我国沿青藏高原同纬度带降水云系的垂直结构及其微物理特征的分析模拟研究
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摘要
云的研究工作虽已大量开展，但并未细致的分析降水云系和非降水云系的宏观特征和微物理结构，特别是我国不同下垫面不同天气条件下云系的气候特征有待深入研究。无论是天气模式还是气候模式，对云的模拟仍然存在较大的不确定性，需要进一步改进模式的云微物理方案，使其能更好地再现云的特征，提高模式的模拟能力。针对上述问题，本文首先将CloudSat/CALIPSO云卫星数据和高时空分辨率的融合降水数据结合，分析了沿高原同纬度带（90o-130oE和27o-33oN）不同下垫面不同降水强度情况下的云垂直分布和微物理结构的季节变化特征；基于观测分析，评估了CMIP5国内外多个气候模式对此纬度带降水云系的模拟能力；还利用WRF模式对2008年1月我国南方发生的雨雪冰冻天气条件下云的垂直结构和微物理结构特征进行模拟，研究了与冻雨的关联；最后，基于CloudSat卫星资料的观测分析，提出了新的水云，冰云比例计算的参数化方案，并在BCC_AGCM2.1大气环流模式中得到应用，评估了该方案的可用性。论文主要结论如下：
1.沿高原同纬度带，无论是有雨还是无雨均是单层云占主导，多层云中双层云出现比例最高。无雨情况下，春、夏季单层云的垂直分布位置最高，秋、冬季位置明显偏低，夏季所有地区云顶均可达15km，高原东部单层云大多主要集中在5-8km，115oE以东的我国东部沿海地区及海洋则集中在7-12km，但在四川盆地集中分布在4km以下。在秋、冬季，不管是青藏高原、四川盆地和东部沿海，单层云都集中分布在近地面5km以下；对于两层云分布而言，在所有季节的底层云主要分布在近地面2-3km，春、秋、冬季的顶层云分布在7-10km，夏季位置最高，达11-15km。
2.在有雨情况下，沿高原同纬度带所有地区的单层云明显较厚，不管是青藏高原、四川盆地和东部沿海，云顶都可达10km上下，冬季偏低，夏季由于对流旺盛，云顶位置偏高；两层云的位置分布同无雨条件相近，主要区别是底层云明显变厚；随着降水强度的增加，主要表现为单层云和双层云的底层厚度变为更加深厚。
3.大气中的水云和冰云含量与前面分析云的垂直分布结构相对应，无雨时，沿高原同纬度带大气水云含量主要集中在8km以下，冬季相对于其他季节有所偏低，主要位于6km以下。110oE以西的高原东部和四川盆地水云含量在所有季节都明显大于以东地区。对于冰水含量而言，高原东部仍然是所有季节冰水含量最大的区域。从高原、盆地到以东海洋的所有区域，冰云几乎分布在同一高度位置，但也存在明显的季节性差异，表现为春秋季主要分布在4-12km，夏季分布在5-15km，冬季分布在2-10km，春、夏季的冰水含量比秋、冬季节大；有雨时，液水含量的高度分布与无雨时相近，但盆地及其以东地区低层的液水含量比高原东部要大，不同区域的冰水含量数值几乎相当。随着降水强度的增加，云中液水和冰水含量均有所增加。
4.评估了7个CMIP5各模式1999-2008年夏季沿高原纬度带云的垂直结构特征，分析表明，模式之间存在很大的差异。MRI-CGCM3，BCC-CSM1.1-m，MPI-ESM-LR三个模式能模拟出单、双层云占主导的特征，其他模式多存在模拟多层云偏多的现象。所模拟的单层云，无雨条件下，云底和云顶高度都与实际存在较大偏差， MPI-ESM-LR相对较好，而MRI-CGCM3和BCC-CSM1.1-m单层云云底过高；有雨时，大部分模式模拟的单层云比实际偏厚。所模拟的两层云，分辨率最高的MRI-CGCM3模式均能清晰的呈现两层云的结构特征，其余大部分模式均存在模拟的上层云偏厚的现象。在云量的模拟上，所有模式模拟的云量均比实际偏少，特别是低层，与实际偏差较大。在云微物理结构方面，多模式模拟的冰水含量均比实际偏少，而在有降雨的时候，沿高原同纬度带上的部分区域模拟的液水含量又比实际偏多。综合而言，除MRI-CGCM3模式外，分辨率较低的MPI-ESM-LR模式对云的模拟能力也相对较好，这说明，分辨率的高低并不是制约云模拟能力的唯一因素。
5.评估了WRF模式对2008年1月发生在我国南方的一次典型的雨雪冰冻天气过程的模拟，模式能够再现冻雨发生核心区域云中不同种类水凝物（云水，雨水，云冰，雪，霰）随时间的演变特征，结合CloudSat卫星数据，WRF模式能够模拟出高空融化、近地面冻结的独特垂直温度结构，只是在部分区域上空模拟的冰水含量比实际偏多。在此期间，WRF所模拟的单、双层云分布仍占主导，但双层云所占比例最高，不同于CloudSat/CALIPSO观测的气候特征。在无雨、有雨时段单层云的分布与前面基于卫星观测的分析结论基本上吻合，随着降水强度的增加，厚度变厚；对于双层云的分布而言，顶层云位置明显较卫星观测的气候分布位置偏高。
6.基于CloudSat数据产品，提出云中冰云、水云所占比例计算的参数化修改方案。该方案在BCC_AGCM2.1模式中得到应用，通过2004-2009年的5年AMIP数值模拟试验，与原参数化相比，无论有无降雨的情况，新方案均有效的改善了原方案对沿高原同纬度带高空8-11km水云比例模拟过大的现象，改进了对夏季水云、冰云垂直分布结构的模拟。
