide in water changed the primary DBPs speciation which bring cancer risk and noncarcinogenic hazard risk. Active carbon filtration decreased the health risk of drinking water significantly.
研究内容和主要结果包括以下八个方面：
一．不同消毒工艺的消毒剂剂量与水质污染关系研究
结果表明，腐殖酸模拟水样的TOC、UV_(254)、A_(410)等参数与腐殖酸含量存在较好的相关性，可用于表征水样中腐殖酸含量的高低；ClO_2取代Cl_2消毒可以显著降低卤代消毒副产物生成量；研究确定的轻微、轻度、中度和重度污染模拟水样对应不同消毒工艺(ClO_2、ClO_2+NH_2Cl、90％ClO_2+NH_2Cl、Cl_2+NH_4Cl、ClO_2+Cl_2、90％ClO_2+Cl_2和Cl_2工艺)的CT值可以较为完全地灭活水中的细菌菌落和大肠菌群，达到我国饮用水卫生标准；消毒剂投加一定时间后，水样中的消毒剂浓度变化遵循二级反应衰减规律。
二．不同消毒工艺生成的副产物及影响因素研究
发展了使用短程色谱柱快速测定5种HAAs的GC-ECD的方法；研究发现TCM、TCAA和DCAA为腐殖酸模拟水样消毒中检出的主要DBPs，并确定了消毒各模拟水样时不同消毒工艺的优先使用顺序；发现Br~-的存在显著改变了THMs和HAAs的种类分布和生成量，活性碳处理可以显著降低DBPs生成量。
三．不同工艺消毒前后腐殖酸模拟水样中半挥发性有机物的变化研究
经固相萃取和GC／MS分析，首次对比研究了不同工艺消毒前后腐殖酸模拟水样中半挥发性有机物的变化，结果表明，不同工艺消毒后，半挥发性有机物部分消失，部分相对含量减少，另有部分的相对含量增加，并生成了新的半挥发性有机物。腐殖酸模拟水样消毒后生成的半挥发性有机物涵盖了自来水中的主要半挥发性有机物，可用腐殖酸水样来模拟给水水质进行相关消毒研究。
四．不同消毒工艺消毒前后模拟水样水质参数变化研究
结果显示，不同工艺消毒后，腐殖酸分子质量平均降低了71.5％～92.0％，水样的荧光强度降低了0.7％～27.6％。取代基效应和重原子效应是影响水样荧光强度的主要有机物结构因素。
五．不同分子质量区间腐殖酸的DBPs生成及影响因素研究
结果表明，HAAs和THMs的前体物不完全相同，50～100ku分子质量区间腐殖酸成份是THMs和HAAs的最主要前体物；不同分子质量区间的UV_(254)、A_(410)和A_(465)／A_(656)值的变化，从一定程度上间接反映出各分子质量区间的腐殖酸在形成THMs和HAAs过程中参与反应程度的相对大小。
六．卤乙酸的自然降解研究：
结果表明，有氧条件下，HAAs以一级反应速率自然降解，温度对HAAs的自然降解速率影响较大，四种卤乙酸的总体降解速率为：DBAA＞DCAA＞MBAA＞TCAA。HAAs在7～35℃的主要降解机理可能是微生物作用下的水解-氧化降解，而45℃时的降解机理可能主要是化学降解。
七．零价锌和铁对HAAs的降解研究
Zn~0和Fe~0对HAAs的降解研究表明，在缺氧状态下，HAAs以一级反应动力学模式降解；好氧状态下，DBAA在Zn~0作用下以二级反应速率降解，而在Fe~0作用下以一级反应速率降解。Zn~0比Fe~0更易降解HAAs。金属投加量、pH值、高浓度MBAA共存、溶解氧等因素对DBAA降解影响较大：Zn~0对MBAA和TCAA也有显著降解效果，但对DCAA的降解作用不明显；Zn~0和Fe~0降解DBAA的速率，同时受DBAA在零价金属表面的化学反应速率和溶液中的DBAA分子扩散到零价金属表面的扩散速率控制。Zn~0降解MBAA的速率仅受金属表面的化学反应速率控制；Zn~0和Fe~0对HAAs的降解机理为氢解作用；溶剂水通过提供H~+参与HAAs降解的氢解反应。
八．饮用水消毒的多途径健康风险评价与分析
结果表明，TCM和DCAA是腐殖酸模拟水样消毒后的致癌风险和非致癌性危害的主要来源，且TCM的致癌风险和非致癌性危害较DCAA为大；口腔摄入途径是致癌风险和非致癌性危害的主要途径；各消毒工艺的总致癌风险和非致癌性危害大小基本顺序为：Cl_2＞90％ClO_2+Cl_2＞ClO_2+Cl_2＞Cl_2+NH_4Cl＞90％ClO_2+NH_2Cl＞ClO_2+NH_2Cl＞ClO_2。水体中溴离子的存在，改变了产生致癌风险和非致癌性危害的主要DBPs类型；活性碳处理可以显著降低饮用水的健康风险。
Focussing on the situation of disinfection process of drinking water in small towns and recent development trend of this field, optimized combination of different disinfection processes for source water contaminated with different degrees was studied in this paper. These disinfection processes include three types of disinfectants that are chlorine dioxide, monochloramine and chlorine. Formation and influencing factors of disinfection by-products (DBPs) were studied by using modern analysis technologies. Health risk of correlative DBPs and disinfection process was evaluated, and optimized disinfection processes for water samples with various qualities were presented. Under the support of Key Project from Ministry of Science and Technology of China, the purpose of this research is to provide academic suggestion and technical guidance for drinking water works with various water qualities.
