城乡耦合系统人类主导的碳循环及生态服务
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摘要
人类活动已强烈修饰(干扰)甚至主导陆地生态系统碳的生物地球化学循环,在满足人类食物和居住等基本需求的同时,也产生严重的环境和健康问题。自工业革命以来,人类对原生态系统干扰使其发生结构破缺和功能分化,形成为人类需求服务的单一目标功能单元(如农田、城市、污水处理厂等)。这些单元再通过耦合与自组织升级形成现实物理空间中以城市为核心的新系统——城乡耦合系统(Urban and Rural Coupling Systems, URCS)。尽管URCS的结构与功能日益完备,其碳生物地球化学循环过程以及所提供的生态服务仍不清楚。为明确URCS中不同功能子系统的碳循环特征及生态服务,本研究尝试构建URCS中人类主导的碳循环框架,阐明其中典型过程的碳平衡和生态服务变化,并探讨其自然-社会-经济影响因素。
本文将URCS分为生产、分解、人居和生命支持四个功能子系统,以其中典型人工系统为例打开URCS中人类主导下碳循环黑箱,基于质量平衡法构建生产-分解-人居-生命支持功能子系统之间的碳循环框架。同时,通过温室农业、人工湿地和城市等案例来研究URCS中典型的人类活动影响碳平衡和生态服务的过程,并探究其中的自然-社会-经济影响因素。本文采取实验测定和文献数据收集相结合的整合分析法来编译相关碳循环的数据集,并以质量平衡和生命周期法来量化相应过程的碳平衡及生态服务,再通过回归和差异显著性分析来阐明相关的影响因素。以下是主要结论：
1)人类主导作用增加URCS各功能子系统之间的碳流路径和碳库种类,并增加碳积累。其中,农田子系统2009年光合碳输入(623.1Tg C yr-1)约有88%的光合碳输入由于人类利用而进入工业、人居、畜牧水产等子系统,其碳输出路径多于分解和人居子系统；分解子系统向生命支持子系统的碳输出小于农田和人居子系统,能处理约79%的人居子系统废物碳输出；人居子系统2009年碳积累分别相当于农田和分解子系统的1.9和3.2倍,其中无机碳固持和农田相当,揭示出人类的居住和生活需求倾向于在人居子系统中积累碳。2009年农田和人居子系统的生命周期碳平衡为净碳源,分解子系统为净碳汇。但分解子系统仍是一个净温室气体的排放源(12.8-69.1Tg C02-eq),并不能缓解温室效应。
2)在URCS中,从传统农业转变为塑料温室农业的食物生产集约化过程在中国五个气候区(寒温带区、中温带区、北亚热带区、南亚热带区和青藏高原区)中均可减少生命周期碳排放,平均为1.51t C hm-2yr-1。若考虑N20排放,生命周期温室气体减排平均约为5.42t C02-eqhm-2yr1。这是主要是由于转变为塑料温室后净初级生产力和土壤碳固持的增加抵消外部有机肥碳输入和化石燃料碳排放的增加。该集约化过程还增强作为生产子系统目标功能——食物供给并伴随着多重生态服务和负服务的增加。塑料温室农业供给服务的经济价值占全部服务经济总价值的84%。在中国五个气候区中,从传统农业转变为塑料温室农业既增加生态服务(如蔬菜供给、碳固定、节水和减缓沙尘暴等)又增加负服务(如土壤盐渍化和酸化、温室气体排放等),但其生态系统服务净经济价值均为正。
3)人工湿地作为传统人工分解系统替代的典型案例,增强URCS的污水处理能力,是污水处理厂的重要补充途径之一。它在处理污水的同时可利用废N生产生物能源。人工湿地的生命周期碳排放比污水处理厂减少14tCt-1N去除,生命周期温室气体排放减少575t CO2-eq t-1N去除。主要是由于其较低的建造和运行成本使得物质和能量消耗较少。无论作为污水处理还是能源生产系统,人工湿地污水处理(或提供清洁水)的经济价值占生态服务总经济价值的97%。作为污水处理系统,人工湿地供给服务和调节服务经济价值分别是污水处理厂9.5和10.4倍,其负服务经济价值仅为污水处理厂的0.09%；作为能源生产系统,人工湿地生态服务总价值略高于微藻系统,是其他能源系统(如柳枝稷和大豆)的153-602倍。
4)城市生态系统作为URCS的调控中心,包括城市绿地系统和人居系统。尽管城市是一个巨大的碳源,但城市化过程增加碳密度。中国16个城市建成区人居系统平均碳密度(177.8t C hm-2)高于城市绿地系统(120.1t C hm-2)和同区域自然生态系统(109.8t C hm-2)。若考虑城市生态系统作为URCS物理空间上的一个结构功能单元,中国16个城市生态系统平均碳密度可达297.9t C hm-2,高于中国森林生态系统的平均碳密度(208.5t C hm-2)和热带雨林(40-250t C hm-2)的碳密度。这主要是由于绿地土壤碳密度的增高和人居系统碳库种类的增加.城市绿地系统作为生命支持系统之一,为人居系统提供景观美学、气候调节、空气净化等服务,改善城市的环境。其中文化服务(景观美学)经济价值平均为总服务经济价值的84%。同时,中国16个城市建成区绿地系统在人类管理下仍可带来生命周期净碳减排达,其负服务相对较小。