The studies about cloud have carried out in the recent decades. However, thecloud is not divided in to the precipitating cloud and non-precipitating cloud. Thecharacteristics of cloud with the totally different underlying height surface andthe precipitation intensity need to be learned. In addition, weather model andclimate model generally can-not simulate well the cloud distribution. In order totreat the cloud process with increasing realism in the model, the microphysicalschemes have to be improved. In this paper, firstly, observations fromCloudSat/CALIPSO satellites and high spatial and temporal resolutionprecipitation dataset are used to analyze the vertical structure and microphysicsfeature of clouds with the different precipitation intensity and underlying heightsurface over the latitude zone which is along the Tibetan Plateau (90o-130oE and27o-33oN). Secondly, based on the observational analysis, the abilities of CMIP5models for simulating the clouds over the same latitude zone have been comparedand evaluated. Thirdly, the WRF is used to simulate the vertical structure and theevolution of hydrometeor species in the freezing rain over the Southern China in2008. Finally, a new microphysics parameterization is proposed. Its performanceis evaluated in the Beijing Climate Center Atmospheric General CirculationModel Version2.1(BCC_AGCM2.1). The main conclusions are summarized asfollows:
1. The occurrence frequency of single-layer cloud dominates anddouble-layer is relatively more common in the multilayer cloud. In the rainlesscondition, the occurrence height of single-layer is higher in spring and summer,the top of cloud can reach the15km in summer. The occurrence height ofsingle-layer most concentrated between5and8km over the eastern TibetanPlateau, while the height between7and12km over the east coast and oceanarea.The cloud height is mainly below4km over the Sichuan Basin.Thesingle-layer most concentrated below5km over the underlying surface in autumnand winter. In addition, double-layer cloud is thin over the whole latitude zone;the lower layer is mainly between2and3km over the underlying surface. Theupper layer cloud most concentrated beween11and15km in summer, while the height is between7and10km in other seasons.
