从小说文本看当代美国土著作家对读者的抵触和期盼
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摘要
在1968年司各特莫马迪发表的《日诞之地》(另译《黎明之屋》)开启了美国土著文艺复兴之后，美国土著作家终于有了自己的话语权。作为倍受掠夺和压抑的民族，读者心目中的美国土著人原型形象一直是来自于詹姆斯费尼莫尔库柏、马克吐温等白人作家的作品文本。那是经过白人文化渲染过的形象，而土著人的声音则被严重忽略。因此，土著人的形象被曲解，土著人的历史被扭曲，土著文化被隐蔽，土著民族的价值观也被强行同化，甚至土著民族经常被认为正在消失。随着这次土著文艺复兴的发展，莫马迪、韦尔奇、维泽诺、阿列克谢、西尔科、厄德里克以及琳达霍根等多位当代土著作家纷纷从不同的角度和以不同的写作手法，发出了具有独特民族色彩的声音。这种发展具有两面性：一方面，新的土著文学文本不断出现；另一方面，土著作家们开始整理以前的文学创作，甚至将传统的口头文学以英语的形式整理记录下来。这些作家各自在文本创作过程中所强调的侧重面不尽相同，评论家们分别从后殖民主义、种族主义、女性主义和生态主义等多方面去探讨土著文学作品的价值。但值得注意的是，作为一个一直承载着殖民主义伤痛的被忽视的民族，其当代文学作品却不得不使用异族的语言——英语——来作为文本传输媒介，来表达土著人的精神诉求，同时土著作家们试图以这种语言和不同的文本书写策略来影响读者，并建立土著读者与非土著读者之间的联系，以期获得不同层面的读者对美国本土裔居民价值观的认同，和对他们痛苦经历的理解。
本论文主要分析了土著文化身份以及土著人身处两种不同文化世界，饱经创伤、与本族文化产生疏离的状态，探讨了用归家、与本族文化融合等方式进行疗伤等主题，以作品与不同读者产生联系等方面为主要论述核心。本论文选取了五位在这个主题上比较具有代表性的土著作家的文本，从他们各自突出的写作特点出发，结合当代土著文学的特征和与主流文化的关系等文本背景，来分别探讨每位作家所希冀建立的与读者之间的联系，以及分析不同读者对待不同的写作文本所产生的不同态度。而对于在当代美国土著文学中最优秀的厄德里克等作家，由于在本篇论文所论述的方向上不具有突出的代表性，所以并没有被选取。论文除了引言和结论之外，主体分为五部分：
第一章以司各特莫马迪的《日诞之地》为蓝本，分析了普韦布洛部落和基奥瓦部落口述故事传统中的象征、结构和主题，以及作品中所运用的景色描写。莫马迪的文本试图再现美洲土著人对于文化与自然之间相互关系的深刻理解。他强调了美国土著文化和世界观，同时，他融合了各种文化和文体方法去表现多元文化背景下的不同观点和声音，而不具有种族分化性和阶级性。莫马迪的作品文本在某种程度上意图使白人读者与部落文化之间保持一定的距离。白人永远是土著文化的边缘观察者，而不是经历者，所以他们永远不能像土著人一样透彻地理解土著人的生活、文化和信仰。
第二章主要对詹姆斯韦尔奇的历史小说《傻瓜乌鸦》和《猛麋鹿的心灵之歌》的抗议书写和反原型形象书写方面的探讨。韦尔奇选取黑脚族文化作为主题，选取美国白人作为主要读者，从土著人视角来讲述，从土著人自己的文化观点出发，使原本沉寂、没有话语权的土著人发出自己的声音。这些方面是土著文学的一种突破。通过这种“美国文学史上最深刻的恢复（真相）行为”，韦尔奇希望改变读者对于土著历史和土著人与美国欧洲移民之间关系那些不是正确的既成观点
第三章讨论了最具争议的土著作家谢尔曼·阿列克谢的《独行侠和唐托在天堂里的格斗》中的幽默书写。阿列克谢不仅仅运用传统的土著文学模式，还混合了流行文化元素、土著人的精神元素以及保留地上生活中的被剥夺、贫穷和卑贱地位等现状来塑造自己的主人公。他的诗歌、短篇小说和长篇小说都阐释了共同的主题：美国土著人的绝望、贫穷、暴力和酗酒。很多土著读者控诉阿列克谢，认为他把土著人出卖给白人社会。但是阿列克谢希望能够在美国白人主流文化中已经形成了的所谓土著人“原型”和“泛印第安”意识形态之后，运用这种手法来为土著人建立新的文化存在方式。阿列克谢运用幽默的手段去揭露不公正、保持自尊、治疗创伤、并形成团结一致的关系。虽然他的跨文化幽默手法创立了个人与不同文化背景的联系，但也设置了土著文化和非土著文化之间联系的障碍，所以他的幽默书写既是联系方式，又是分裂的工具。
第四章探讨杰拉德·维泽诺兼具后现代主义和传统两个方面的作品《熊心》。维泽诺是美国土著作家中最激进、最优秀的一位作家，也是对语言运用最严谨的一位作家。他能够将认识论、哲学和各种文学批评理论融合到自己的创作当中，同时又充分运用了魔幻现实主义、后结构主义等后现代主义写作手法。他的作品既显幽默、戏谑，又在触及美国土著人生活状态时含有严肃的影射性。恶作剧者形象书写是维泽诺作品最突出的特点。维泽诺给读者的是一些改变形态的定义，用语言填满他那个奇妙疯狂的世界，并用恶作剧风格使读者震惊。