The content and main results of this paper include the following eight parts:
(1) The relationship of disinfectant dosages between various disinfection processes and contaminated degrees of water samples was investigated. The results showed that TOC, UV_(254) and A_(410) of humic acid can be used to denote concentrations of humic acid because of their good correlation. Formation of DBPs remarkably reduced when substituting ClO_2 for Cl_2 as disinfectant. In this study, seven disinfection processes, i.e. ClO_2, ClO_2+NH_2Cl, 90%ClO_2+NH_2Cl, Cl_2+NH_4Cl, ClO_2+Cl_2, 90%ClO_2+Cl_2 and Cl_2, were applied to investigate the disinfection processes for slight-polluted, low-polluted, medium-polluted and serious-polluted water samples simulated with humic acid solutions. Indicator microorganisms in water samples were inactivated by determined CT values of various disinfection processes, and the disinfected water can meet the need of national drinking water sanitation standard of China. Disinfectant concentration in water samples decreased according to second-order kinetic model after disinfectants were added to water
samples for certain time.
(2) Formation and influencing factors of DBPs using various disinfection processes were studied. In this part, a simple and rapid method for determination of five haloacetic acids (HAAs) in drinking water was developed using gas chromatography(GC) coupled with short capillary column and electron capture dectetor(ECD). TCM, TCAA and DCAA were primary DBPs detected from disinfected water samples. Preferential order of various disinfection processes for DBPs formation control was determined. Bromide in water remarkably affected the speciation and quantity of trihalomethanes (THMs) and HAAs. Active carbon filtration can reduce the formation of DBPs efficiently.
(3) By using gas chromatography and mass spectrometry method, it was investigated that semivolatile organic compounds (SVOCs) transformation in humic acid simulation water samples disinfected by various processes. It was found that some SVOCs disappeared, some SVOCs decreased, and others increased. Some new SVOCs produced when water sample was disinfected by various processes. Primary SVOCs in drinking water were determined in disinfected humic acid simulation water samples too. It was demonstrated that humic acid water solutions can be used to simulate source water in disinfection research processes.
(4) It was studied that variation of water quality parameters of humic acid simulation water samples disinfected with different processes. The results showed that molecular weight of humic acid reduced 71.5%-92.0% and fluorescence intensity decreased 0.7% -27.6%, Substituent effect and weighty atom effect were the possible dominating organic structure factors that affected fluorescence intensity of humic acid water sample.
(5) DBPs formation and influencing factor of humic acid in different molecular weight distribution were investigated. The results showed that the humic acid in the molecular weight range between 50-100ku was the most important precursor of THMs and HAAs, and the precursors of THMs and HAAs were not the same substances. Variation of UV_(254), A_(410) and A_(465)/A_(656) in different molecular weight range indirectly reflected the reactive variation of humic acid in corresponding molecular weight range.
(6) Research of aerobic degradation of HAAs indicated that HAAs spontaneously degradated according to first order kinetic model and HAAs degradation rate affected by temperature obviously. HAAs degradation rate order is: DBAA＞DCAA＞MBAA＞TCAA. The possible degradation mechanism of HAAs is hydrolysis-oxidation at 7-35℃and chemical degradation at 45℃respectively.
(7) Study of reduction of HAAs by Zn~0 and Fe~0 indicated that HAAs was reduced by first-order kinetic rate under anoxic conditions. However, DBAA was reduced according to second-order and first-order kinetic rate by Zn~0 and Fe~0 respectively in aerobic condition. Zn~0 reduced HAAs more rapidly than Fe~0 did. Degradation rate of DBAA was significantly affected by metal dosage, pH value, coexistence of MBAA with high concentration and dissolved oxygen. MBAA and TCAA significantly reduced by Zn~0 too, but no obvious reduction of DCAA by Zn~0 was observed. Reduction of DBAA by Zn~0 and Fe~0 was controlled by a mixture of chemical reaction and mass transfer, but Reduction of MBAA by Zn~0 was controlled only by chemical reaction. The reductive reaction proceeded via sequential hydrogenolysis. Water molecules participated in the reductive reaction by providing protons.
(8) Health risk of drinking water disinfection was assessed by using multi-pathway risk assessment method. It was found that TCM and DCAA are the primary source of lifetime cancer risk and noncarcinogenic hazard risk in disinfected humic acid simulation water samples. TCM has higher cancer risk and noncarcinogenic hazard risk than DCAA does. Ingestion route is the main route of cancer risk and noncarcinogenic hazard risk. In the following disinfection process order, cancer risk and noncarcinogenic hazard risk ranged from high to low: Cl_2＞90% ClO_2+Cl_2＞ClO_2+Cl_2＞Cl_2+NH_4Cl＞90% ClO_2+NH_2Cl＞ClO_2+NH_2Cl＞ClO_2. Bromide in water changed the primary DBPs speciation which bring cancer risk and noncarcinogenic hazard risk. Active carbon filtration decreased the health risk of drinking water significantly.
引文
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