短脉冲激光对可见光CCD及滤光片组件的损伤效应研究
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摘要
CCD探测器与薄膜滤光片共同构成光电成像系统的核心组件，其中滤光片有选择性的截止某些波段的激光，可提高系统的抗干扰能力。本文开展了纳秒、皮秒以及飞秒脉冲激光对探测器组件的损伤效应研究，得到一些新认识和新结果。
一、对比研究了纳秒(1064nm，33ns)、皮秒(1064nm，25ps)以及飞秒(800nm，100fs)单脉冲激光对Sony ICX405AL可见光CCD的损伤效应，主要研究方法和结论包括：
1.从输出图像判断，不同脉宽激光对CCD的损伤均包括三个阶段：白点损伤、白线损伤以及完全失效。纳秒脉冲作用下这三个阶段的能量密度阈值分别为150、170和222mJ/cm2；皮秒脉冲作用下，阈值分别为15、40和1040mJ/cm2，其中失效阈值大幅升高；对于飞秒脉冲，白点损伤阈值只有2.5mJ/cm2，白线损伤阈值升高到216mJ/cm2，即使激光能量密度达到1.96J/cm2，仍然没有使CCD失效。
2.分析CCD的损伤形貌表明，材料的损伤由器件内部开始，逐渐扩展到表层的微透镜等结构。白点损伤出现时，半导体表面没有明显损伤痕迹；白线损伤的出现伴随着烧蚀坑深度达到4-5μm，而多晶硅电极及钨遮光层仍然较完好；器件失效时，烧蚀坑深度达到约10μm，损伤区域中心电极、遮光层等结构被烧蚀。
3.结合CCD输出图像、损伤形貌以及工作原理推断，白点损伤最初是由氧化层击穿形成的漏电流增加所致；当半导体和氧化层损伤到一定程度后，大量的漏电流直接进入垂直电荷转移通道，从而形成白线；随着器件烧蚀程度的进一步加深，MOS电容被击穿，驱动信号发生混乱，CCD失效。
4.从激光作用半导体材料的角度分析，CCD失效时皮秒和飞秒脉冲峰值光强均超过1010W/cm2，材料中发生的非线性吸收远大于线性吸收。吸收系数升高、吸收深度减小，导致脉冲能量在材料表层沉积，相应的损伤深度也减小，而使器件失效需要保证一定的损伤深度。正是由于半导体材料的强吸收特性不利于损伤深度的扩展，导致皮秒和飞秒脉冲的失效阈值大幅升高。
二、对比研究了纳秒(1064nm，10ns)、皮秒(1064nm，25ps)以及飞秒(800nm，100fs)单脉冲激光对HfO2/SiO2增反膜、增透膜和TiO2/SiO2可见光滤光片的损伤行为，以及研究了多波长高重频飞秒激光(150fs，80MHz)对可见光滤光片的损伤效应，主要研究方法和结论包括：
1.数值模拟了薄膜中的光场特性，包括干涉场以及缺陷引起的场分布。利用平面波展开的方法计算了超短脉冲作用下的薄膜干涉场，结果表明，场分布严格依赖作用时间，形成的场增强系数也与长脉冲激光作用下不同；对缺陷场分布的模拟结果表明，节瘤缺陷在较大范围内扰乱干涉场，而纳米颗粒缺陷，即使尺寸只有数十纳米，也能造成局部的场增强效应，尤其当缺陷对激光的吸收较强时，形成的场增强效应系数也较大。
2.单脉冲损伤实验结果表明，脉宽越短，薄膜损伤行为越确定。对同一薄膜，皮秒激光损伤阈值比纳秒激光小一个量级，而飞秒激光损伤阈值与皮秒激光相当。在阈值损伤时，无论纳秒、皮秒还是飞秒激光作用下均表现出缺陷诱导的损伤特性，当激光能量密度大于损伤阈值时，薄膜损伤主要表现为大面积烧蚀或剥落。
3.薄膜的阈值损伤由缺陷诱导，结合脉冲持续时间内的热扩散长度以及缺陷的温度场分布等特性，解释了皮秒激光造成的损伤点比纳秒激光更小、更浅等现象出现的原因，而在飞秒激光作用下，缺陷的场增强效应是导致薄膜损伤行为与缺陷相关的主要原因。当激光能量密度大于阈值时，干涉场增强效应导致的膜层剥落弱化了缺陷的作用，通过计算纳秒、皮秒激光作用下的膜层温度场，以及飞秒脉冲作用下的材料中的等离子体浓度，对不同样品上出现的膜层剥落或烧蚀行为进行了分析。
4.多波长高重频飞秒激光对滤光片的损伤效应研究表明，高重频飞秒脉冲作用下，薄膜的损伤行为同时包含温升效应和材料本征电离两方面的特性，前者导致了薄膜的热损伤，而后者主导了能量的沉积过程，建立的模型解释了滤光片损伤阈值随波长的变化关系，与实验结果相符。
5.在高重频飞秒激光损伤可见光滤光片的过程中观察到薄膜透过率升高的现象，分析认为，这是膜层温升效应所致，并利用1080nm的连续波光纤激光进行了验证性实验，理论分析与实验结果相吻合。
三、研究了激光被滤光片截止和衰减两种情况下对探测器的饱和效应问题。
当激光被截止时，实验观察到薄膜损伤点的散射激光能够对CCD造成一定程度的饱和效应。对于激光被滤光片衰减的情形，首先基于光的衍射理论推导了描述CCD饱和面积的较完整的表达式，然后利用超连续谱光源，结合棱镜分光和小孔滤波的方法进行了不同波长激光对成像系统的饱和效应实验。结果表明，相同的激光功率密度下，使CCD饱和面积最大的激光波长对于CCD的响应度并不是最大，而是向长波方向有所偏移，利用推导的饱和面积公式解释了这一现象。
A CCD detector and an optical filter together make up the core module of animaging system. The filter selectively blocks some laser wavelengths to improve theanti-laser-damage ability of the system. In this paper, the damage effects investigationof the module induced by nanosecond, picosecond and femtosecond pulsed laser werecarried out, and some new results were obtained.
