论应对气候变化的适应制度选择
摘要
气候变化引发了一个威胁人与自然生态的全球性问题。其中,最脆弱群体尤受其害。作为应对气候变化的必要法律回应,自《联合国气候变化框架公约》缔结以来,新兴的气候变化法已经得到很大发展。在气候变化法律制度下,存在两条有所区别又相互关联的预防、减少气候变化损害的基本路径。一是通过稳定大气温室气体浓度而减缓气候变化；一是通过降低脆弱性或者提高适应能力而适应气候变化。近年来,适应作为一项应对气候变化战略,在国际、国家气候变化立法日程上甚受重视。但较之于减缓、减排,适应制度发展与制度研究仍甚为滞后。适应,作为预防、减少气候变化损害的直接路径,对于正承受气候变化影响与损害的主要受害者而言,有迫切的现实必要性。本文将聚集于适应问题,探究如何促进适应制度深入发展的相关理论与实践路径。本文主要结构安排如下：
第一章解析适应气候变化的相关概念。适应是广泛应用于众多学科领域的常用概念之一,但不同语境下具体涵义并不划一,有时也会不甚明晰。根本上讲,适应一词发展成为一个应用广泛的基本术语,还得归功于现代生物学的适应理论。在生物学基础上,人类学相关研究进一步表明,人既在生物学意义上适应环境,也通过文化性适应增进生物性适应。气候变化现实语境下的适应,即适应气候变化,是一个现实适应命题。关于这一命题,政府间气候变化委员会(IPCC)已在其评估报告中给出了相应解释,并因其界定之宽泛性与综合性而广受认同。在法律制度意义上,适应,是在可能的范围内,通过对人的行为、社会结构与过程的必要调整,以建立与提高适应能力、降低对气候变化影响的脆弱性,从而直接预防、减少气候变化损害的制度路径。
第二章主要介绍了国际气候变化谈判进程中多边适应制度的发展,以及国际气候变化制度与气候谈判催化下区域与国家层面的气候立法活动。总体而言,适应已成为气候变化法律制度与各层级气候变化治理不可缺少的内在组成部分之一。1992年气候变化公约为国际社会建立了应对气候变化的法律框架。不过,这一法律框架实际上主要是关于减缓、减排的国际制度安排,并未对适应政策与适应战略予以专门关注。直到2001年气候变化公约《马拉喀什协定》,适应对策才得以与减缓对策相比肩。在气候变化公约以及通过《京都议定书》建立的国际强制性温室气体减排制度的影响下,近些年来,气候变化法这一新兴法律领域已在一些发达国家与区域率先得到发展。尽管通常仍主要以如何履行温室气体减排承诺、控制温室气体排放为制度焦点,但在一定程度上,这些新兴的气候变化法、法案已展示出减缓与适应的战略融合之势,适应是促进国家与区域气候变化损害最小化的必要制度选择。
第三章在评析适应制度之现实必要性基础上,指出适应制度发展与适应资源供给严重滞后于最脆弱者迫切适应需要的现实问题。气候变化影响与损害的分布并不均衡,由于地理、经济、社会、文化、制度或者其它原因而适应能力低下的最脆弱者,面临最严峻的适应挑战。如果先行的适应措施不能实质性地及时改善最脆弱者的境遇,那么,这些直接减少气候变化损害的制度努力的有效性必然存疑。一些学者已试图从社会资源、集体行动、社会连带等理论层面建构有效的适应行动。这些理论也启示了在适应这一能动的社会过程中各层级公私行动者共同参与的必要性；有效的适应行动应建立在以受害者为中心的社会团结之上。
第四章从人权视角论述适应气候变化隐含的权利依据问题。过去几年中,与气候变化影响与损害相关联的人权问题,已在国际社会受到越来越多的关注。研究结果表明,气候变化对公认的各项人权存在普遍影响,并可能构成严重威胁,而最脆弱者、气候变化主要受害者的境遇尤其值得关注。以权利为基础的制度路径,对于深入强化适应行动、增强最脆弱者的影响力、确立气候变化主要受害者在各层级气候变化制度中的中心地位有重要意义。事实上,这种权利审视已经激励一些气候变化损害承受者积极寻求可能的维权路径,他们发起的一系列维权行动已对声援、促进预防与减少气候变化损害的适应援助与损害救助产生有利影响。
第五章论述适应制度的价值基础与价值选择。安全与公平是适应制度应予遵循的基本价值依据。在现代社会,安全概念已超越了主要与军事安全相联系的传统理解,气候变化等各种人类问题、生态问题成为新的安全关切。适应行动通过直接预防、减少气候变化损害,体现其为人类与所有地球生命消除安全威胁的制度价值。以安全为基础的制度路径,有助于评估选择迫切必为的适应行动与其它应对气候变化战略。气候伦理或者气候正义要求适应公平。为维护适应公平,适应制度应确立最脆弱者优先地位、促进可持续适应、以及公平引导气候变化主要受害者等利益相关者的积极参与。
第六章论述作为适应保障机制的气候变化基金与气候变化保险的完善问题。在这种适应保障机制下,借助适应成本与气候变化损害风险的社会化,有助于迫切所需的适应行动与重大的气候变化损害获得及时有效的支援与物质保障。气候变化基金机制已在国际与国家层面得到一定发展。但是,较之于实际所需资金规模,当下气候变化基金仍相当不足。因此,有必要在各层级开辟新的融资渠道,以为适应行动提供资金保障,包括借助强制性筹资措施。另外,在气候变化基金配置方面,应进一步增强脆弱者的主动权,以使基金配置符合他们的真正所需。在气候公约缔约方会议适应相关协议中(第11／CP.1),保险被视为便利充分适应的制度措施之一。但截至目前,国际气候谈判对于如何在适应制度下发挥保险机制的功能并没有达成实质性合意。一些国家通过公私合伙等形式已经建立起了相应的用于转移气候变化损害风险的国家保险计划。应当说,对于气候变化损害救助与脆弱者适应援助保障而言,公共保险是可行的制度选择。
Global climate change presents serious threats that will affect both human system and natural system in the world. And the most vulnerable or the already-vulnerable population will suffer most. As necessary legal response to cope with climate change, climate change law has emerged as a new and developing legal system particularly since United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. Under climate change legal system, there are two distinct but related basic ways to prevent and reduce climate change effects, or climate change damage in legal sense. One is mitigation by stabilizing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere, and the other is adaptation by reducing vulnerability or improving adaptive capacity to climate change. Comparatively speaking, although adaptation has recently featured very high on the international or national climate change law-making agendas, adaptation is less developed and researched than mitigation as a coping strategy. As a direct way to prevent and reduce climate change damage, adaptation is especially important for those main victims who are suffering most from the real or expected climate change impacts. This thesis focuses on adaptation issues and analysis of the legal approaches to facilitate further climate change adaptation. And its structure is as follows:
Chapter I examines the concepts of adaptation and the meaning of climate change adaptation as a legal term. Adaptation is one of the most commonly used concepts that applys to many disciplines in different areas with varied and sometimes equivocal meanings. Yet in spite of this, the adaptation theory in modern biology obviously lays the foundation for the widely accepted term of adaptation. Besides biological adaptation originating from biological theory, cultural adaptation particularly developed by anthropology is also the fundamental construct for the adaptation theory as far as human beings are concerned. Thus far, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has provided a very broad, comprehensive and widely accepted definition of climate change adaptation, or briefly called adaptation in the context of dealing with global climate change. Under a legal framework for adaptation action, adaptation shall be directly related to prevent and reduce climate change damage through necessary, possible legal adjustment and regulation of human behavior, social process and structure, which helps establish and improve adaptability for those vulnerable to the effects of climate change.