第五章是对莱斯利·西尔科的《典仪》的分析。西尔科试图运用将小说与故事结合起来的方式，即将以叙述为主要形式的小说，与以动作行为和口述传统为主要形式的部落宗族故事结合起来，从而来修复世界的裂痕。在这里语言和宗族故事具有拯救世界的力量，能够弥合一个民族的创伤。西尔科希望与读者建立联系，希望读者能作为她的作品的积极参与者，以此来试图恢复世界的平衡。虽然很多土著读者批评她，认为她出卖了土著人秘密传承的文化，但西尔科志在通过描述传统典仪对创伤的治愈来修补民族文化裂痕，给人类展现对未来的希望。
此论文所选取的这五位作家并不是完全按照他们创作的时间顺序排列。虽然其中前四位作家基本上是按照时间的先后顺序，从1969年带动美国土著文艺复兴开始的莫马迪，到现在仍然处于积极创作期的后现代主义作家维泽诺，但最后一位作家莱斯利西尔科的《典仪》创作于美国二十世纪七十年代，我之所以将这位女作家安排在最后去讨论，是因为这位作家的作品中表现了一种能够弥合土著人创伤的力量，能够给土著民族带来对未来的希望，也能给土著读者和非土著读者更多的对于美国土著文化和土著文学的信心。同时，将作品内容和主题都十分相似的莫马迪和西尔科放置于论文的首尾，也体现了美国土著文化中的生生不息、万物循环概念。
无论这五位小说家的写作方法和手段有何不同，又或是他们对待土著读者或非土著读者时有抵触、又有期望的情绪迥然各异，他们最终都希望达成一个共同目标——与不同读者群体和不同文化之间建立联系与平衡，以期为当代美国土著人建立新的生存文化空间。
Native American Renaissance began with the publication of the novel House Made of Dawn by Scott Momaday in1968. Having been oppressed and persecuted for hundreds of years, Native Americans finally found their way of articulation. In those dark years, Native figures could only be found in the White's works, such as: James Fenimore Cooper's or Mark Twain's. The Natives had no chance to show what they really were those of themselves. So what the non-Native readers could see was always distorted Native Americans—stereotypes in the dominant culture. Under the doctrines of compelled assimilation, the ideology, culture, education, and even the language of the dominant society in America had somewhat taken place of their own. Now, Native culture has been withering and some of the people in the Native community have taken the White's values as their own. With the development of this renaissance, many aboriginal writers in America give their voices from different angles and texts. This development is shown in two aspects:on one hand, new Native works were composed one after another; on the other hand, some Native writers began to rewrite the old Native works and them; meanwhile, they kept down the traditional oral stories in English.