1. A comparison study of the damage effects of a Sony ICX405AL visible lightCCD induced by nanosecond (1064nm,33ns), picosecond (1064nm,25ps) andfemtosecond (800nm,100fs) single laser pulse was carried out. The investigationmethods and results are listed below:
1) Whether exposed to nanosecond, picosecond or femtosecond single laser pulse,the damage processes of the CCD samples all showed the fact that white point damage,white line damage and system failure arose successively in the output pictures with theincrease of laser energy. Under the irradiation of nanosecond single pulse, the thresholdsof these three different damage degrees were150,170and222mJ/cm2, respectively. Inpicosecond regime, the thresholds were15,40and1040mJ/cm2, respectively, in whichthe threshold of failure damage increased sharply. In terms of femtosecond laserillumination, the white point damage threshold was only2.5mJ/cm2, and the white linedamage threshold rose rapidly to216mJ/cm2, finally, even the laser energy density weretuned up to1.96J/cm2, the CCD still could not be failed completely.
2) The damage morphologies of the CCD indicated that the ablation of thematerials started from the inside of the device, and expanded gradually to the surface. Atthe beginning of the white point damage, there was not any obvious damage could beobserved on the semiconductor surface. The onset of white line damage was in companywith the ablation depth of4-5μm, and the polysilicon electrode and tungsten lightshield were not damaged. When the device was failed, the ablation depth deepened toabout10μm, and, in the center of damaged area, the structures such as electrodes andlight shield were ablated.
3) From the output pictures, damage morphologies and working principles of thedevice, we deduced that the occurrence of the white point was caused by the increasedleakage current as a result of the oxide layer breakdown. The breakdown theory oftransistor oxide layer in the field of integrated circuits was introduced into this paper toinvestigate the white point damage mechanism, in which the laser irradiation effectswere taken into account simultaneously. When the semiconductor and the oxide layerwere all damaged to some extent, numerous of leakage charges entered into the verticaltransferring pathway of the charge, then white line appeared in the pictures. Finally,CCD failed as soon as the MOS capacitors were breakdown.