ChapterⅡintroduces the related international climate change negotiating process leading to the formulation of multilateral adaptation legal framework, as well as some regional and national climate change law-making activities catalyzed by the international climate change regime and international climate negotiation. Overall speaking, climate change adaptation has been an indispensable internal part of climate change legal system and multi-level climate change governance. The international community adopted the UNFCCC in 1992 as a legal policy framework to address anthropogenic global climate change. But the UNFCCC, emerging initially as an international mitigation arrangement agreement, paid only little attention to adaptation policy and strategy. It is not until 2001 Marrakesh Accords under the UNFCCC that adaptation policy has been appropriately placed on equal footing with mitigation. Under the influence of UNFCCC and international mandatory GHGs emissions reduction arrangement for developed countries by Kyoto Protocol, the last few years have also seen the emergence of climate change law as a new legal discipline in some developed region and nations. Although the focus is usually on GHGs control or how to fulfill GHGs emissions reduction commitments, those new climate change acts or bills have, to some extent, shown the trend of the development of an integrated mitigation and adaptation strategy so as to enable a comprehensive legal framework for regional or national climate change damage minimization.
ChapterⅢgives an insight into the functional role of adaptation under climate change regime and the reality that adaptation policy development and resources supply is significantly lagging behind the urgent and immediate adaptation needs from the most vulnerable. Climate change damage tends to distribute unevenly and unequally. And the most vulnerable with low adaptive capacity due to geographic, economical, social, cultural, institutional or other reasons face the severest challenge of adaptation to climate change. If priority adaptation measures are unlikely to reach and benefit them timely and substantively, the effectiveness of legal responses aimed at reducing climate change damage comes under doubt. Some scholars have reviewed such theories as social capital, collection action and social solidarity to inform effective adaptation actions. Pubic and private actors at various scales should all be involved in the dynamic social process of adaptation through a victim-centered approach in order to facilitate solidarity support for effective adaptation.
Chapter IV looks into the human rights dimensions of climate change adaptation in theory and practice. In the last few years, growing attentions have been paid to the human rights implications of climate change effects and damages in the international climate change community. It has been stressed that climate change effects pose severe threats to a broad range of universally recognized human rights, especially as far as those most vulnerable and those main victims of climate change are concerned. The right-based approach is important to inform, deepen and strengthen adaptation actions, to empower the vulnerable, and to bringing those main victims of climate change into focus at international and national levels. In fact, the right-based perspective has inspired the real and potential suffers of climate change damage to seek possible litigation approach, which may promote the national and international actions to prevent and reduce climate change damage including adaptation assistance and damage relief.
Chapter V reviews the basic institutional value of climate change adaptation regime from the perspectives of security and fairness. In modern society, the concept of security has gone beyond its traditional concern with security from external military threats and is giving high priority to other human or ecological issues such as climate change effects. Climate change adaptation action, aimed at directly prevent and reduce climate change damage, implies the particular purpose of removing severe threats to human security and all life on earth. A security-based approach is important in assessment of the urgently required minimal level of climate change adaptation action and other coping strategies. The climate ethics or justice has called for fair adaptation to climate change. As has been pointed by the IPCC, equity or fairness also affects social adaptive capacity. In order to facilitate fair adaptation, climate change adaptation regime should prioritize adaptation assistance for the most vulnerable, pursue sustainable ways to adaptation and encourage fair and active participation from relevant stakeholders, especially those suffering most, in the dynamic adaptation process.
Chapter VI concentrates on the social-based approach to facilitating adaptation through mechanisms of climate change funds and insurances, which may help socialize adaptation costs and climate change damage risks to the extent that urgent adaptation actions can be funded and catastrophic damage can be relieved timely and effectively. Climate change funds have somehow developed both at international and national levels. The estimated scale of financing needed is significant while the current climate change funds still lag too far behind. Additional international and domestic financing sources should be explored including mandatory funding stream for adaptation funding. With respect to the distribution of climate change funds, the vulnerable should be positively involved and the funds should be spent to meet their real needs. Insurance is deemed as one of the measures to facilitate adequate adaptation under the initial guidance from the Conference of the Parties on adaptation (Decision 11/CP.1). But to date there is little agreement on the role of insurance-related mechanism in adaptation assistance process from the climate negotiation. Some types of insurance have been developed to transfer climate change damage risk in several countries usually through public and private partnerships. Public insurance is one of feasible options for climate change damage relief and adaptation assistance to those vulnerable.
第一章解析适应气候变化的相关概念。适应是广泛应用于众多学科领域的常用概念之一,但不同语境下具体涵义并不划一,有时也会不甚明晰。根本上讲,适应一词发展成为一个应用广泛的基本术语,还得归功于现代生物学的适应理论。在生物学基础上,人类学相关研究进一步表明,人既在生物学意义上适应环境,也通过文化性适应增进生物性适应。气候变化现实语境下的适应,即适应气候变化,是一个现实适应命题。关于这一命题,政府间气候变化委员会(IPCC)已在其评估报告中给出了相应解释,并因其界定之宽泛性与综合性而广受认同。在法律制度意义上,适应,是在可能的范围内,通过对人的行为、社会结构与过程的必要调整,以建立与提高适应能力、降低对气候变化影响的脆弱性,从而直接预防、减少气候变化损害的制度路径。
第二章主要介绍了国际气候变化谈判进程中多边适应制度的发展,以及国际气候变化制度与气候谈判催化下区域与国家层面的气候立法活动。总体而言,适应已成为气候变化法律制度与各层级气候变化治理不可缺少的内在组成部分之一。1992年气候变化公约为国际社会建立了应对气候变化的法律框架。不过,这一法律框架实际上主要是关于减缓、减排的国际制度安排,并未对适应政策与适应战略予以专门关注。直到2001年气候变化公约《马拉喀什协定》,适应对策才得以与减缓对策相比肩。在气候变化公约以及通过《京都议定书》建立的国际强制性温室气体减排制度的影响下,近些年来,气候变化法这一新兴法律领域已在一些发达国家与区域率先得到发展。尽管通常仍主要以如何履行温室气体减排承诺、控制温室气体排放为制度焦点,但在一定程度上,这些新兴的气候变化法、法案已展示出减缓与适应的战略融合之势,适应是促进国家与区域气候变化损害最小化的必要制度选择。
第三章在评析适应制度之现实必要性基础上,指出适应制度发展与适应资源供给严重滞后于最脆弱者迫切适应需要的现实问题。气候变化影响与损害的分布并不均衡,由于地理、经济、社会、文化、制度或者其它原因而适应能力低下的最脆弱者,面临最严峻的适应挑战。如果先行的适应措施不能实质性地及时改善最脆弱者的境遇,那么,这些直接减少气候变化损害的制度努力的有效性必然存疑。一些学者已试图从社会资源、集体行动、社会连带等理论层面建构有效的适应行动。这些理论也启示了在适应这一能动的社会过程中各层级公私行动者共同参与的必要性；有效的适应行动应建立在以受害者为中心的社会团结之上。
第四章从人权视角论述适应气候变化隐含的权利依据问题。过去几年中,与气候变化影响与损害相关联的人权问题,已在国际社会受到越来越多的关注。研究结果表明,气候变化对公认的各项人权存在普遍影响,并可能构成严重威胁,而最脆弱者、气候变化主要受害者的境遇尤其值得关注。以权利为基础的制度路径,对于深入强化适应行动、增强最脆弱者的影响力、确立气候变化主要受害者在各层级气候变化制度中的中心地位有重要意义。事实上,这种权利审视已经激励一些气候变化损害承受者积极寻求可能的维权路径,他们发起的一系列维权行动已对声援、促进预防与减少气候变化损害的适应援助与损害救助产生有利影响。
第五章论述适应制度的价值基础与价值选择。安全与公平是适应制度应予遵循的基本价值依据。在现代社会,安全概念已超越了主要与军事安全相联系的传统理解,气候变化等各种人类问题、生态问题成为新的安全关切。适应行动通过直接预防、减少气候变化损害,体现其为人类与所有地球生命消除安全威胁的制度价值。以安全为基础的制度路径,有助于评估选择迫切必为的适应行动与其它应对气候变化战略。气候伦理或者气候正义要求适应公平。为维护适应公平,适应制度应确立最脆弱者优先地位、促进可持续适应、以及公平引导气候变化主要受害者等利益相关者的积极参与。
第六章论述作为适应保障机制的气候变化基金与气候变化保险的完善问题。在这种适应保障机制下,借助适应成本与气候变化损害风险的社会化,有助于迫切所需的适应行动与重大的气候变化损害获得及时有效的支援与物质保障。气候变化基金机制已在国际与国家层面得到一定发展。但是,较之于实际所需资金规模,当下气候变化基金仍相当不足。因此,有必要在各层级开辟新的融资渠道,以为适应行动提供资金保障,包括借助强制性筹资措施。另外,在气候变化基金配置方面,应进一步增强脆弱者的主动权,以使基金配置符合他们的真正所需。在气候公约缔约方会议适应相关协议中(第11／CP.1),保险被视为便利充分适应的制度措施之一。但截至目前,国际气候谈判对于如何在适应制度下发挥保险机制的功能并没有达成实质性合意。一些国家通过公私合伙等形式已经建立起了相应的用于转移气候变化损害风险的国家保险计划。应当说,对于气候变化损害救助与脆弱者适应援助保障而言,公共保险是可行的制度选择。
Global climate change presents serious threats that will affect both human system and natural system in the world. And the most vulnerable or the already-vulnerable population will suffer most. As necessary legal response to cope with climate change, climate change law has emerged as a new and developing legal system particularly since United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. Under climate change legal system, there are two distinct but related basic ways to prevent and reduce climate change effects, or climate change damage in legal sense. One is mitigation by stabilizing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere, and the other is adaptation by reducing vulnerability or improving adaptive capacity to climate change. Comparatively speaking, although adaptation has recently featured very high on the international or national climate change law-making agendas, adaptation is less developed and researched than mitigation as a coping strategy. As a direct way to prevent and reduce climate change damage, adaptation is especially important for those main victims who are suffering most from the real or expected climate change impacts. This thesis focuses on adaptation issues and analysis of the legal approaches to facilitate further climate change adaptation. And its structure is as follows:
Chapter I examines the concepts of adaptation and the meaning of climate change adaptation as a legal term. Adaptation is one of the most commonly used concepts that applys to many disciplines in different areas with varied and sometimes equivocal meanings. Yet in spite of this, the adaptation theory in modern biology obviously lays the foundation for the widely accepted term of adaptation. Besides biological adaptation originating from biological theory, cultural adaptation particularly developed by anthropology is also the fundamental construct for the adaptation theory as far as human beings are concerned. Thus far, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has provided a very broad, comprehensive and widely accepted definition of climate change adaptation, or briefly called adaptation in the context of dealing with global climate change. Under a legal framework for adaptation action, adaptation shall be directly related to prevent and reduce climate change damage through necessary, possible legal adjustment and regulation of human behavior, social process and structure, which helps establish and improve adaptability for those vulnerable to the effects of climate change.
ChapterⅡintroduces the related international climate change negotiating process leading to the formulation of multilateral adaptation legal framework, as well as some regional and national climate change law-making activities catalyzed by the international climate change regime and international climate negotiation. Overall speaking, climate change adaptation has been an indispensable internal part of climate change legal system and multi-level climate change governance. The international community adopted the UNFCCC in 1992 as a legal policy framework to address anthropogenic global climate change. But the UNFCCC, emerging initially as an international mitigation arrangement agreement, paid only little attention to adaptation policy and strategy. It is not until 2001 Marrakesh Accords under the UNFCCC that adaptation policy has been appropriately placed on equal footing with mitigation. Under the influence of UNFCCC and international mandatory GHGs emissions reduction arrangement for developed countries by Kyoto Protocol, the last few years have also seen the emergence of climate change law as a new legal discipline in some developed region and nations. Although the focus is usually on GHGs control or how to fulfill GHGs emissions reduction commitments, those new climate change acts or bills have, to some extent, shown the trend of the development of an integrated mitigation and adaptation strategy so as to enable a comprehensive legal framework for regional or national climate change damage minimization.
ChapterⅢgives an insight into the functional role of adaptation under climate change regime and the reality that adaptation policy development and resources supply is significantly lagging behind the urgent and immediate adaptation needs from the most vulnerable. Climate change damage tends to distribute unevenly and unequally. And the most vulnerable with low adaptive capacity due to geographic, economical, social, cultural, institutional or other reasons face the severest challenge of adaptation to climate change. If priority adaptation measures are unlikely to reach and benefit them timely and substantively, the effectiveness of legal responses aimed at reducing climate change damage comes under doubt. Some scholars have reviewed such theories as social capital, collection action and social solidarity to inform effective adaptation actions. Pubic and private actors at various scales should all be involved in the dynamic social process of adaptation through a victim-centered approach in order to facilitate solidarity support for effective adaptation.
Chapter IV looks into the human rights dimensions of climate change adaptation in theory and practice. In the last few years, growing attentions have been paid to the human rights implications of climate change effects and damages in the international climate change community. It has been stressed that climate change effects pose severe threats to a broad range of universally recognized human rights, especially as far as those most vulnerable and those main victims of climate change are concerned. The right-based approach is important to inform, deepen and strengthen adaptation actions, to empower the vulnerable, and to bringing those main victims of climate change into focus at international and national levels. In fact, the right-based perspective has inspired the real and potential suffers of climate change damage to seek possible litigation approach, which may promote the national and international actions to prevent and reduce climate change damage including adaptation assistance and damage relief.
Chapter V reviews the basic institutional value of climate change adaptation regime from the perspectives of security and fairness. In modern society, the concept of security has gone beyond its traditional concern with security from external military threats and is giving high priority to other human or ecological issues such as climate change effects. Climate change adaptation action, aimed at directly prevent and reduce climate change damage, implies the particular purpose of removing severe threats to human security and all life on earth. A security-based approach is important in assessment of the urgently required minimal level of climate change adaptation action and other coping strategies. The climate ethics or justice has called for fair adaptation to climate change. As has been pointed by the IPCC, equity or fairness also affects social adaptive capacity. In order to facilitate fair adaptation, climate change adaptation regime should prioritize adaptation assistance for the most vulnerable, pursue sustainable ways to adaptation and encourage fair and active participation from relevant stakeholders, especially those suffering most, in the dynamic adaptation process.
Chapter VI concentrates on the social-based approach to facilitating adaptation through mechanisms of climate change funds and insurances, which may help socialize adaptation costs and climate change damage risks to the extent that urgent adaptation actions can be funded and catastrophic damage can be relieved timely and effectively. Climate change funds have somehow developed both at international and national levels. The estimated scale of financing needed is significant while the current climate change funds still lag too far behind. Additional international and domestic financing sources should be explored including mandatory funding stream for adaptation funding. With respect to the distribution of climate change funds, the vulnerable should be positively involved and the funds should be spent to meet their real needs. Insurance is deemed as one of the measures to facilitate adequate adaptation under the initial guidance from the Conference of the Parties on adaptation (Decision 11/CP.1). But to date there is little agreement on the role of insurance-related mechanism in adaptation assistance process from the climate negotiation. Some types of insurance have been developed to transfer climate change damage risk in several countries usually through public and private partnerships. Public insurance is one of feasible options for climate change damage relief and adaptation assistance to those vulnerable.
引文
①(德)马克斯·韦伯著：《论经济与社会中的法律》,张乃根译,中国大百科全书出版社1998年版,第5页.
①See Dale Jamieson, The Moral and Political Challenges of Climate Change, in Susanne C. Moser and Lisa. Dilling, Creating a Climate for Change:communicating climate change and facilitating social change, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,2007, pp..475-482.
①联合国开发计划署(UNDP)007／2008人类发展报告以应对气候变化为主题，命名为“应对气候变化：分化世界中的人类团结”(Fighting Climate Change:Human Solidarity in a Divided World)
②陈瑞华著：《论法学研究方法》,北京大学出版社2009年版,第196页。
③(美)布赖恩·H.比克斯著：《牛津法律理论词典》,邱昭继等译,法律出版社2003年版,第40页。
① See Oxford Dictionary of Current English,3rd edition,2001, p.14.
②参见《现代汉语词典》,商务印书馆1994年版,第1054页。
③ See Encyclopaedia Britannica,2008. available at http://library.ebonline.com/eb/article-9003688, visited Jul.16. 2008.