2. The single-layer cloud is thicker when the surface precipitation occurred.The top of single layer cloud reaches around10km over the whole latitude zone;the height of cloud top is higher due to the convective activity in summer, while itis obviously lower in winter. Although the distribution of double-layer cloud issimilar, the lower layer is thicker.Nevertheless, the single layer and the lower ofdouble layer cloud becomes thicker with an increasing intensity of precipitation
3. The analyses on the liquid cloud and ice cloud correspond to the verticalstructure of cloud. The height of liquid water content is located below8km alongthe latitude zone of Tibetan Plateau, while it is lower in winter. The content ofliquid cloud over the eastern Tibetan Plateau and Sichuan Basin is more than thecontent which is over the eastern area. In contrast, the eastern Tibetan Plateau ishigh value area of ice water content in all seasons. Although the ice cloud isobserved in the same layer, the distribution varies with the season. Ice cloud islocated between4and12km in spring,5-15km in summer and2-10km in winter.The ice content which is over the whole latitude zone in spring and summer ismore than other seasons. Compared to the rainless condition, the height of liquidwater content is approximately similar when the surface precipitation occurred.However, the high value region of liquid water is over the Sichuan Basin andeastern area. The ice water and liquid water content become larger with increasedprecipitation intensity.
4. Comparing with the satellite observations, MRI-CGCM3，BCC-CSM1.1-mand MPI-ESM-LR models can simulate the phenomenon that single-layer anddouble-layer are prevailing over the latitude zone which is along the TibetanPlateau area, however, the occurrence frequency of multilayer cloud in othermodels is higher than observation. In the rainless condition, most models cannotsimulate the appropriate top and base of single-layer cloud, however,MPI-ESM-LR is better than MRI-CGCM3and BCC-CSM1.1-m. Most of CMIP5models overestimate the thickness of single-layer cloud in the rainy condition.MRI-CGCM3with the high resolution can exhibit the vertical structure ofdouble-layer cloud, while others overestimate the thickness of the upper layer. Allof the models underestimate the low-level cloud fraction. In addition, the icewater and liquid water are also underestimated in the rainless condition; latter isoverestimated in the rainy condition. Relatively low resolution MPI-ESM-LRalways shows the better results, it shows that the resolution is not the only factorto restrict the ability on the cloud simulation.
5. A freezing rain event between Jan11and Feb4in2008over southernChina is studied using the30km-mesh Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF)model simulations with four different microphysics schemes and CloudSatsatellite observations. This3-week-long freezing rain event, the temporalevolution of cloud microphysical structure and icing processing from Jan11toFeb4is also well simulated by WRF. In addition, WRF can capture the followingcharacteristics of an atmospheric vertical thermal structure for forming freezingrain: above-freezing temperature in the middle troposphere and below-freezingtemperature in the lower troposphere. The double-layer cloud is prevailing in thisdisaster; however, it is different from the satellite observation. The distribution ofsingle layer cloud is similar with the observation and becomes more concentratedas an increasing intensity of precipitation. However, the upper layer ofdouble-layer cloud is higher than the satellite observation.
6. Based on the CloudSat data, a new microphysics parameterization isproposed. The performance is evaluated in the BCC_AGCM2.1. The result showsthat the new parameterization is more realistic in their proportion of ice water andliquid water. The liquid water bias is eliminated between the8and11km