In order to correct the wrong stereotype of Natives and show the readers the real Native people and real Native culture, some contemporary Native writers published their works which drew the attention of the literary world. Considering that most readers of Native American fiction are non-Native, Native writers explore different themes in their texts and express different expectations for indigenous readers and non-Native readers. In this dissertation, five contemporary Native novelists are chosen:N. Scott Momaday, James Welch, Sherman Alexie, Gerald Vizenor and Leslie Marmon Silko. This dissertation is my response to the orientation of their texts. And my goal is to read how the indigenous novelists want to communicate with Native readers and non-Native readers respectively.
The first chapter focuses on N. Scott Momaday's House Made of Dawn, and I will explore the oral tradition and landscape description in the work. Momaday helps all the readers review Native people's profound understanding of the relationship among human beings, culture and nature. But Momaday intentionally puts non-Native readers outside of the text, and keeps distance between non-Native readers and the tribe culture. Because he believes that non-Native readers, especially white Americans, are always the observers of the Native culture, but not the experience, therefore, they cannot fully understand Native's life, culture and beliefs as Natives themselves. As a matter of fact, House Made of Dawn challenges all non-Native readers and tries to reject them. But anyhow, the novel finally builds a bridge between Native writers and non-Native readers, so as to set up a philosophic and spiritual foundation for later Native writers to attract non-Native readers to a literature centered on Native people. The publication of the novel marked the beginning of the Native American Renaissance.
The second chapter talks about James Welch's historical fictions Fools Crow and The Heartsong of Charging Elk. The two novels retell the history shared both by the whites and the Natives, and they will tell readers the truth. Protest and anti-prototype are the main points in Welch's works. Being different from Momaday, who keeps distance from the non-Native readers, Welch chooses blackfoot's culture and history as themes and chooses white Americans as his target readers. He depicts stories from inside to outside, letting Natives articulate their own history, and hopes that non-Native readers can take part in his works and hear their sound. For the first time, non-Native readers read the truth told by the Natives, and Natives finally find their right of articulation. In this way, Welch challenge the prototype created by the mainstream.
The third chapter concerns about the most controversial Native writer Sherman Alexie and his collection of short story The Lone Ranger and Tonto Fistfight in Heaven. Humor is the main technique Alexie uses to depict the reality of Native people's life, such as, depression, despair, poverty, alcoholism and violence. And it is also a kind of weapon to attack the prototype of Natives in mainstream culture. Some Native readers make complaints against Alexie because they believe that Alexie has betrayed them and exposed them completely to the whites. But Alexie believes that his humor and satire are the best way of challenging the prototype and he wishes to set up a new way of existence for Natives who are still living in a society which has great misunderstanding and prejudice against Natives. As a protest writer, he satirizes not only Natives, but also whites. He uses humor to expose the real history and humanity. His purpose is to rewrite the history told by the whites, and force the readers, especially the non-Native readers to admit that the violence and massacre in colonial period indeed brought disaster to the Natives. However, except the help he offers the readers to understand his work and to face the reality, Alexie does not intend to please any reader.
The fourth chapter discusses Gerald Vizenor and his postmodern novel Bearheart:The Heirship Chronicles. Vizenor is one of the most radical Native novelists and literary critics, and he is a rigorous language user. Vizenor combines modern mainstream literature with traditional Native literature. His works are full of the ideas of philosophy, epistemology, literary criticism, magic realism, post-structuralism and trickster theory. Thus, his works are quite difficult to understand. But Vizenor does not require his readers to tell how much they can understand his work or judge whether it is right or wrong. Instead, he requires his readers to fully use their imagination to understand it. Everything is open, and there is no judgment or conclusion. All depend on the readers'imagination. But when the readers draw different conclusions, the process they have experienced to illustrate the work will unite all the readers together. Bearheart needs the readers to raise questions, and challenge all the assertions. Readers can tell all the possibilities according to their unique comprehension. That means, Bearheart is a novel which can reach a kind of unity upon readers. Its unity does not lie in its answers, but lies in the process of getting the answers. In this way, Vizenor tries to expose the importance of imagination for the development of Native culture, and tell the readers that the Native people do not develop lonely, but try to set up a kind of communication with all the others.