④(美)W.C.丹皮尔著：《科学史及其与哲学和宗教的关系》,李珩译,广西师范大学出版社2009年版,第313页。
①(美)乔治·威廉斯著：《适应与自然选择》,陈蓉霞译,上海科学技术出版社2001年版,第43-44页。
②See Niles Eldredge, Reinventing Darwin:the Great Debate at the High Table of Evolutionary Theory, New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,1995, p.33.
③(美)w.C.丹皮尔著：《科学史及其与哲学和宗教的关系》.李珩译，广西师范大学出版社2009年版.第312-313页。
④ See Andres Roberto Frisancho, Human Adaptation and Accommodation. Michigan:University of Michigan Press,1995, p.8.
①(英)达尔文著：《物种起源》,舒德干等译,北京大学出版社2005年版,第56页。
②(美)乔治·威廉斯著：《适应与自然选择》,陈蓉霞译,上海科学技术出版社2001年版,第55页。
③同上。
④ See Geerat J. Vermeij, Evolution and Escalation:An Ecological History of Life, Princeton:Princeton University Press,1987, p.5.
⑤ Id. at pp..7-8.
① See Peter J. Bowler, Evolution:the History of an Idea,3rd edition, California:University of California Press, 2003, p.10.
② See Robert C. King, William D. Stansfield & Pamela K. Mulligan, A Dictionary of Genetics,7th Edition,2006, p.8
③ See Andres Roberto Frisancho, Human Adaptation and Accommodation, Michigan:University of Michigan Press,1995, p.4.
④ See John A. Endler, Natural Selection in the Wild, Princeton:Princeton University Press,1986, p.43.
⑤ See Robert C. King, William D. Stansfield & Pamela K. Mulligan, A Dictionary of Genetics,7th Edition,2006, p.8
⑥ See Julian Huxley, Evolution:the Modern Synthesis, New York:Harper & Brothers,1943, p.417.
⑦ See Geerat J. Vermeij, Evolution and Escalation:An Ecological History of Life, Princeton:Princeton University Press,1987, p.6.
⑧ See Stephen Jay Gould,and Elisabeth A. Lloyd,Individuality and Adaptation across Levels of Selection:How shall We Name and Generalize the Unit of Darwinism? Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences(PNAS),Vol.96,No.21,Oct.12,1999, pp..11904-11909
① See Andres Roberto Frisancho, Human Adaptation and Accommodation, Michigan University of Michigan Press,1995, p.5.
② See Lorna Grindlay Moore, and Judith G. Regensteiner, Adaptation to High Altitude, Annual Review of Anthropology, Vol.12 1983, pp..285-304.
③ See Andres Roberto Frisancho, Human Adaptation and Accommodation. Michigan:University of Michigan Press,1995, pp.5-6.
④ See Rene Jules Dubos, Man Adapting, New Haven:Yale University Press,1965, p.56.
⑤ See Theodosius G. Dobzhansky, Genetics of the Evolutionary Process, New York:Columbia University Press, 1970, pp..4-6.
① See John A. Endler, Natural Selection in the Wild, Princeton:Princeton University Press,1986, p.47. ① Id.
③ See John A. Endler, Natural Selection in the Wild, Princeton:Princeton University Press,1986, pp..43,45.
④ See Theodosius G. Dobzhansky, Genetics of Natural Populations. ⅩⅩⅤ. Genetic Changes in Populations of Drosophila pseudoobscura and Drosophila Persimilis in some Localities in California, Evolution, Vol.10, No.1,Mar.,1956, pp.82-92.
⑤ See John A. Endler, Natural Selection in the Wild, Princeton:Princeton University Press,1986, p.40.
① See Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Working Group Ⅱ, Climate Change 2001:Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability:Contribution of Working Group Ⅱ to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge;New York:Cambridge University Press,2001,p.982.
② See Andres Roberto Frisancho. Human Adaptation and Accommodation, Michigan:University of Michigan Press.1995, p.8.
③ See John A. Endler, Natural Selection in the Wild, Princeton:Princeton University Press,1986, pp.46-47.
④Id. at p.280.
⑤ See Peter A. Corning. Biological Adaptation in Human Societies. Journal of Bioeconomics, Vol.2, No.1,2000, pp..41-86.
①(美)威廉.A.哈维兰著：《文化人类学》,瞿铁鹏、张钰译，上海社会科学院出版社 2006年版,第36页。
② See Andres Roberto Frisancho, Human Adaptation and Accommodation, Michigan:University of Michigan Press,1995, p.6.
③ See John W. Bennett,The Ecological Transition:Cultural Anthropology and Human Adaptation, New Brunswick:Aldine Transaction Publishers.2005, pp..51-52.
④(日)秋道智弥等编著：《生态人类学》,范广融等译,云南大学出版社2006年版，第27页。
⑤ See Andres Roberto Frisancho, Human Adaptation and Accommodation, Michigan:University of Michigan Press,1995, p.6.
⑥ See Peter A. Corning, Biological Adaptation in Human Societies, Journal of Bioeconomics, Vol.2, No.l,2000. pp..41-86.
①See Bronislaw Malinowski, A Scientific Theory of Culture and Other Essays, London:Routledge,2002, pp..91-119.
② Id.
③ Id.
①Id.
② See Andres Roberto Frisancho, Human Adaptation and Accommodation, Michigan:University of Michigan Press,1995, pp.243,265.
③ See John W. Bennett,The Ecological Transition:Cultural Anthropology and Human Adaptation. New Brunswick:Aldine Transaction Publishers,2005. pp..5-6.
① See Andres Roberto Frisancho, Human Adaptation and Accommodation, Michigan:University of Michigan Press,1995, p.7.
② See John W. Bennett,The Ecological Transition:Cultural Anthropology and Human Adaptation, New Brunswick:Aldine Transaction Publishers,2005, p.243.
③Id. at pp..244-246.
① See Intergovernmental.Panel on Climate Change. Working Group Ⅰ, Climate change 2007:the Physical Science Rasis:Contribution of Working Group Ⅰ to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge,New York:Cambridge University Press,2007, p.942.;(美)约翰.M.华莱士,彼得.V.霍希斯著：《大气科学(第二版)》,何金海等译,科学出版社2008年版,第39-119页。② See Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Working Group Ⅰ, Climate change 2007:the Physical Science Basis:Contribution of Working Group Ⅰ to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge,New York:Cambridge University Press,2007, p.943.在《联合国气候变化框架公约》中," Climate Change"(气候变化)被用于指代人为因素所致的气候变化或者改变,即"Anthropogenic Climate Change" (人为的气候变化),而"Climate Variability" (气候变化)则被用于指代人为因素之外的其它因素(自然因素)引起的气候变化或者变异。“减排”需要对气候变化成因予以一定区分。相较而言,“适应”意义上的“气候变化”一词实际上相对“中性”，对于适应而言，不论何种原因,最重要的是气候变化的事实或者结果。当然,在适应“责任”或者“责任分担”等问题上,还是会不可避免地涉及气候变化原因之争。
③ See United Nations Framework Convention for Climate Change, Article 1.2:"'Climate change' means a change of climate which is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the giobal atmosphere and which is in addition to natural climate variability observed over comparable time per(?)s.
④Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Working Group I, Climate change 2007:the pnysicai science basis:contribution of Working Group Ⅰ to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge,New York:Cambridge University Press,2007,p.944.