1.沿高原同纬度带，无论是有雨还是无雨均是单层云占主导，多层云中双层云出现比例最高。无雨情况下，春、夏季单层云的垂直分布位置最高，秋、冬季位置明显偏低，夏季所有地区云顶均可达15km，高原东部单层云大多主要集中在5-8km，115oE以东的我国东部沿海地区及海洋则集中在7-12km，但在四川盆地集中分布在4km以下。在秋、冬季，不管是青藏高原、四川盆地和东部沿海，单层云都集中分布在近地面5km以下；对于两层云分布而言，在所有季节的底层云主要分布在近地面2-3km，春、秋、冬季的顶层云分布在7-10km，夏季位置最高，达11-15km。
2.在有雨情况下，沿高原同纬度带所有地区的单层云明显较厚，不管是青藏高原、四川盆地和东部沿海，云顶都可达10km上下，冬季偏低，夏季由于对流旺盛，云顶位置偏高；两层云的位置分布同无雨条件相近，主要区别是底层云明显变厚；随着降水强度的增加，主要表现为单层云和双层云的底层厚度变为更加深厚。
3.大气中的水云和冰云含量与前面分析云的垂直分布结构相对应，无雨时，沿高原同纬度带大气水云含量主要集中在8km以下，冬季相对于其他季节有所偏低，主要位于6km以下。110oE以西的高原东部和四川盆地水云含量在所有季节都明显大于以东地区。对于冰水含量而言，高原东部仍然是所有季节冰水含量最大的区域。从高原、盆地到以东海洋的所有区域，冰云几乎分布在同一高度位置，但也存在明显的季节性差异，表现为春秋季主要分布在4-12km，夏季分布在5-15km，冬季分布在2-10km，春、夏季的冰水含量比秋、冬季节大；有雨时，液水含量的高度分布与无雨时相近，但盆地及其以东地区低层的液水含量比高原东部要大，不同区域的冰水含量数值几乎相当。随着降水强度的增加，云中液水和冰水含量均有所增加。
4.评估了7个CMIP5各模式1999-2008年夏季沿高原纬度带云的垂直结构特征，分析表明，模式之间存在很大的差异。MRI-CGCM3，BCC-CSM1.1-m，MPI-ESM-LR三个模式能模拟出单、双层云占主导的特征，其他模式多存在模拟多层云偏多的现象。所模拟的单层云，无雨条件下，云底和云顶高度都与实际存在较大偏差， MPI-ESM-LR相对较好，而MRI-CGCM3和BCC-CSM1.1-m单层云云底过高；有雨时，大部分模式模拟的单层云比实际偏厚。所模拟的两层云，分辨率最高的MRI-CGCM3模式均能清晰的呈现两层云的结构特征，其余大部分模式均存在模拟的上层云偏厚的现象。在云量的模拟上，所有模式模拟的云量均比实际偏少，特别是低层，与实际偏差较大。在云微物理结构方面，多模式模拟的冰水含量均比实际偏少，而在有降雨的时候，沿高原同纬度带上的部分区域模拟的液水含量又比实际偏多。综合而言，除MRI-CGCM3模式外，分辨率较低的MPI-ESM-LR模式对云的模拟能力也相对较好，这说明，分辨率的高低并不是制约云模拟能力的唯一因素。
5.评估了WRF模式对2008年1月发生在我国南方的一次典型的雨雪冰冻天气过程的模拟，模式能够再现冻雨发生核心区域云中不同种类水凝物（云水，雨水，云冰，雪，霰）随时间的演变特征，结合CloudSat卫星数据，WRF模式能够模拟出高空融化、近地面冻结的独特垂直温度结构，只是在部分区域上空模拟的冰水含量比实际偏多。在此期间，WRF所模拟的单、双层云分布仍占主导，但双层云所占比例最高，不同于CloudSat/CALIPSO观测的气候特征。在无雨、有雨时段单层云的分布与前面基于卫星观测的分析结论基本上吻合，随着降水强度的增加，厚度变厚；对于双层云的分布而言，顶层云位置明显较卫星观测的气候分布位置偏高。
6.基于CloudSat数据产品，提出云中冰云、水云所占比例计算的参数化修改方案。该方案在BCC_AGCM2.1模式中得到应用，通过2004-2009年的5年AMIP数值模拟试验，与原参数化相比，无论有无降雨的情况，新方案均有效的改善了原方案对沿高原同纬度带高空8-11km水云比例模拟过大的现象，改进了对夏季水云、冰云垂直分布结构的模拟。
The studies about cloud have carried out in the recent decades. However, thecloud is not divided in to the precipitating cloud and non-precipitating cloud. Thecharacteristics of cloud with the totally different underlying height surface andthe precipitation intensity need to be learned. In addition, weather model andclimate model generally can-not simulate well the cloud distribution. In order totreat the cloud process with increasing realism in the model, the microphysicalschemes have to be improved. In this paper, firstly, observations fromCloudSat/CALIPSO satellites and high spatial and temporal resolutionprecipitation dataset are used to analyze the vertical structure and microphysicsfeature of clouds with the different precipitation intensity and underlying heightsurface over the latitude zone which is along the Tibetan Plateau (90o-130oE and27o-33oN). Secondly, based on the observational analysis, the abilities of CMIP5models for simulating the clouds over the same latitude zone have been comparedand evaluated. Thirdly, the WRF is used to simulate the vertical structure and theevolution of hydrometeor species in the freezing rain over the Southern China in2008. Finally, a new microphysics parameterization is proposed. Its performanceis evaluated in the Beijing Climate Center Atmospheric General CirculationModel Version2.1(BCC_AGCM2.1). The main conclusions are summarized asfollows:
1. The occurrence frequency of single-layer cloud dominates anddouble-layer is relatively more common in the multilayer cloud. In the rainlesscondition, the occurrence height of single-layer is higher in spring and summer,the top of cloud can reach the15km in summer. The occurrence height ofsingle-layer most concentrated between5and8km over the eastern TibetanPlateau, while the height between7and12km over the east coast and oceanarea.The cloud height is mainly below4km over the Sichuan Basin.Thesingle-layer most concentrated below5km over the underlying surface in autumnand winter. In addition, double-layer cloud is thin over the whole latitude zone;the lower layer is mainly between2and3km over the underlying surface. Theupper layer cloud most concentrated beween11and15km in summer, while the height is between7and10km in other seasons.