4) From the aspect of nonlinear absorption of intense laser by Silicon materials, atthe point of failure damage, the peak power of picosecond and femtosecond laser pulsesall exceeded a magnitude of1010W/cm2. In this situation, nonlinear absorption in thematerial was much more significant than linear absorption. As a result, the inducedabsorption depth dramatically reduced, and the ablation depth in the material reducedcorrespondingly. However, the morphology of the damaged CCD indicated that acertain ablation depth was required to fail such device. Therefore, the observed sharpincrease of failure damage thresholds under the irradiation of picosecond andfemtosecond laser pulses should be ascribed to the strong absorption nature thatsuppressed the expansion of ablation depth.
2. The coating damage behaviors induced by single laser pulse in nanosecond(1064nm,10ns), picosecond (1064nm,25ps), and femtosecond (800nm,100fs) wereinvestigated. The customized samples contained reflectors, anti-reflectors and visiblelight filters. For the visible light filter, the damage experiment was also carried out usinga wavelength tunable, high repetition rate (80MHz), femtosecond (150fs) pulsed laser.Some obtained disciplinary conclusions are listed as follows:
1) The damage behaviors of optical coatings were investigated from the simulationof light field distribution, comprising interference field and light field constructed bydefects. Spectrum broadening appears in femtosecond laser pulses. A method of planewave expansion was used to calculate the interference field in femtosecond regime. Theobtained light field was time dependent and was different from the case ofmonochromatic light incidence. The light fields constructed by defects were modeledconsisting of nodular defects and nanoinclusion defects. The results demonstrated that anodular defect distorted the interference field in a wider spatial range, and that, as fornanoinclusion defects, even in tens of nanometers scale, the local light intensificationshould not be neglected, especially when their absorption coefficients were relativelyhigher.
2) The damage behaviors of a coating induced by a shorter laser pulse were moredeterministic, appearing a narrower indirect damaged area and smaller fluctuation ofdamage thresholds. For the same coating, the damage threshold of picosecond laser wasan order of magnitude smaller than of the nanosecond laser, and was in the same levelof that induced by femtosecond pulses.
3) At the point of threshold, coating damage was defect induced, whether the pulselengths were in nanosecond, picosecond and even in femtosecond time scales. In thedamaged area of picosecond pulses, damage pits were smaller and shallower than thatbrought about by nanosecond pulses, which was interpreted by means of heat diffusionlength and the simulation of temperature field. When illuminated by femtosecond pulses,local light field intensification caused by defects affected the nonlinear excitation ofmaterials, consequently the laser induced damage behaviors. When the energy density on sample surface was much higher than the threshold, we observed large area ofcoating ablation or peeling off. Under this condition, the effect of interference fieldintensification was stronger than that of defects, and the relevant damage mechanismswere investigated by the calculation of temperature field and plasma density evolution.
4) Coating damage induced by single femtosecond pulse is dominant by plasmabreakdown, however, the damage behaviors under the irradiation of wavelength tunable,high repetition rate, femtosecond laser pulses demonstrated that the coating damageprocesses comprised simultaneously the properties of thermal diffusion and the intrinsicionization of coating materials when irradiated by ultrashort laser pulses. Theestablished model explained the trend of thresholds under different wavelengths, whichwas according to the experiment results.
5) A phenomenon of coating transmission increase was observed in the experimentof high repetition femtosecond laser pulses damaging the visible light filter, and themain factor should be thermal expansion effects of the coating layers. This wasexperimentally validated by using a1080nm continuous fiber laser to irradiate somecoatings and the theoretical analysis fit in the experiment results.
3. The laser irradiation effects of the module system were investigated includingthe cases light filter blocking the incident laser and only decaying the laser, respectively.
In the first situation, the CCD could be saturated to some extent only when thefilter was damaged and then the damaged pits scattered the incident laser. As for thesecond case, the saturation area of CCD was derived from the theory of light diffraction.A relatively complete equation was obtained to express the CCD saturation area. Thenthe experiment of CCD saturation effects was accomplished by using a super continuousspectrum source in company with the methods of prismatic decomposition and smallhole filtering. The results showed that, the wavelength that caused the biggest CCDsaturation area was not the wavelength that induced the biggest responsivity of CCDdetectors, but shifted to the direction of longer wavelengths. This was explained by theresults of theory derivations.