①确切地讲,UNFCCC中实际上是使用natural climate variability与人为气候变化相区分,中文中一般多将其译为“自然气候变异”。Climate variability所对应中文翻译较climate change更为丰富，除气候变化、自然气候变化、自然气候变异之外,还可译作气候变率。气候变化与气候变异、气候变率在语义上的细微差别主要表现在统计时间或者持续时间的长短方面,一般气候变化对应的时间跨度比较大。((美)约翰.M.华莱士,彼得.V.霍布斯著：《大气科学(第二版)》，何金海等译,科学出版社2008年版,第434页。)
②(美)约翰.M.华莱士,彼得.V.霍布斯著：《大气科学(第二版)》,何金海等译,科学出版社2008年版,第1页。
③王芳、葛全胜、陈泮勤：《IPCC评估报告气温变化观测数据的不确定性分析》，载《地理学报》,2009年7月第64卷第7期,第828-838页。
④宋连春、李伟：《综合气象观测系统的发展》,载《气象》2008年3月第34卷第3期,第4.11页。
⑤(美)w.C.丹皮尔著：《科学史及其与哲学和宗教的关系》,李珩译,广西师范大学出版社2009年版,第205页。
①政府间气候变化专门委员会(IPCC)：《气候变化2007：综合报告》,来源于IPCC官方网,2008年5月13日浏览,http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/syr/ar4_syr_cn.pdf。当前,主流的气候变化说实际的上就是全球变暖说,但也有科学家对此提出质疑。例如,有观点认为,气候变化的冷暖趋势很难判断。从公元1850年至今的地球气候历史看,1850年至1940年是地球气候变暖期,其中1920年至1940年期间尤甚,但1940年至1975年间,气候变冷,转而,1976年至1978年间,气候突然变暖,1979年以来,“温度计的数据记录显示了相当强的变暖趋势,而卫星和高空气象气球的数据则显示变暖的趋势很微弱”。(参见(美)S.弗雷德·辛格,丹尼斯·T.艾沃利著：《全球变暖：毫无来由的恐慌》,林文鹏等译,上海科学技术文献出版社2008年版,第13页。)也有观点至今仍支持地球变冷说,近年来全球一些区域遭遇的极端低温天气似对此有所印证,但亦有科学家认为,这是全球变暖趋势中的“冷现象”。例如,中国有关气候专家对此解释说“全球变暖将使海洋温度上升,加快冰山融化,使更多的淡水流入海洋,而海洋表面温度的升高及海水盐度的减小可能让温盐环流减缓甚至完全停滞,没有温盐环流,来自赤道的热能将无法被传送到北大西洋地区,即北美东部和西欧会变冷。”(参见新华社记者战艳：《专家：全球变暖可能使地球部分地区“变冷”》,人民网,2006年1月26日,http://env.pepple.com.cn/GB/1074/4065887.html)“目前,我国乃至北半球所遭受的极冷灾害天气与全球变暖并不属同一概念。全球变暖描述的是整体平均概念,例如2009年我国的全年平均气温为9.9℃,比往年升高了1.0℃。而极冷天气属于灾害性天气,是气温振幅的低点,与全球变暖并不矛盾。”(参见张昊：《地球究竟是变热还是变冷了》,中青在线,2010年1月8日,
http://news.cyol.com/content/2010-01/08/content_3028447.htm)又如,韩国有关气候专家认为,北半球一些地区冬季寒流现象与北极变暖相关,2009年至2010年冬季,受地球变暖影响,2009年12月北极平均气温为零下18度左右,比往年同期飙升10至12度,因此,本应停留在极地的冷空气失去凝聚力南下,随着冰冷的西伯利亚高气压流影响北半球相关地区。(参见朝鲜日报记者朴恩镐：《首尔气温创七年最低,“北极变暖”是祸首》,朝鲜日报官方网,2010年1月7日,
http://news.chosun.com/site/data/html_dir/2010/01/06/2010010604006.html)国际气象组织有关专家亦认为,全球变暖整体趋势与极端寒冷天气的出现是不悖的，气候与天气是不同的概念，极端寒冷天气是全球变暖整体趋势中出现的极端灾害性天气之一,极端寒冷天气可部分归因于全球变暖趋势中表层海水不均匀升温所增强的"ENSO现象”(El Nino & Southern Oscillation,即厄尔尼诺与南方涛动).在全球变暖趋势中.各种自然变化复合层替,使全球变暖的具体表象复杂化。(参见World Meteorological Organization(WMO), WMO Newsletter:MeteoWorld, Dec.16.2009,
http://www.wmo.int/pages/publications/meteoworld/archive/feb09/inthenews_en.html)当然,尽管在全球气候变化整体趋势之取向判断方面尚存争议,但是,对于地球气候正在发生可明显感觉的非常态变化,极端气候事件不断增加这一点,因其正显而易见的发生,各方意见高度统一。
①(美)芭芭拉.沃德,勒内.杜博斯著：《只有一个地球——对一个小小行星的关怀和维护》,《国外公害丛书》编委会译校,吉林人民出版社1997年版,第226页。
②同上,第226-227页。
③温室气体(Greenhouse Gases, GHGs)是大气中自然存在或者人为产生的促成温室效应的特定气体成分,它们能够吸收并发射来自地球表面、大气和云层的一定范围波长的红外辐射,从而在地球表面与平流层的大气区间产生温室效应。已识别的地球大气中最主要的温室气体包括水蒸气(H2O)、二氧化碳(CO2)、氧化亚氮(N2O,又称笑气)、甲烷(CH4)和臭氧(O3)。这些温室气体通常自然存在，受各种自然活动的影响,也受人类活动的影响。此外,地球大气中还存在完全由人类活动制造的温室气体,如卤烃和其它含氯、含溴的气体化合物。See Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Working Group Ⅰ, Climate change 2007: the Physical Science Basis:Contribution of Working Group Ⅰ to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge,New York:Cambridge University Press,2007,p.816.
①See Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Working Group Ⅰ, Climate change 2007:the Physical Science Basis:Contribution of Working Group Ⅰ to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge,New York:Cambridge University Press,2007,p.946.
① See Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Working Group Ⅱ, Climate Change 2001:Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability:Contribution of Working Group Ⅱ to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge;New York:Cambridge University Press,2001, p.881.
② See Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Working Group Ⅰ, Climate Change 2001:the Scientific Basis: Contribution of Working Group Ⅰ to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge; New York:Cambridge University Press.2001, p.982;Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Working Group Ⅱ, Climate Change 2007:Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability:Contribution of Working Group Ⅱ to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge:New York:Cambridge University Press,2001,p.869.
① See Francesco Bosello, et al., An Analysis of Adaptation as a Response to Climate Change, Department of Economics, Ca 'Foscari University of Venice, Working Papers,No.26,2009, at http://fixtheclimate.com/uploads/tx_templavoila/AP_Adaptation_Bosello_Carraro_De_Cian_v.3.0.pdf, visited Dec. 16,2009.
① See Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Working Group Ⅱ, Climate Change 2007:Impacts. Adaptation and Vulnerability:Contribution of Working Group Ⅱ to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge; New York:Cambridge University Press.2007,p.275.
②See United Nations Development Programme, Human Development Report 2007/2008:Fighting Climate Change:Human Solidarity in a Divided World. available at http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_20072008_EN_Complete.pdf, visited Dec.17,2009.
① See United Nations Framework Convention for Climate Change. Article 1.1:"'Adverse effects of climate change' means change in the physical environment or biota resulting from climate change which have significant deleterious effects on the composition. resilience or productivity of natural and managed ecosystems or on the operation of socio-economic systems or on human health and welfare.'
①See Roda Verheyen,Climate Change Damage and International Law:Prevention,Duties and State Responsibility,Leiden;Boston:Martinus Nijhoff Publishers,2005,p.36.
②Id.at p.35.
③Id.at p.35.
④Id.at p.35.
⑤See Karen O'Brien,et al.,Why Different Interpretations of Vulnerability Matter in Climate Chang Discourses, Climate Policy Vol.7,2007,pp..73-78.
①丁义明、方福康：《风险概念分析》,载《系统工程学报》,2001年第16卷第5期，第402-406.
② See Thomas E. Downing et al., Climate, Change and Risk, London:Routledge,1999, pp..5-6.
③ Id. at p.5.
④See Piers Blaikie et al.. At Risk:Natural Hazards, People's Vulnerability, and Disasters,2nd edition, London: Routledge. 1994,pp..8-9.
⑤ See Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Working Group 11(2007), Climate change 2007:impacts, adaptation and vulnerability:contribution of Working Group Ⅱ to the fourth assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge,New York:Cambridge University Press, p.883.