5)在URCS中生产、分解和城市生态系统碳平衡仍受到自然因素的直接或间接影响,并均为温度。如传统农业转变为塑料温室过程中积温增高可延长蔬菜生长季,提高系统的净初级生产力进而增加土壤碳固持；温度影响人工湿地的微生物过程从而改变CH4和N2O的排放；绿地碳密度随年均温增高而显著降低,可能由于高温增加土壤碳呼吸,而城市人居碳密度则与城市年均温呈显著的二次关系并在年均温居中的城市里最高,这可能是由于人们倾向于居住在温度适中的地方。社会经济对碳平衡的影响因素却比较多样化。如塑料温室农业在寒冷地区转变收益高于温暖地区,从而农户更愿意输入更多有机肥,从而增加净初级生产力和土壤碳固持；人工湿地中通过采取合理的N利用技术,使用垂直流人工湿地以及选取芦竹、芦苇等生产力较高的物种等易行手段可提高净初级生产力；城市绿地碳密度与单位面积能耗呈显著的二次关系并在单位面积能耗适中的城市里最低。城市人居系统碳密度同时随着单位面积家庭数和能耗的增加而线性增高,与城市人均GDP呈显著线性负相关。
综上,本研究揭示URCS中不同功能(生产、分解和人居)子系统的碳循环过程,补充碳的生物地球化学循环理论中人类主导影响下的碳循环部分。同时,通过食物生产集约化、传统人工分解系统替代和城市化过程理解人类主导下碳平衡与生态服务,以及自然-社会-经济影响因素,将为未来制定经济-生态-社会三赢的可持续发展模式提供科学理论依据。
Human activities have intensively modified and domianted the carbon cycle of terrestrial ecosystems. While satisfying basic needs for food and housing, human activities have brought serious environmental and health problems. Since industrial revolution, the human disturbances have broken the structure and differentiate the function of pristine ecosystems, forming functional units (e.g. croplands, city or wastewater treatment) with single goal to meet human needs. These units are in turn coupling, self-organizing and upgrading into new systems existing in real world with city as the core, i.e. Urban and Rural Coupling Systems (URCS). Although the structure and function of URCS is approaching perfect, its carbon cycle and ecosystem services remain largely unknown. In order to understand the carbon cycle and ecosystem services of different functional sub-systems, this study tried to construct the framework of human dominated carbon cycle in URCS. Based on the framework, we investigated the change of carbon cycle and ecosystem services during typical human dominated processes (e.g. agricultural intensification), and explored their natural, social and economic effect factors.