The last chapter centers on Leslie Marmon Silko's famous novel Ceremony. Ceremony is quite similar with Momaday's House Made of Dawn both in theme and plot. But their expectation for readers is quite different. Silko tries to combine narration with the clan stories in oral tradition together to heal the hurt of Natives and balance the world. Here, language and clan stories have the power of saving the world, and they can comfort people and the race. Silko wishes to communicate with all the readers. She intends to enclose all the readers into her story, and wants them to take part in it actively. Many Native readers criticize Silko because they believe that she sells the secrets of Native culture out to the outsiders. But Silko's purpose is to expose her work to not only Native readers, but also the readers in the mainstream. She wants the non-Native readers to know more about their culture. By this means, she can mend the rift between the Native and the mainstream, heal the Native people's pain and bring hope to them.
My dissertation focuses on the literary expression of the Native novelists. They teach us lessons and inform us that what we outsiders think of them is not true and the basic communication and interaction is necessary to get the knowledge of their culture. Even though their writing techniques and themes differ greatly from each other, their goal is quite similar:communicating with the other cultures and keeping balance with them, so that they can set up a new way of existence for American Natives. This dissertation is my genuine appreciation of the artistry and ideas of contemporary Native novelists. It is my sincere hope that my work will prove my worthy efforts and my worthy efforts will be appreciated.
本论文主要分析了土著文化身份以及土著人身处两种不同文化世界，饱经创伤、与本族文化产生疏离的状态，探讨了用归家、与本族文化融合等方式进行疗伤等主题，以作品与不同读者产生联系等方面为主要论述核心。本论文选取了五位在这个主题上比较具有代表性的土著作家的文本，从他们各自突出的写作特点出发，结合当代土著文学的特征和与主流文化的关系等文本背景，来分别探讨每位作家所希冀建立的与读者之间的联系，以及分析不同读者对待不同的写作文本所产生的不同态度。而对于在当代美国土著文学中最优秀的厄德里克等作家，由于在本篇论文所论述的方向上不具有突出的代表性，所以并没有被选取。论文除了引言和结论之外，主体分为五部分：
第一章以司各特莫马迪的《日诞之地》为蓝本，分析了普韦布洛部落和基奥瓦部落口述故事传统中的象征、结构和主题，以及作品中所运用的景色描写。莫马迪的文本试图再现美洲土著人对于文化与自然之间相互关系的深刻理解。他强调了美国土著文化和世界观，同时，他融合了各种文化和文体方法去表现多元文化背景下的不同观点和声音，而不具有种族分化性和阶级性。莫马迪的作品文本在某种程度上意图使白人读者与部落文化之间保持一定的距离。白人永远是土著文化的边缘观察者，而不是经历者，所以他们永远不能像土著人一样透彻地理解土著人的生活、文化和信仰。
第二章主要对詹姆斯韦尔奇的历史小说《傻瓜乌鸦》和《猛麋鹿的心灵之歌》的抗议书写和反原型形象书写方面的探讨。韦尔奇选取黑脚族文化作为主题，选取美国白人作为主要读者，从土著人视角来讲述，从土著人自己的文化观点出发，使原本沉寂、没有话语权的土著人发出自己的声音。这些方面是土著文学的一种突破。通过这种“美国文学史上最深刻的恢复（真相）行为”，韦尔奇希望改变读者对于土著历史和土著人与美国欧洲移民之间关系那些不是正确的既成观点