①庄贵阳、陈迎著：《国际气候制度与中国》,世界知识出版社2005年版,第152-157页;Hans-Martin Fussel & Richard J. T. Klein. Assessing Vulnerability and Adaptation to Climate Change:An Evolution of Conceptual Thinking. Paper presented at the UNDP Expert Group Meeting on "Integrating Disaster Reduction and Adaptation to Climate Change".Havana, Cuba.17-19 June 2002. available at http://www.pik-potsdam.de/～fuessel/download/undp02_final.pdf, visited Mar.12,2008; Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Working Group Ⅱ, Climate Change 2007:impacts, adaptation and vulnerability:contribution of Working Group Ⅱ to the fourth assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge; New York:Cambridge University Press,2007, p.727.
② See Francesco Bosello, et al.. An Analysis of Adaptation as a Response to Climate Change, Department of Economics, Ca 'Foscari University of Venice, Working Papers,No.26,2009, at http://fixtheclimate.com/uploads/tx_templavoila/AP_Adaptation_Bosello_Carraro_De_Cian_v.3.0.pdf. visited Dec. 16,2009.
① See Hans-Martin Fussel & Richard J. T. Klein. Assessing Vulnerability and Adaptation to Climate Change:An Evolution of Conceptual Thinking, Paper presented at the UNDP Expert Group Meeting on "Integrating Disaster Reduction and Adaptation to Climate Change",Havana, Cuba,17-19 June 2002, available at http://www.pik-potsdam.de/-fuessel/download/undp02_final.pdf, visited Mar.12,2008
③ Id.
①See Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Working Group Ⅱ, Climate Change 2007:Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability:Contribution of Working Group Ⅱ to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge; New York:Cambridge University Press,2007, p.723.
②冯永峰著：《边做环保边撒谎》,世界知识出版社2009年版,第112,114页。
③(荷)斯宾诺莎著：《神学政治论》,温锡增译,商务印书馆1963年版,第213-214页。
①See Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Working Group 11(2007), Climate Change 2007:Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability:Contribution of Working Group Ⅱ to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge; New York:Cambridge University Press,pp..733-736.
① See Thomas E. Downing et al.. Climate. Change and Risk, London:Routledge,1999, p.5. Basis:Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on
② See Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Working Group Ⅰ, Climate change 2007:the Physical Science Climate Change, Cambridge,New York:Cambridge University Press,2007, p.818.
①“CO2在大气中可以存活约10年左右的时间。这反映出海洋生物圈及陆面阔叶林与大气之间的碳循环。……实际上,地球系统中诸多碳汇对碳的吸收所需的时间较人为引起CO2排放的时间要长得多。”(参见(美)约翰.M.华莱士,彼得.V.霍布斯著：《大气科学(第二版)》,何金海等译,科学出版社2008年版,第471页。)IPCC评估认为这一时间可以长达5至200年。除CO2外，按照自然清除进程,长寿命温室气体在大气中都可有几十年、几百年、甚至几千年的存留周期,例如,CH4的平均大气寿命为12年，N2O的平均大气寿命为114年,CF4则可达5000年。See Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Working Group Ⅰ, Climate Change 2001:the Physical Science Basis:Contribution of Working Group Ⅰ to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge,2001,New York:Cambridge University Press, p.38.
② See Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Working Group 1(2007), Climate Change 2007:the Physical Science Basis:Contribution of Working Group Ⅰ to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge.New York:Cambridge University Press, p.820.
③See Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Working Group 1(2007), Climate Change 2007:the Physical Science Basis:Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge,New York:Cambridge University Press, p.820.
①基于马萨诸塞州等诉美国环保署案(Massachusetts v. EPA,549 U.S.497 (2007),详见第四章相关内容)的判决,EPA就温室气体是否属于空气污染物展开相应调查。2009年4月17日是,EPA发布初步研究报告,认为温室气体会引起空气污染,威胁公众健康与福祉。此举也被视为奥巴马政府着手气候变化问题的重要第一步。2009年12月7日,EPA做出最终认定,认为CO2等温室气体的在大气中的当前及预期可达浓度威胁当代人及后代人的健康与福祉,宣布依据《清洁空气法》第202条第(a)(1)条将CO2、CH4、N2O、HFCs、PFCs、SF6等六种温室气体列为大气污染物。详见美国环保署官网http://epa.gov/,2009年12月15日浏览。
① See The Facts:Carbon Dioxide (CO2) is Not Pollution. http://www.puppetgov.com/2009/09/01/the-facts-carbon-dioxide-co2-is-not-pollution/, visited Dec.15.2009.
②大气温室气体中,对人体健康而言，水蒸汽毫无毒性可言,CO2等多数温室气体本身亦无毒性,其中C02还是调节呼吸的最重要的化学刺激,只是当浓度超过一定限度会引发窒息，当然，也有一些温室气体(如CH4)本身带有一定毒性。显然,温室气体是否应归为大气污染物,不在于其本身毒性如何,还是得从其促成温室效应这一性质出发予以解释.而这种解释路径是未显示在传统大气污染物认定之中的。
①广为接受的公共物品之经典理论可以追溯到1954年萨缪尔森发表的《公共支出的纯理论》(The Pure Theory of Public Expenditrue)一文,在该文中,萨缪尔森认为,公共物品(集体消费物品)的特点是每个人对这种物品的消费并不减损任何其他人对该物品的消费。之后,“非排他性”和“非竞争性”被概括为公共物品的两个基本特征。“非排他性”是指一人之使用或消费不能阻止他人对该物品或服务的使用或消,费。“非竞争性”是指一人之使用或消费不会对该物品或者服务的质量造成明显影响,不会影响或者明显影响他人对该物品或服务的使用或消费。私人物品由于其排他性,可以有效地建立产权或所有权,由于其竞争性,可以通过市场有效配置资源。而公共物品由于其非排他性和非竞争性特点通常并不能建立有效的市场配置机制,“搭便车现象”和“囚徒困境”常被用来解释这种“市场失灵”。具有完全非排他性和非竞争性的物品一般被称为“纯公共物品”：
② See Todd Sandier, Global and Regional Public Goods:A Prognosis for Collective Action, Fiscal Studies, Vol.19, No.3,pp..211-247.
③See Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Working Group Ⅲ, Climate change 2007:mitigation of climate change:contribution of Working Group Ⅲ to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge,New York:Cambridge University Press,2007, pp..103-105.
① See Ravi Kanbur, Todd Sandier, Kevin Morrison, The Future of Development Assistance:Common Pools and International Public Goods, Overseas Development Council,1999, pp..67-68.
①(美)W.C.丹皮尔著：《科学史及其与哲学和宗教的关系》,李珩译,广西师范大学出版社2009年版,第313页。
①See Thomas E. Downing et al., Climate, Change and Risk, London:Routledge.1999, p.7.
②See Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Working Group Ⅱ, Climate Change 2007:impacts, adaptation and vulnerability:contribution of Working Group Ⅱ to the fourth assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge; New York:Cambridge University Press,2007,p.754.
③ See Roda Verheven. Climate Change Damage and International Law:Prevention. Duties and State Responsibility, Leiden; Boston:MartinusNijhoff Publishers,2005, p.35.
①美国科学家基林(Charles David Keeling)在长期定点检测基础上绘制的大气二氧化碳变化曲线。1958年,加入斯克里普斯海洋研究所(Scripps Institution of Oceanography)后,基林开始负责该研究所的大气二氧化碳碳监测项目,率组在夏威夷冒纳罗亚(Mauna Loa)火山和南级进行大气温室气体定点监测工作。1961年.基林根据所收集数据绘制了表明大气二氧化碳浓度持续上升的基林曲线。自1958年至2008年,基林曲线已从315ppm,上升到了385ppm.基林曲线为证明大气温室气候浓度变化、人为气候变化存在提供了重要科学依据。
② See Roger Revelle, and Hans Suess, Carbon Dioxide Exchange between Atmosphere and Ocean and the Question of an Increase of Atmospheric CO2 during the past Decades." Tellus Ⅸ.1957. pp..18-27.