2. The single-layer cloud is thicker when the surface precipitation occurred.The top of single layer cloud reaches around10km over the whole latitude zone;the height of cloud top is higher due to the convective activity in summer, while itis obviously lower in winter. Although the distribution of double-layer cloud issimilar, the lower layer is thicker.Nevertheless, the single layer and the lower ofdouble layer cloud becomes thicker with an increasing intensity of precipitation
3. The analyses on the liquid cloud and ice cloud correspond to the verticalstructure of cloud. The height of liquid water content is located below8km alongthe latitude zone of Tibetan Plateau, while it is lower in winter. The content ofliquid cloud over the eastern Tibetan Plateau and Sichuan Basin is more than thecontent which is over the eastern area. In contrast, the eastern Tibetan Plateau ishigh value area of ice water content in all seasons. Although the ice cloud isobserved in the same layer, the distribution varies with the season. Ice cloud islocated between4and12km in spring,5-15km in summer and2-10km in winter.The ice content which is over the whole latitude zone in spring and summer ismore than other seasons. Compared to the rainless condition, the height of liquidwater content is approximately similar when the surface precipitation occurred.However, the high value region of liquid water is over the Sichuan Basin andeastern area. The ice water and liquid water content become larger with increasedprecipitation intensity.
4. Comparing with the satellite observations, MRI-CGCM3，BCC-CSM1.1-mand MPI-ESM-LR models can simulate the phenomenon that single-layer anddouble-layer are prevailing over the latitude zone which is along the TibetanPlateau area, however, the occurrence frequency of multilayer cloud in othermodels is higher than observation. In the rainless condition, most models cannotsimulate the appropriate top and base of single-layer cloud, however,MPI-ESM-LR is better than MRI-CGCM3and BCC-CSM1.1-m. Most of CMIP5models overestimate the thickness of single-layer cloud in the rainy condition.MRI-CGCM3with the high resolution can exhibit the vertical structure ofdouble-layer cloud, while others overestimate the thickness of the upper layer. Allof the models underestimate the low-level cloud fraction. In addition, the icewater and liquid water are also underestimated in the rainless condition; latter isoverestimated in the rainy condition. Relatively low resolution MPI-ESM-LRalways shows the better results, it shows that the resolution is not the only factorto restrict the ability on the cloud simulation.
5. A freezing rain event between Jan11and Feb4in2008over southernChina is studied using the30km-mesh Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF)model simulations with four different microphysics schemes and CloudSatsatellite observations. This3-week-long freezing rain event, the temporalevolution of cloud microphysical structure and icing processing from Jan11toFeb4is also well simulated by WRF. In addition, WRF can capture the followingcharacteristics of an atmospheric vertical thermal structure for forming freezingrain: above-freezing temperature in the middle troposphere and below-freezingtemperature in the lower troposphere. The double-layer cloud is prevailing in thisdisaster; however, it is different from the satellite observation. The distribution ofsingle layer cloud is similar with the observation and becomes more concentratedas an increasing intensity of precipitation. However, the upper layer ofdouble-layer cloud is higher than the satellite observation.
6. Based on the CloudSat data, a new microphysics parameterization isproposed. The performance is evaluated in the BCC_AGCM2.1. The result showsthat the new parameterization is more realistic in their proportion of ice water andliquid water. The liquid water bias is eliminated between the8and11km
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