第三章讨论了最具争议的土著作家谢尔曼·阿列克谢的《独行侠和唐托在天堂里的格斗》中的幽默书写。阿列克谢不仅仅运用传统的土著文学模式，还混合了流行文化元素、土著人的精神元素以及保留地上生活中的被剥夺、贫穷和卑贱地位等现状来塑造自己的主人公。他的诗歌、短篇小说和长篇小说都阐释了共同的主题：美国土著人的绝望、贫穷、暴力和酗酒。很多土著读者控诉阿列克谢，认为他把土著人出卖给白人社会。但是阿列克谢希望能够在美国白人主流文化中已经形成了的所谓土著人“原型”和“泛印第安”意识形态之后，运用这种手法来为土著人建立新的文化存在方式。阿列克谢运用幽默的手段去揭露不公正、保持自尊、治疗创伤、并形成团结一致的关系。虽然他的跨文化幽默手法创立了个人与不同文化背景的联系，但也设置了土著文化和非土著文化之间联系的障碍，所以他的幽默书写既是联系方式，又是分裂的工具。
第四章探讨杰拉德·维泽诺兼具后现代主义和传统两个方面的作品《熊心》。维泽诺是美国土著作家中最激进、最优秀的一位作家，也是对语言运用最严谨的一位作家。他能够将认识论、哲学和各种文学批评理论融合到自己的创作当中，同时又充分运用了魔幻现实主义、后结构主义等后现代主义写作手法。他的作品既显幽默、戏谑，又在触及美国土著人生活状态时含有严肃的影射性。恶作剧者形象书写是维泽诺作品最突出的特点。维泽诺给读者的是一些改变形态的定义，用语言填满他那个奇妙疯狂的世界，并用恶作剧风格使读者震惊。
第五章是对莱斯利·西尔科的《典仪》的分析。西尔科试图运用将小说与故事结合起来的方式，即将以叙述为主要形式的小说，与以动作行为和口述传统为主要形式的部落宗族故事结合起来，从而来修复世界的裂痕。在这里语言和宗族故事具有拯救世界的力量，能够弥合一个民族的创伤。西尔科希望与读者建立联系，希望读者能作为她的作品的积极参与者，以此来试图恢复世界的平衡。虽然很多土著读者批评她，认为她出卖了土著人秘密传承的文化，但西尔科志在通过描述传统典仪对创伤的治愈来修补民族文化裂痕，给人类展现对未来的希望。
此论文所选取的这五位作家并不是完全按照他们创作的时间顺序排列。虽然其中前四位作家基本上是按照时间的先后顺序，从1969年带动美国土著文艺复兴开始的莫马迪，到现在仍然处于积极创作期的后现代主义作家维泽诺，但最后一位作家莱斯利西尔科的《典仪》创作于美国二十世纪七十年代，我之所以将这位女作家安排在最后去讨论，是因为这位作家的作品中表现了一种能够弥合土著人创伤的力量，能够给土著民族带来对未来的希望，也能给土著读者和非土著读者更多的对于美国土著文化和土著文学的信心。同时，将作品内容和主题都十分相似的莫马迪和西尔科放置于论文的首尾，也体现了美国土著文化中的生生不息、万物循环概念。
无论这五位小说家的写作方法和手段有何不同，又或是他们对待土著读者或非土著读者时有抵触、又有期望的情绪迥然各异，他们最终都希望达成一个共同目标——与不同读者群体和不同文化之间建立联系与平衡，以期为当代美国土著人建立新的生存文化空间。
Native American Renaissance began with the publication of the novel House Made of Dawn by Scott Momaday in1968. Having been oppressed and persecuted for hundreds of years, Native Americans finally found their way of articulation. In those dark years, Native figures could only be found in the White's works, such as: James Fenimore Cooper's or Mark Twain's. The Natives had no chance to show what they really were those of themselves. So what the non-Native readers could see was always distorted Native Americans—stereotypes in the dominant culture. Under the doctrines of compelled assimilation, the ideology, culture, education, and even the language of the dominant society in America had somewhat taken place of their own. Now, Native culture has been withering and some of the people in the Native community have taken the White's values as their own. With the development of this renaissance, many aboriginal writers in America give their voices from different angles and texts. This development is shown in two aspects:on one hand, new Native works were composed one after another; on the other hand, some Native writers began to rewrite the old Native works and them; meanwhile, they kept down the traditional oral stories in English.