③ See William W. Kellogg, The World Climate Conference:A Conference of Experts on Climate and Mankind, held in Geneva. Switzerland. during 12-23 February 1979, Environmental Conservation, Vol.6, Issue2,1997, pp..162-162.
①See World Meteorological Organization (WMO), Report of the International Conference on the Assessment of the Role of Carbon Dioxide and of other Greenhouse Gases in Climate Variations and Associated Impacts. Villach. Austria,9-15 October 1985, WMO No.661,1986.
② See Daniel M. Bodansky:The International Climate Change Regime, in Walter Sinnontt-Armstrong & Richard B. Howarth, Perspectives on Climate Change:Science, Economics, Politics, Ethics, Oxford:Elsevier Ltd,2005, pp..147-180.
③ See World Meteorological Organization (WMO), Environment Canada, Conference Proceedings of the Changing Atmosphere:Implications for Global Security, Toronto, Canada,27-30 June 1988,WMO No.710,1989.
① See Daniel M. Bodansky:The International Climate Change Regime, in Walter Sinnontt-Armstrong & Richard B. Howarth. Perspectives on Climate Change:Science, Economics, Politics, Ethics, Oxford:Elsevier Ltd,2005, pp..147-180.
② See United Nations General Assembly, Protection of Global Climate for Present and Future Generations of Mankind. Resolution 43/53, Dec.6,1988.
③ See Hague Declaration on the Environment, Mar.1989, in International Legal Material, Vol.28,1989, p.1308.
④See Ministerial Conference on Atmospheric Pollution & Climatic Change, The Noordwijk Declaration on Climate Change/Atmospheric Pollution and Climatic Change Ministerial Conference held at Noordwijk, the Netherlands, on 6th and 7th November 1989.
⑤ See World Climate Conference, Climate Change:Science, Impacts and Policy:Proceedings of the Second World Climate Conference, held at Geneva, on 29 October to 7 November 1990, New York:Cambridge University Press,1991.
⑥See Daniel M. Bodansky:The International Climate Change Regime, in Walter Sinnontt-Armstrong & Richard B. Howarth, Perspectives on Climate Change:Science. Economics. Politics. Ethics. Oxford:Elsevier Ltd,2005, pp..147-180.
① Id.
② See United Nations General Assembly, Protection of Global Climate for Present and Future Generations of Mankind. Resolution 45/212. Dec.21,1990.
③See Daniel M. Bodansky:The International Climate Change Regime, in Walter Sinnontt-Armstrong & Richard B. Howarth. Perspectives on Climate Change:Science. Economics. Politics. Ethics, Oxford:Elsevier Ltd,2005, pp.,147-180.
④ See UNFCCC Secretariat. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change:The First Ten Years. 2004, available at http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/publications/first_ten_years_en.pdf, visited March 6,2008.
① See E. Lisa, and F. Schipper, Conceptual History of Adaptation in the UNFCCC Process, Review of European Community and International Environmental Law, Vol.15, Issue.1,2006, pp..82-92.
② See Roda Verheyen, Climate Change Damage and International Law:Prevention, Duties and State Responsibility, Leiden; Boston:Martinus Nijhoff Publishers,2005, p.55.
① See Daniel M. Bodansky:The International Climate Change Regime, in Walter Sinnontt-Armstrong & Richard
B. Howarth, Perspectives on Climate Change:Science, Economics, Politics, Ethics, Oxford:Elsevier Ltd,2005, pp..147-180.
② See Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Working Group Ⅰ, Climate Change 2007:the Physical Science
Basis:Contribution of Working Group Ⅰ to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge;New York:Cambridge University Press,2007, p.826.
③ See James Hansen, et al.. Target Atmospheric CO2:Where should Humanity Aim?, The Open Atmospheric Science Journal, Vol.2,2008, pp..217-231.
① See Philippe Sands:Principles of International Environmental Law (Second Edition). Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,2003, p.285.
①秦天宝：《我国环境保护的国际法律问题研究——以气候变化问题为例》，载《世界经济与政治论坛》2006年第2期,第107-113页。
② See Philippe Sands:Principles of International Environmental Law (Second Edition). Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,2003, p.286; 289.
① See Elizabeth Burleson, Climate Change Consensus:Emerging International Law, William and Mary Environmental Law and Policy Review, Vol.34, Issue,2,2009.pp..543-588.
② See Roda Verheyen, Climate Change Damage and International Law:Prevention, Duties and State Responsibility, Leiden; Boston:MartinusNijhoff Publishers,2005, p.69.
③Precautionary principle风险预防原则,可参见王曦编著：《国际环境法》,法律出版社2005年第2版，第
111页：亦有译为谨慎行事原则.可参见徐祥民、孟庆垒等著：《国际环境法基本原则研究》,中国环境科学出版社2008年版,第184页；也可称谨慎原则,可参见杜志华、杜群：《气候变化的国际法发展：从温室效应理论到<联合国气候变化框架公约>》,载《现代法学》2002年第5期,第145-149页。
① Id. at p.74.
② See Chrisina Voigt, Sustainable Development as a Principle of International Law:Resolving Conflicts between Climate Measures and WTO Law; Dordrecht:Martinus Nijhoff Publisher,2009, p.1.
①张梓太、张乾红：《国际气候适应制度的滞后性及其发展障碍》,载《法学》2010年第2期.第127-137页。
② See M.J.Mace,Adaptation under the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change:The International Legal framework, in W.Neil Adger,M.J.Mace,et al.:Fairness in Adaptation to Climate Change, London Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press.2006. pp..53-76.
③ Id.at p.58.
①张梓太、张乾红：《国际气候适应制度的滞后性及其发展障碍》,载《法学》2010年第2期,第127-137页。
②同上。
①See UNFCCC Decision 11/CP.1 of 1995. Initial Guidance on Policies. Programme Priorities and Eligibility Criteria to the Operating Entity or Entities of the Financial Mechanism.
② See UNFCCC Decision 9/CP.2 of 1996. Communications from Parties included in Annex 1 to the Convention: Guidelines, Schedule and Process for Consideration.
③See UNFCCC Decision 10/CP.3 of 1997. Activities Implemented Jointly under the Pilot Phase.
④ See M.J.Mace (2006) Adaptation under the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change:The International Legal framework. in W.Neil Adger.M.J.Mace.et al.:Fairness in Adaptation to Climate Change. London:Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press.2006, pp..53-76.
① See UNFCCC Decision 11/CP.2 of 1996, Guidance to the Global Environment Facility.
②See UNFCCC Decision 2/CP.4 of 1998, Additional Guidance to the Operating Entity of the Financial Mechanism.
③See UNFCCC Decision 3/CP.4 of 1998, Review of the Financial Mechanism.
① See UNFCCC Decision 4/CP.4. of 1998. Development and Transfer of Technologies.
② See UNFCCC Decision 5/CP.4. of 1998, Implementation of Article 4.8 and 4.9 of the Convention.
③由于2000年第六次缔约方会议上发达国家缔约方和发展中国家缔约方之间的严重分歧,事实上,这一工作计划的结点被延后至《马拉喀什协议》(2001年)的出台。
① See UNFCCC Decision7/CP.7 of 2001, Funding under the Convention.
①See M.J.Mace:Adaptation under the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change:The International Legal framework, in W.Neil Adger.M.J.Mace.et al.:Fairness in Adaptation to Climate Change. London:Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press,2006, pp..53-76.
② See UNFCCC Decision 2/CP.7 of 2001, Capacity Building in Developing Countries.
③ See UNFCCC Decision 4/CP.7 of 2001, Development and Transfer of Technologies.
①See UNFCCC Decision 1/CP.10 of 2004, Buenos Aires Programme of Work on Adaptation and Response Measures.
② See UNFCCC Decision 2/CP.11 of 2005:Five-year Programme of Work of the Subsidiarv Body for Scientific and Technological Advice on Impact, Vulnerability and Adaptation to Climate Change.