This study devided URCS into four functional subsystems:production, decomposition, human settlement and life-supporter. The specific processes of human dominated carbon cycle for URCS were explained using typical artificial ecosystems. Then, the framework of carbon cycle among production-decomposition-human settlement and life-supporter sub-systems were constructed with mass balance method. Finally, this paper used greenhouse agriculture, constructed wetland and urban ecosystem as case studies to investigate the human dominated carbon balance and ecosystem services during typical processes of URCS. Furthermore, the natural and socialeconomic factors affected the carbon cycle are also considered. This paper use meta-analysis to compile dataset with multiple data sources from experiments and literatures. Next, the carbon balance and ecosystem services during corresponding processes are quantified using mass balance and life cycle analysis. The effect factors are explained with statistial methods. The main results are as follows:
1) Human domination has increased the pathways of carbon fluxes and diversities of carbon pools among different functional sub-systems in URCS. As a result, carbon accumulation also increased in human dominated systems. In2009, the photosynthetic carbon inputs of croplands is623.1Tg C yr-1. About88%of the photosynthetic carbon inputs are appropriated by humans and exported into industry, human settlement and livestock sub-systems. The pathways of carbon outputs for croplands are more than that of decomposition and human settlement. The carbon output intensity of deompositon sub-systems into life-supporter sub-systems is lower than that of croplands and human settlements, In2009, the decomposition sub-system can treat～79%waste carbon outputs from human settlements. Human settlements can accumulate1.9-and3.2-fold carbon that of croplands and decomposition sub-systems in2009. The inorganic carbon sequestration in human settlement is similar to that of croplands. These resutls indicates human activities tend to accumulate carbon in human settlements. The life cycle carbon balances of croplands and human settlement in2009act as carbon sources while that of decompositon sub-systems is carbon sinks. However, decompostion sub-systems are also a net greenhouse gas souces (12.8-69.1Tg CO2-eq), contributing to greenhouse effect.
2) As intensification of food production in URCS, the conversion from conventional farming to plastic greenhouse agriculture can reduce carbon emissions under five climatic zones (cold-temperate, mid-temperate, Tibet, northern and southern subtropical zones) in China. The average carbon emission and greenhouse gas reduction is1.51t C hm-2yr-1and5.42t CO2-eq hm-2yr-1under life cycle analysis, respectively. This is because the increase of net primary production and soil carbon sequestration following the conversion can more than offset the increment of the external organic fertilizer carbon inputs and fossil fuel carbon emissions. This intensification can strengthen the basic function of production sub-systems, i.e. food supply while simutaneously increase mutiple ecosystem services and dis-services. The economic value of provision services is about84%that of total services from plastic greenhouse. Conversion from conventional farming to plastic greenhouses increase both ecosystem services and dis-services under five climatic zones in China. However, all the net econimic values are positive.
3) As the typical case for diversification of artificial decomposition sub-system, constructed wetlands can increase the capacity of wastewater treatment in URCS. Constructed wetlands is one of important substitute approaches for wastewater treatment, treating wastewater nitrogen while producing biofuel. The life cycle carbo emissions and greehouse gas emissions of constructed wetlands are14t C t-1N removal and575t CO2-eq t-1N removal less than that of wastewater treatment plants, respectively. This is mainly because the low construct and operation cost lead to low material and energy consumption. The economic value of provision service (clean water supply) from constructed wetlands can reach97%of total economic values, either as wastewater treatment or biofuel production system. As wastewater treatment, the provision and regulation services from constructed wetland is9.5-and10.4-fold that of wastewater treatment plants, while its dis-service is only0.09%. As biofuel production systems, the total economic value of construted wetlands is slightly higher than microalgea systems, and is153-602fold that of other biofuel production systems (e.g. switchgrass and corn).