In order to correct the wrong stereotype of Natives and show the readers the real Native people and real Native culture, some contemporary Native writers published their works which drew the attention of the literary world. Considering that most readers of Native American fiction are non-Native, Native writers explore different themes in their texts and express different expectations for indigenous readers and non-Native readers. In this dissertation, five contemporary Native novelists are chosen:N. Scott Momaday, James Welch, Sherman Alexie, Gerald Vizenor and Leslie Marmon Silko. This dissertation is my response to the orientation of their texts. And my goal is to read how the indigenous novelists want to communicate with Native readers and non-Native readers respectively.
The first chapter focuses on N. Scott Momaday's House Made of Dawn, and I will explore the oral tradition and landscape description in the work. Momaday helps all the readers review Native people's profound understanding of the relationship among human beings, culture and nature. But Momaday intentionally puts non-Native readers outside of the text, and keeps distance between non-Native readers and the tribe culture. Because he believes that non-Native readers, especially white Americans, are always the observers of the Native culture, but not the experience, therefore, they cannot fully understand Native's life, culture and beliefs as Natives themselves. As a matter of fact, House Made of Dawn challenges all non-Native readers and tries to reject them. But anyhow, the novel finally builds a bridge between Native writers and non-Native readers, so as to set up a philosophic and spiritual foundation for later Native writers to attract non-Native readers to a literature centered on Native people. The publication of the novel marked the beginning of the Native American Renaissance.
The second chapter talks about James Welch's historical fictions Fools Crow and The Heartsong of Charging Elk. The two novels retell the history shared both by the whites and the Natives, and they will tell readers the truth. Protest and anti-prototype are the main points in Welch's works. Being different from Momaday, who keeps distance from the non-Native readers, Welch chooses blackfoot's culture and history as themes and chooses white Americans as his target readers. He depicts stories from inside to outside, letting Natives articulate their own history, and hopes that non-Native readers can take part in his works and hear their sound. For the first time, non-Native readers read the truth told by the Natives, and Natives finally find their right of articulation. In this way, Welch challenge the prototype created by the mainstream.
The third chapter concerns about the most controversial Native writer Sherman Alexie and his collection of short story The Lone Ranger and Tonto Fistfight in Heaven. Humor is the main technique Alexie uses to depict the reality of Native people's life, such as, depression, despair, poverty, alcoholism and violence. And it is also a kind of weapon to attack the prototype of Natives in mainstream culture. Some Native readers make complaints against Alexie because they believe that Alexie has betrayed them and exposed them completely to the whites. But Alexie believes that his humor and satire are the best way of challenging the prototype and he wishes to set up a new way of existence for Natives who are still living in a society which has great misunderstanding and prejudice against Natives. As a protest writer, he satirizes not only Natives, but also whites. He uses humor to expose the real history and humanity. His purpose is to rewrite the history told by the whites, and force the readers, especially the non-Native readers to admit that the violence and massacre in colonial period indeed brought disaster to the Natives. However, except the help he offers the readers to understand his work and to face the reality, Alexie does not intend to please any reader.
The fourth chapter discusses Gerald Vizenor and his postmodern novel Bearheart:The Heirship Chronicles. Vizenor is one of the most radical Native novelists and literary critics, and he is a rigorous language user. Vizenor combines modern mainstream literature with traditional Native literature. His works are full of the ideas of philosophy, epistemology, literary criticism, magic realism, post-structuralism and trickster theory. Thus, his works are quite difficult to understand. But Vizenor does not require his readers to tell how much they can understand his work or judge whether it is right or wrong. Instead, he requires his readers to fully use their imagination to understand it. Everything is open, and there is no judgment or conclusion. All depend on the readers'imagination. But when the readers draw different conclusions, the process they have experienced to illustrate the work will unite all the readers together. Bearheart needs the readers to raise questions, and challenge all the assertions. Readers can tell all the possibilities according to their unique comprehension. That means, Bearheart is a novel which can reach a kind of unity upon readers. Its unity does not lie in its answers, but lies in the process of getting the answers. In this way, Vizenor tries to expose the importance of imagination for the development of Native culture, and tell the readers that the Native people do not develop lonely, but try to set up a kind of communication with all the others.