一、对比研究了纳秒(1064nm，33ns)、皮秒(1064nm，25ps)以及飞秒(800nm，100fs)单脉冲激光对Sony ICX405AL可见光CCD的损伤效应，主要研究方法和结论包括：
1.从输出图像判断，不同脉宽激光对CCD的损伤均包括三个阶段：白点损伤、白线损伤以及完全失效。纳秒脉冲作用下这三个阶段的能量密度阈值分别为150、170和222mJ/cm2；皮秒脉冲作用下，阈值分别为15、40和1040mJ/cm2，其中失效阈值大幅升高；对于飞秒脉冲，白点损伤阈值只有2.5mJ/cm2，白线损伤阈值升高到216mJ/cm2，即使激光能量密度达到1.96J/cm2，仍然没有使CCD失效。
2.分析CCD的损伤形貌表明，材料的损伤由器件内部开始，逐渐扩展到表层的微透镜等结构。白点损伤出现时，半导体表面没有明显损伤痕迹；白线损伤的出现伴随着烧蚀坑深度达到4-5μm，而多晶硅电极及钨遮光层仍然较完好；器件失效时，烧蚀坑深度达到约10μm，损伤区域中心电极、遮光层等结构被烧蚀。
3.结合CCD输出图像、损伤形貌以及工作原理推断，白点损伤最初是由氧化层击穿形成的漏电流增加所致；当半导体和氧化层损伤到一定程度后，大量的漏电流直接进入垂直电荷转移通道，从而形成白线；随着器件烧蚀程度的进一步加深，MOS电容被击穿，驱动信号发生混乱，CCD失效。
4.从激光作用半导体材料的角度分析，CCD失效时皮秒和飞秒脉冲峰值光强均超过1010W/cm2，材料中发生的非线性吸收远大于线性吸收。吸收系数升高、吸收深度减小，导致脉冲能量在材料表层沉积，相应的损伤深度也减小，而使器件失效需要保证一定的损伤深度。正是由于半导体材料的强吸收特性不利于损伤深度的扩展，导致皮秒和飞秒脉冲的失效阈值大幅升高。
二、对比研究了纳秒(1064nm，10ns)、皮秒(1064nm，25ps)以及飞秒(800nm，100fs)单脉冲激光对HfO2/SiO2增反膜、增透膜和TiO2/SiO2可见光滤光片的损伤行为，以及研究了多波长高重频飞秒激光(150fs，80MHz)对可见光滤光片的损伤效应，主要研究方法和结论包括：
1.数值模拟了薄膜中的光场特性，包括干涉场以及缺陷引起的场分布。利用平面波展开的方法计算了超短脉冲作用下的薄膜干涉场，结果表明，场分布严格依赖作用时间，形成的场增强系数也与长脉冲激光作用下不同；对缺陷场分布的模拟结果表明，节瘤缺陷在较大范围内扰乱干涉场，而纳米颗粒缺陷，即使尺寸只有数十纳米，也能造成局部的场增强效应，尤其当缺陷对激光的吸收较强时，形成的场增强效应系数也较大。
2.单脉冲损伤实验结果表明，脉宽越短，薄膜损伤行为越确定。对同一薄膜，皮秒激光损伤阈值比纳秒激光小一个量级，而飞秒激光损伤阈值与皮秒激光相当。在阈值损伤时，无论纳秒、皮秒还是飞秒激光作用下均表现出缺陷诱导的损伤特性，当激光能量密度大于损伤阈值时，薄膜损伤主要表现为大面积烧蚀或剥落。
3.薄膜的阈值损伤由缺陷诱导，结合脉冲持续时间内的热扩散长度以及缺陷的温度场分布等特性，解释了皮秒激光造成的损伤点比纳秒激光更小、更浅等现象出现的原因，而在飞秒激光作用下，缺陷的场增强效应是导致薄膜损伤行为与缺陷相关的主要原因。当激光能量密度大于阈值时，干涉场增强效应导致的膜层剥落弱化了缺陷的作用，通过计算纳秒、皮秒激光作用下的膜层温度场，以及飞秒脉冲作用下的材料中的等离子体浓度，对不同样品上出现的膜层剥落或烧蚀行为进行了分析。
4.多波长高重频飞秒激光对滤光片的损伤效应研究表明，高重频飞秒脉冲作用下，薄膜的损伤行为同时包含温升效应和材料本征电离两方面的特性，前者导致了薄膜的热损伤，而后者主导了能量的沉积过程，建立的模型解释了滤光片损伤阈值随波长的变化关系，与实验结果相符。
5.在高重频飞秒激光损伤可见光滤光片的过程中观察到薄膜透过率升高的现象，分析认为，这是膜层温升效应所致，并利用1080nm的连续波光纤激光进行了验证性实验，理论分析与实验结果相吻合。
三、研究了激光被滤光片截止和衰减两种情况下对探测器的饱和效应问题。
当激光被截止时，实验观察到薄膜损伤点的散射激光能够对CCD造成一定程度的饱和效应。对于激光被滤光片衰减的情形，首先基于光的衍射理论推导了描述CCD饱和面积的较完整的表达式，然后利用超连续谱光源，结合棱镜分光和小孔滤波的方法进行了不同波长激光对成像系统的饱和效应实验。结果表明，相同的激光功率密度下，使CCD饱和面积最大的激光波长对于CCD的响应度并不是最大，而是向长波方向有所偏移，利用推导的饱和面积公式解释了这一现象。
A CCD detector and an optical filter together make up the core module of animaging system. The filter selectively blocks some laser wavelengths to improve theanti-laser-damage ability of the system. In this paper, the damage effects investigationof the module induced by nanosecond, picosecond and femtosecond pulsed laser werecarried out, and some new results were obtained.