4) As the regulation center of URCS, urban ecosystem include urban greenspace and human settlement. Urbanization increased carbon density release large amount of carbon. The average carbon density of human settlement (177.8t C hm-2) is higher than that of urban greenspace (120.1t C hm"2) and adjacent natural ecosystems (109.8t C hm-2) across built-up area of16cities in China. Considering the urban ecosystem as an integrative functional unit in real world, the average total carbon density of built-up area (297.9t C hm-2) can be higher than that of forest ecosystem (208.5t C hm-2) and tropical rain forests (40-250t C hm"2). This may be due to increase of greenspace soil carbon density and diversity of carbon pools in human settlements. As the life-support sub-systems, urban greenspace can provide ecosystem services such as aesthetic value, climate regulation, air purification and improve urban environment. The economic value of cultural services from urban greenspace is on average～84%that of total ecosystem services. Moreover, urban greenspace, though managed by human, can reduce carbon emissions under life cycle analysis and provide low dis-services.
5) The carbon balance of production, decomposition and urban ecosystem in URCS is directly or indirectly affected by natural factors, namely temperature. For example, the conversion from conventional farming to plastic greenhouses have increased the accumulated temperature and thus prolonged the growth seasons, which in turn increase net primary production and soil carbon sequestration; Temperature can affect the microorganism activities and change CH4and N2O emissions; Carbon density of urban greenspace significantily decrease with increasing annual mean temperature, suggesting high temperature would increase soil respiration; Carbon density of human settlements in built-up area peaks in the cities with medium annual mean temperature. This may be because people tend to live in mild climate. Socioeconomic factors affecting carbon balance is more diverse. For instance, farmers are willing to apply more organic fertilizers in cold regions than warm regions due to higher economic return, increasing net primary production and soil carbon sequestration; Net primary production of constructed wetlands could be improved by reasonable nitrogen level, vertical constructed wetland and species with high productivity; Carbon density of urban greenspace is lowest in cities with medium energy intensity, while that of human settlement increase with household density and energy intensity and decreas with per capita GDP.
Above all, this study reveals the carbon cycle of subsytems with different functions in URCS, supplementing the parts of human dominated carbon cycle in the context of global carbon cycle. Furthermore, this study use intensification of food production, replacement of conventional artifical decomposition approaches and urbanization to understand human dominated carbon balance and ecosystem services, and their natural and socioeconomic factors. This study will provide scientific foundations for sustainable development in the future.