The last chapter centers on Leslie Marmon Silko's famous novel Ceremony. Ceremony is quite similar with Momaday's House Made of Dawn both in theme and plot. But their expectation for readers is quite different. Silko tries to combine narration with the clan stories in oral tradition together to heal the hurt of Natives and balance the world. Here, language and clan stories have the power of saving the world, and they can comfort people and the race. Silko wishes to communicate with all the readers. She intends to enclose all the readers into her story, and wants them to take part in it actively. Many Native readers criticize Silko because they believe that she sells the secrets of Native culture out to the outsiders. But Silko's purpose is to expose her work to not only Native readers, but also the readers in the mainstream. She wants the non-Native readers to know more about their culture. By this means, she can mend the rift between the Native and the mainstream, heal the Native people's pain and bring hope to them.
My dissertation focuses on the literary expression of the Native novelists. They teach us lessons and inform us that what we outsiders think of them is not true and the basic communication and interaction is necessary to get the knowledge of their culture. Even though their writing techniques and themes differ greatly from each other, their goal is quite similar:communicating with the other cultures and keeping balance with them, so that they can set up a new way of existence for American Natives. This dissertation is my genuine appreciation of the artistry and ideas of contemporary Native novelists. It is my sincere hope that my work will prove my worthy efforts and my worthy efforts will be appreciated.
引文
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Ballinger, Franchot and Gerald Vizenor."Sacred Reversals:Trickster in Gerald Vizenor's "Earthdivers:Tribal Narratives on Mixed Descent"[J] American Indian Quarterly, Vol.9, No.1, Winter,1985
Bastian, Dawn E.&Judy K. Mitchell. Handbook of Native American Mythology [M], Oxford University Press Inc.2008
Bellinelli, Matteo."Video:Native American Novelists——ames Welch."[J] Films for the Humanities&Sciences:A Production of TSI Swiss Television.1995
Bergson, Henri. Laughter:An Essay on the Meaning of the Comic [M], BiblioLife,2009
Bird, Gloria."The Exaggeration of Despair in Sherman Alexie's Reservation Blues"[J]. Wicazo Sa Review,1995
——"Toward Decolonization of the Mind and Text:Leslie Marmon Silko's Ceremony."[M] Reading Native American Women:Critical/Creative Representations. Lanham, MD Atlamira Press,2005,
Blair, Elizabeth."Text as Trickster:Postmodern Language Games in Gerald Vizenor's Bearheart."[J] MELUS20:$1995
Bonin, Gertrude. American Indian Stories.[M],1900
Coltelli, Laura. Winged Words:American Indian Writers Speak [M]. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press,1990
Cook-Lynn, Elizabeth,"American Indian Intellectualism and the New Indian Story" [J], American Indian Quarterly20,1996
Coulombe, Joseph L., Reading Native American literatur [M]e, London and New York:Routledge Taylor and Francis Group,2011
Croisy, Sophie."Re-Imagining Healing After Trauma:Leslie Marmon Silko And Judith Butler Writing Against The War Of Cultures"[J], Nebula, Sep.2006
Deloria, Vine Jr. Custer Died for Your Sins:An Indian Manifesto [M]. London: MacmillanCo.:1969
Emmons, Sally L. A. A Disarming laughter:The Role of Humor in Tribal Cultures and Examination of Humor in Contemporary Native American literature and Art [D], A Dissertation for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, Norman, Oklahoma,2000
Ferguson, Laurie L. Trickster Shows the Way:Humor, Resiliency and Growth in Modern Native American literature [D], Thesis for Doctoral Degree to the Wright Institute Graduate School of Psychology,2002