1. A comparison study of the damage effects of a Sony ICX405AL visible lightCCD induced by nanosecond (1064nm,33ns), picosecond (1064nm,25ps) andfemtosecond (800nm,100fs) single laser pulse was carried out. The investigationmethods and results are listed below:
1) Whether exposed to nanosecond, picosecond or femtosecond single laser pulse,the damage processes of the CCD samples all showed the fact that white point damage,white line damage and system failure arose successively in the output pictures with theincrease of laser energy. Under the irradiation of nanosecond single pulse, the thresholdsof these three different damage degrees were150,170and222mJ/cm2, respectively. Inpicosecond regime, the thresholds were15,40and1040mJ/cm2, respectively, in whichthe threshold of failure damage increased sharply. In terms of femtosecond laserillumination, the white point damage threshold was only2.5mJ/cm2, and the white linedamage threshold rose rapidly to216mJ/cm2, finally, even the laser energy density weretuned up to1.96J/cm2, the CCD still could not be failed completely.
2) The damage morphologies of the CCD indicated that the ablation of thematerials started from the inside of the device, and expanded gradually to the surface. Atthe beginning of the white point damage, there was not any obvious damage could beobserved on the semiconductor surface. The onset of white line damage was in companywith the ablation depth of4-5μm, and the polysilicon electrode and tungsten lightshield were not damaged. When the device was failed, the ablation depth deepened toabout10μm, and, in the center of damaged area, the structures such as electrodes andlight shield were ablated.
3) From the output pictures, damage morphologies and working principles of thedevice, we deduced that the occurrence of the white point was caused by the increasedleakage current as a result of the oxide layer breakdown. The breakdown theory oftransistor oxide layer in the field of integrated circuits was introduced into this paper toinvestigate the white point damage mechanism, in which the laser irradiation effectswere taken into account simultaneously. When the semiconductor and the oxide layerwere all damaged to some extent, numerous of leakage charges entered into the verticaltransferring pathway of the charge, then white line appeared in the pictures. Finally,CCD failed as soon as the MOS capacitors were breakdown.