本文将URCS分为生产、分解、人居和生命支持四个功能子系统,以其中典型人工系统为例打开URCS中人类主导下碳循环黑箱,基于质量平衡法构建生产-分解-人居-生命支持功能子系统之间的碳循环框架。同时,通过温室农业、人工湿地和城市等案例来研究URCS中典型的人类活动影响碳平衡和生态服务的过程,并探究其中的自然-社会-经济影响因素。本文采取实验测定和文献数据收集相结合的整合分析法来编译相关碳循环的数据集,并以质量平衡和生命周期法来量化相应过程的碳平衡及生态服务,再通过回归和差异显著性分析来阐明相关的影响因素。以下是主要结论：
1)人类主导作用增加URCS各功能子系统之间的碳流路径和碳库种类,并增加碳积累。其中,农田子系统2009年光合碳输入(623.1Tg C yr-1)约有88%的光合碳输入由于人类利用而进入工业、人居、畜牧水产等子系统,其碳输出路径多于分解和人居子系统；分解子系统向生命支持子系统的碳输出小于农田和人居子系统,能处理约79%的人居子系统废物碳输出；人居子系统2009年碳积累分别相当于农田和分解子系统的1.9和3.2倍,其中无机碳固持和农田相当,揭示出人类的居住和生活需求倾向于在人居子系统中积累碳。2009年农田和人居子系统的生命周期碳平衡为净碳源,分解子系统为净碳汇。但分解子系统仍是一个净温室气体的排放源(12.8-69.1Tg C02-eq),并不能缓解温室效应。
2)在URCS中,从传统农业转变为塑料温室农业的食物生产集约化过程在中国五个气候区(寒温带区、中温带区、北亚热带区、南亚热带区和青藏高原区)中均可减少生命周期碳排放,平均为1.51t C hm-2yr-1。若考虑N20排放,生命周期温室气体减排平均约为5.42t C02-eqhm-2yr1。这是主要是由于转变为塑料温室后净初级生产力和土壤碳固持的增加抵消外部有机肥碳输入和化石燃料碳排放的增加。该集约化过程还增强作为生产子系统目标功能——食物供给并伴随着多重生态服务和负服务的增加。塑料温室农业供给服务的经济价值占全部服务经济总价值的84%。在中国五个气候区中,从传统农业转变为塑料温室农业既增加生态服务(如蔬菜供给、碳固定、节水和减缓沙尘暴等)又增加负服务(如土壤盐渍化和酸化、温室气体排放等),但其生态系统服务净经济价值均为正。
3)人工湿地作为传统人工分解系统替代的典型案例,增强URCS的污水处理能力,是污水处理厂的重要补充途径之一。它在处理污水的同时可利用废N生产生物能源。人工湿地的生命周期碳排放比污水处理厂减少14tCt-1N去除,生命周期温室气体排放减少575t CO2-eq t-1N去除。主要是由于其较低的建造和运行成本使得物质和能量消耗较少。无论作为污水处理还是能源生产系统,人工湿地污水处理(或提供清洁水)的经济价值占生态服务总经济价值的97%。作为污水处理系统,人工湿地供给服务和调节服务经济价值分别是污水处理厂9.5和10.4倍,其负服务经济价值仅为污水处理厂的0.09%；作为能源生产系统,人工湿地生态服务总价值略高于微藻系统,是其他能源系统(如柳枝稷和大豆)的153-602倍。
4)城市生态系统作为URCS的调控中心,包括城市绿地系统和人居系统。尽管城市是一个巨大的碳源,但城市化过程增加碳密度。中国16个城市建成区人居系统平均碳密度(177.8t C hm-2)高于城市绿地系统(120.1t C hm-2)和同区域自然生态系统(109.8t C hm-2)。若考虑城市生态系统作为URCS物理空间上的一个结构功能单元,中国16个城市生态系统平均碳密度可达297.9t C hm-2,高于中国森林生态系统的平均碳密度(208.5t C hm-2)和热带雨林(40-250t C hm-2)的碳密度。这主要是由于绿地土壤碳密度的增高和人居系统碳库种类的增加.城市绿地系统作为生命支持系统之一,为人居系统提供景观美学、气候调节、空气净化等服务,改善城市的环境。其中文化服务(景观美学)经济价值平均为总服务经济价值的84%。同时,中国16个城市建成区绿地系统在人类管理下仍可带来生命周期净碳减排达,其负服务相对较小。
5)在URCS中生产、分解和城市生态系统碳平衡仍受到自然因素的直接或间接影响,并均为温度。如传统农业转变为塑料温室过程中积温增高可延长蔬菜生长季,提高系统的净初级生产力进而增加土壤碳固持；温度影响人工湿地的微生物过程从而改变CH4和N2O的排放；绿地碳密度随年均温增高而显著降低,可能由于高温增加土壤碳呼吸,而城市人居碳密度则与城市年均温呈显著的二次关系并在年均温居中的城市里最高,这可能是由于人们倾向于居住在温度适中的地方。社会经济对碳平衡的影响因素却比较多样化。如塑料温室农业在寒冷地区转变收益高于温暖地区,从而农户更愿意输入更多有机肥,从而增加净初级生产力和土壤碳固持；人工湿地中通过采取合理的N利用技术,使用垂直流人工湿地以及选取芦竹、芦苇等生产力较高的物种等易行手段可提高净初级生产力；城市绿地碳密度与单位面积能耗呈显著的二次关系并在单位面积能耗适中的城市里最低。城市人居系统碳密度同时随着单位面积家庭数和能耗的增加而线性增高,与城市人均GDP呈显著线性负相关。
综上,本研究揭示URCS中不同功能(生产、分解和人居)子系统的碳循环过程,补充碳的生物地球化学循环理论中人类主导影响下的碳循环部分。同时,通过食物生产集约化、传统人工分解系统替代和城市化过程理解人类主导下碳平衡与生态服务,以及自然-社会-经济影响因素,将为未来制定经济-生态-社会三赢的可持续发展模式提供科学理论依据。
Human activities have intensively modified and domianted the carbon cycle of terrestrial ecosystems. While satisfying basic needs for food and housing, human activities have brought serious environmental and health problems. Since industrial revolution, the human disturbances have broken the structure and differentiate the function of pristine ecosystems, forming functional units (e.g. croplands, city or wastewater treatment) with single goal to meet human needs. These units are in turn coupling, self-organizing and upgrading into new systems existing in real