Fixico, Donald Lee. American Indians in Modern World[M], AltaMira Press,2006
Goebel, Bruce A."Fool Crow and the Nineteenth Century Blackfeet" Reading Native American literature-. A Teacher's Guide [M]. Urbana, ILL:National Council of English Teachers,2004
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Gruber, Eva. Humor in Contemporary Native North American literature [M]. Rochester, New York:Camden House,2008
Hanne, Michael. The Power of the Story:Fiction and Political Change [M], Oxford: Berghahn Books,1994
Harjo, Joy&Gloria W. Bird. Reinventing The Enemy's language:Contemporary Native American Women's Writings Of North America [M], W. W. Norton&Company Incorporated,1998
Hartwig, Isernhagen. Momaday, Vizenor, Armstrong:Conversations on American Indian Writing[M], Norman, OK:University of Oklahoma Press,1999
Heldrich, Philip."Survival=Anger x Imagination:Sherman Alexie's Dark Humor"[J] Ed. Jeff Berglund and Jan Rough, Sherman Alexie:A Collection of Critical Essays, Salt Lake City:The University of Utah Press,2010
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Jalalzai, Zubeda."Tricksters, Captives, and Conjurers:The'Roots'of Liminality and Gerald Vizenor's Bearheart"[J]. American Indian Quarterly23:1,1999
Kelley, Robert Lloyd. The Shaping of the American Past [M], vol2. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.:Prentice Hall,1986
Larsen, Sidner. Captured in the Middle:Tradition and Experience in Contemporary Native American Writing [M]. Seattle, WA:University of Washington Press,2000
Latorre, Guisela M."Humor and Hemispheric Consciousness:Chicana/o and Native American Contemporary Art"[J]. Journal of American Studies of Turkey,2003
Lawson, Angelica Marie. Resistance and Resilience In The Work Of Four Native American Authors [D], Dissertation For Doctoral Degree To The University Of Arizona,2006
Lincoln, Kenneth, Indi'n Humor:Bicultural Play in Native America [M], New York: Oxford University Press,1993
Liu Kedong&Zhang Hui,"Self-and Counter-Representations of Native American: Stereotypical Image of and New Images by Native Americans in Popular Media"[J], Intercultural Communication Studies XX:2,2011
Lupton, Mary Jane. James Welch:A Critical Companion [M], London:Greenwood Press,2004
McFarland, Ronald E."Sherman Alexie's Polemical Stories"[A], Studies in American Indian Literatures,1997
——. Understanding James Welch [M], University of South Carolina Press,2008
Meland, Carter Thomas, The Trickster is History:Tribal Tricksters and Amercian Cultural History in Contemporary Native Writing [D], Doctoral thesis of The University of Minnesota,2002
Momaday, N Scott. House Made of Dawn [M], McGraw Hill Higher Education,2000
Moss, Maria. We've Been Here Before:Women in Creation Myths and Contemporary Literature of the Native American Southwest [M]. Munster:Lit,1993
Niatum, Duane."On Stereotypes", Recovering the Word:Essays on Native American Literature [C], Brian Swann and Arnold Krupat. Eds, London: University of California Press,1987
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Parsons, Elsie Clews, Pueblo Indian Religion [M],2vols. Chicago:University of Chicago Press,1939
Rice, David A."Witchery, Indigenous Resistance, and Urban Space in Leslie Marmon Silko's Ceremony"[A]. Studies in American Lndian Literatures,2005
Ruppert, James. Mediation in Contemporary Native American Fictio[M]n, Norman, OK:University of Oklahoma Press,1995
Ryan, Allan J. The Trickster Shift:Humour andLrony in Contemporary Native Art [M], Seattle:University of Washington Press,1999
Silko, Leslie Marmon. Ceremony [M], Penguin Books,1986
Schorcht, Blanca. Storied Voices in Native American Texts:Harry Robinson, Thomas King, James Welsh, and Leslie Marmon Silko [M]. New York: Routledge,2003
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