4) From the aspect of nonlinear absorption of intense laser by Silicon materials, atthe point of failure damage, the peak power of picosecond and femtosecond laser pulsesall exceeded a magnitude of1010W/cm2. In this situation, nonlinear absorption in thematerial was much more significant than linear absorption. As a result, the inducedabsorption depth dramatically reduced, and the ablation depth in the material reducedcorrespondingly. However, the morphology of the damaged CCD indicated that acertain ablation depth was required to fail such device. Therefore, the observed sharpincrease of failure damage thresholds under the irradiation of picosecond andfemtosecond laser pulses should be ascribed to the strong absorption nature thatsuppressed the expansion of ablation depth.
2. The coating damage behaviors induced by single laser pulse in nanosecond(1064nm,10ns), picosecond (1064nm,25ps), and femtosecond (800nm,100fs) wereinvestigated. The customized samples contained reflectors, anti-reflectors and visiblelight filters. For the visible light filter, the damage experiment was also carried out usinga wavelength tunable, high repetition rate (80MHz), femtosecond (150fs) pulsed laser.Some obtained disciplinary conclusions are listed as follows:
1) The damage behaviors of optical coatings were investigated from the simulationof light field distribution, comprising interference field and light field constructed bydefects. Spectrum broadening appears in femtosecond laser pulses. A method of planewave expansion was used to calculate the interference field in femtosecond regime. Theobtained light field was time dependent and was different from the case ofmonochromatic light incidence. The light fields constructed by defects were modeledconsisting of nodular defects and nanoinclusion defects. The results demonstrated that anodular defect distorted the interference field in a wider spatial range, and that, as fornanoinclusion defects, even in tens of nanometers scale, the local light intensificationshould not be neglected, especially when their absorption coefficients were relativelyhigher.
2) The damage behaviors of a coating induced by a shorter laser pulse were moredeterministic, appearing a narrower indirect damaged area and smaller fluctuation ofdamage thresholds. For the same coating, the damage threshold of picosecond laser wasan order of magnitude smaller than of the nanosecond laser, and was in the same levelof that induced by femtosecond pulses.
3) At the point of threshold, coating damage was defect induced, whether the pulselengths were in nanosecond, picosecond and even in femtosecond time scales. In thedamaged area of picosecond pulses, damage pits were smaller and shallower than thatbrought about by nanosecond pulses, which was interpreted by means of heat diffusionlength and the simulation of temperature field. When illuminated by femtosecond pulses,local light field intensification caused by defects affected the nonlinear excitation ofmaterials, consequently the laser induced damage behaviors. When the energy density on sample surface was much higher than the threshold, we observed large area ofcoating ablation or peeling off. Under this condition, the effect of interference fieldintensification was stronger than that of defects, and the relevant damage mechanismswere investigated by the calculation of temperature field and plasma density evolution.
4) Coating damage induced by single femtosecond pulse is dominant by plasmabreakdown, however, the damage behaviors under the irradiation of wavelength tunable,high repetition rate, femtosecond laser pulses demonstrated that the coating damageprocesses comprised simultaneously the properties of thermal diffusion and the intrinsicionization of coating materials when irradiated by ultrashort laser pulses. Theestablished model explained the trend of thresholds under different wavelengths, whichwas according to the experiment results.
5) A phenomenon of coating transmission increase was observed in the experimentof high repetition femtosecond laser pulses damaging the visible light filter, and themain factor should be thermal expansion effects of the coating layers. This wasexperimentally validated by using a1080nm continuous fiber laser to irradiate somecoatings and the theoretical analysis fit in the experiment results.
3. The laser irradiation effects of the module system were investigated includingthe cases light filter blocking the incident laser and only decaying the laser, respectively.
In the first situation, the CCD could be saturated to some extent only when thefilter was damaged and then the damaged pits scattered the incident laser. As for thesecond case, the saturation area of CCD was derived from the theory of light diffraction.A relatively complete equation was obtained to express the CCD saturation area. Thenthe experiment of CCD saturation effects was accomplished by using a super continuousspectrum source in company with the methods of prismatic decomposition and smallhole filtering. The results showed that, the wavelength that caused the biggest CCDsaturation area was not the wavelength that induced the biggest responsivity of CCDdetectors, but shifted to the direction of longer wavelengths. This was explained by theresults of theory derivations.
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