world with city as the core, i.e. Urban and Rural Coupling Systems (URCS). Although the structure and function of URCS is approaching perfect, its carbon cycle and ecosystem services remain largely unknown. In order to understand the carbon cycle and ecosystem services of different functional sub-systems, this study tried to construct the framework of human dominated carbon cycle in URCS. Based on the framework, we investigated the change of carbon cycle and ecosystem services during typical human dominated processes (e.g. agricultural intensification), and explored their natural, social and economic effect factors.
This study devided URCS into four functional subsystems:production, decomposition, human settlement and life-supporter. The specific processes of human dominated carbon cycle for URCS were explained using typical artificial ecosystems. Then, the framework of carbon cycle among production-decomposition-human settlement and life-supporter sub-systems were constructed with mass balance method. Finally, this paper used greenhouse agriculture, constructed wetland and urban ecosystem as case studies to investigate the human dominated carbon balance and ecosystem services during typical processes of URCS. Furthermore, the natural and socialeconomic factors affected the carbon cycle are also considered. This paper use meta-analysis to compile dataset with multiple data sources from experiments and literatures. Next, the carbon balance and ecosystem services during corresponding processes are quantified using mass balance and life cycle analysis. The effect factors are explained with statistial methods. The main results are as follows:
1) Human domination has increased the pathways of carbon fluxes and diversities of carbon pools among different functional sub-systems in URCS. As a result, carbon accumulation also increased in human dominated systems. In2009, the photosynthetic carbon inputs of croplands is623.1Tg C yr-1. About88%of the photosynthetic carbon inputs are appropriated by humans and exported into industry, human settlement and livestock sub-systems. The pathways of carbon outputs for croplands are more than that of decomposition and human settlement. The carbon output intensity of deompositon sub-systems into life-supporter sub-systems is lower than that of croplands and human settlements, In2009, the decomposition sub-system can treat～79%waste carbon outputs from human settlements. Human settlements can accumulate1.9-and3.2-fold carbon that of croplands and decomposition sub-systems in2009. The inorganic carbon sequestration in human settlement is similar to that of croplands. These resutls indicates human activities tend to accumulate carbon in human settlements. The life cycle carbon balances of croplands and human settlement in2009act as carbon sources while that of decompositon sub-systems is carbon sinks. However, decompostion sub-systems are also a net greenhouse gas souces (12.8-69.1Tg CO2-eq), contributing to greenhouse effect.
2) As intensification of food production in URCS, the conversion from conventional farming to plastic greenhouse agriculture can reduce carbon emissions under five climatic zones (cold-temperate, mid-temperate, Tibet, northern and southern subtropical zones) in China. The average carbon emission and greenhouse gas reduction is1.51t C hm-2yr-1and5.42t CO2-eq hm-2yr-1under life cycle analysis, respectively. This is because the increase of net primary production and soil carbon sequestration following the conversion can more than offset the increment of the external organic fertilizer carbon inputs and fossil fuel carbon emissions. This intensification can strengthen the basic function of production sub-systems, i.e. food supply while simutaneously increase mutiple ecosystem services and dis-services. The economic value of provision services is about84%that of total services from plastic greenhouse. Conversion from conventional farming to plastic greenhouses increase both ecosystem services and dis-services under five climatic zones in China. However, all the net econimic values are positive.
3) As the typical case for diversification of artificial decomposition sub-system, constructed wetlands can increase the capacity of wastewater treatment in URCS. Constructed wetlands is one of important substitute approaches for wastewater treatment, treating wastewater nitrogen while producing biofuel. The life cycle carbo emissions and greehouse gas emissions of constructed wetlands are14t C t-1N removal and575t CO2-eq t-1N removal less than that of wastewater treatment plants, respectively. This is mainly because the low construct and operation cost lead to low material and energy consumption. The economic value of provision service (clean water supply) from constructed wetlands can reach97%of total economic values, either as wastewater treatment or biofuel production system. As wastewater treatment, the provision and regulation services from constructed wetland is9.5-and10.4-fold that of wastewater treatment plants, while its dis-service is only0.09%. As biofuel production systems, the total economic value of construted wetlands is slightly higher than microalgea systems, and is153-602fold that of other biofuel production systems (e.g. switchgrass and corn).
4) As the regulation center of URCS, urban ecosystem include urban greenspace and human settlement. Urbanization increased carbon density release large amount of carbon. The average carbon density of human settlement (177.8t C hm-2) is higher than that of urban greenspace (120.1t C hm"2) and adjacent natural ecosystems (109.8t C hm-2) across built-up area of16cities in China. Considering the urban ecosystem as an integrative functional unit in real world, the average total carbon density of built-up area (297.9t C hm-2) can be higher than that of forest ecosystem (208.5t C hm-2) and tropical rain forests (40-250t C hm"2). This may be due to increase of greenspace soil carbon density and diversity of carbon pools in human settlements. As the life-support sub-systems, urban greenspace can provide ecosystem services such as aesthetic value, climate regulation, air purification and improve urban environment. The economic value of cultural services from urban greenspace is on average～84%that of total ecosystem services. Moreover, urban greenspace, though managed by human, can reduce carbon emissions under life cycle analysis and provide low dis-services.
5) The carbon balance of production, decomposition and urban ecosystem in URCS is directly or indirectly affected by natural factors, namely temperature. For example, the conversion from conventional farming to plastic greenhouses have increased the accumulated temperature and thus prolonged the growth seasons, which in turn increase net primary production and soil carbon sequestration; Temperature can affect the microorganism activities and change CH4and N2O emissions; Carbon density of urban greenspace significantily decrease with increasing annual mean temperature, suggesting high temperature would increase soil respiration; Carbon density of human settlements in built-up area peaks in the cities with medium annual mean temperature. This may be because people tend to live in mild climate. Socioeconomic factors affecting carbon balance is more diverse. For instance, farmers are willing to apply more organic fertilizers in cold regions than warm regions due to higher economic return, increasing net primary production and soil carbon sequestration; Net primary production of constructed wetlands could be improved by reasonable nitrogen level, vertical constructed wetland and species with high productivity; Carbon density of urban greenspace is lowest in cities with medium energy intensity, while that of human settlement increase with household density and energy intensity and decreas with per capita GDP.
Above all, this study reveals the carbon cycle of subsytems with different functions in URCS, supplementing the parts of human dominated carbon cycle in the context of global carbon cycle. Furthermore, this study use intensification of food production, replacement of conventional artifical decomposition approaches and urbanization to understand human dominated carbon balance and ecosystem services, and their natural and socioeconomic factors. This study will provide scientific foundations for sustainable development in the future.
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