① See Chukwumerije Okereke, Philip Mann, Henny Osbahr.Benito Muller and Johannes Ebeling, Assessment of key negotiating issues at Nairobi climate COP/MOP and what it means for the future of the climate regime, Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research, Working Paper No.106, June 2007. ② See Hermann E. Ott, et al., The Bali Roadmap:New Horizons for Global Climate Policy, Climate Policy, Vol.8, 2008, pp..91-95.
③2007年2月2口IPCC在法国巴黎发布了第一工作小组报告《自然科学基础》(WGI);4月5日第二工作小组报告《影响、适应与脆弱性》(WGⅡ)在比利时布鲁塞尔发布；5月4日第三工作小组报告《减缓气候变化》(WGⅢ)在泰国曼谷发布：11月17口在西班牙巴伦西亚举行的IPCC第27次会议上.IPCC发布了作为第四次评估报告最后部分的《综合报告》。
① See Raymond Clemencon, The Bali Road Map A First Step on the Difficult Journey to a Post-Kyoto Protocol Agreement, The Journal of Environment & Development, Vol.17, No.1,2008, pp..70-94.
①2008年，在波兹南气候变化会议(CP.14／CMP.4)上,适应基金正式启动投入运作。
② See Nicholas Stern. The Economics of Climate Change:The Stern Review. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,2007, p.563.
① See EU COM(92)226:Proposal for a Council Directive Introducing a Tax on Carbon Dioxide Emissions and Energy, Brussels,30 June 1992.
② See The Council Decision 93/389/EEC of 24 June 1993 for a Monitoring Mechanism of Community CO2 and other Greenhouse Gas Emissions; The Council Decision 93/500/EEC of 13 September 1993 Concerning the Promotion of Renewable Energy Sources in the Community:The Council Directive 93/76/EEC of 13 September 1993 to Limit Carbon Dioxide Emissions by Improving Energy Efficiency (SAVE), etc..
③See EU COM(2000)88:EU policies and measures to reduce greenhouse gas emissions:Towards a European Climate Change Programme (ECCP).
④See Directive 2003/87/EC:Establishing a Scheme for Greenhouse Gas Emission Allowance Trading within the Community and Amending Council Directive 96/61/EC; Directive 2004/101/EC:Amending Directive 2003/87/EC in Respect of the Kyoto Protocol's Project Mechanisms.
①See EU COM/2000/769:Green Paper towards a European Strategy for the Security of the Energy Supply.
②See Directive 92/81/EEC:the Harmonization of the Structures of Excise Duties on Mineral Oils; Directive 92/82/EEC:the Approximation of the Rates of Excise Duties on Mineral Oils.
③ See Directive 2003/96/EC:Restructuring the Community Framework for the Taxation of Energy Products and Electricity.
①The European Advisory Group for Adaptation to Climate Change.
①2003年《能源白皮书》为英国能源政策设定了基本目标，确定了到2050年实现温室气体减排约60%的目标。2000年英国气候变化计划颁布后,除能源政策外,其它各相关部门的政策发展也相当活跃,例如,《交通2010：十年路线》(2002年)；《未来交通白皮书》(2004年)：《汽车动力未来战略》(2002年)；《英国气候变化可能情况》(2002年,UKCIP等机构随之为气候变化影响和适应性评估提供了一系列工具和方法);《未来航空运输白皮书》(2003年)；《热电联产战略》(2004年)；《英国可持续发展战略》(2005年,其中将应对气候变化作为其四项优先行动之一)：《可再生能源承诺》(2002年,英国支持可再生电能生产的主要机制)；《可再生运输燃料承诺》(2005年)：《化石燃料利用减碳技术发展战略》(2005年);等等。
② See Climate Change:the UK Programme,2000.
① See UK Climate Change and Sustainable Energy Act of 2006.
② See UK Climate Change Act of 2008.
①See US National Climate Program Act,Sept.17,1978; Amended, Dec.29,2000.
①The National Assessment Synthesis Team,根据美国《联邦咨询委员会法》(1972)设立的一个联邦咨询机构,协助美国全球变化研究项目的实施。
② See The National Assessment Synthesis Team:Climate Change Impacts on the United States:The Potential Consequences of Climate Variability and Change. A Report of the National Assessment Synthesis Team,US Global Change Research Program. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,2001.
③2007年至2008年间其它立法草案还有《气候管理与创新法》、《全球气候变化安全监督法》、《清洁空气／气候变化法》、《拯救我们的气候法》、《气候变化教育法》、《国际气候合作再接触法》、《能源独立、清洁空气和气候安全法》、《交通能源安全和气候变化减缓法》、《全球变化研究和数据管理法》、《有效控制和管理气候变化成本法》、《能源独立、国家安全和消费者保护新指导法》、《气候管理和经济安全法》、《气候中性发电法》、《通过个人行动应对气候变化法》、《气候投资和保护法》、《美国当前气候行动法》、《气候变化饮用水适应研究法》、《气候变化补贴法》、《北极气候保护法》、《气候变化中心和信息交换所法》、《沿海州气候变化规划法》等等；此外,这《2007年能源独立和安全法》(Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007)等气候变化相关立法完成立法程序开始生效。
①如按照IPCC第二次气候变化评估报告(1995年),如果不采取有效的减缓措施,到2100年,地球表面平均气候将比1990年提高约2℃(在1℃至3.5℃之间)：海平面将在目前水平上平均上升约50厘米(在15厘米至95厘米之间)。要使大气中温室气体浓度保持在两倍于前工业化时代的水平,以目前温室气候排放水平而言,必须削减50%以上。1996年第二次缔约方会议发表的《日内瓦部长宣言》对此予以认同。
②如在1996年第二次缔约方会议上,欧盟提出工业国家“一篮子”(CO2,CH4,N2O)减排方案,建议以1990年排放水平为基准,到2005年减排7.5%,2010年减排15%。日本提出到2010年比1990年减排5%。美国则主张在2008年到2012年间,使温室气体排放量回复到1990年水平,之后,再继续减少其排放：同时美国提出减排须得结合联合履行机制和排放贸易等灵活进行,并认为美国承担减排义务将以主要发展中国家有意义的参与为前提。七十七国集团和中国等发展中国家则提议工业国家根据不同温室气体种类分别设定减排日程表,并坚决反对让发展中国家做出新的承诺的提议。而原先持反对意见的石油输出国集团在经历第二次缔约方会议后修正了其参与战略，不再阻挠议定书的谈判,转而寻求在七十七国集团中获得更多支持,他们提出减排的同时亦应关注对发展中国家的不利影响,建议为此设立补偿基金。此外,与《京都议定书》的实施方式不同,欧盟曾建议在议定书中分设三种效力有别的“政策和措施”：一是强制性政策和措施；二是非强制性、但具有高优先级的政策和措施：三是非强制性、但对特定国家具有优先级的政策和措施,经此扩大实质性减排措施的实施范围、增加政策针对性与力度。
③具体可见第六次缔约方会议及其《波恩协定》、第七次缔约方会议及其《马拉喀什协议》中减排制度的相应调整。经过这些调整,减排义务量化的基准年出现了松动,1990年不再是确定基准排放量的唯一基准年,一些经济转轨国家被允许采用其它年份作为基年,任何附件Ⅰ国家皆被允许以1995年为非CO2的减排基年,从而使一些国家的实际减排义务大为缩减。另外,碳汇额度被有限引入冲抵减排义务。此外,2001年,时为最大温室气体排放国的美国宣布退出《京都议定书》,减排制度的实际效力遭受重大挑战。基年调整、碳汇引入、美国退出等因素弱化了本来的《京都议定书》,原先平均5.2%的减排目标实际上已不存在,即使《京都议定书》得到严格履行,目标排放量较之于1990年仍将会进一步增长(1.7%)。See M.GJ.denElzen,A.P.G. de Moor, Evaluating the Bonn Agreement and Some Key Issues. RIVM Repport 728001016,2001, available at http://www.rivm.nl/bibliotheek/rapporten/728001016.pdf, visited Aug.13,2008.; M.G.J. den Elzen,A.P.G. de Moor, The Bonn Agreement and Marrakech Accords:an updated analysis, RIVM report 728001017,2001, available at http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.119.3111&rep=rep1&type=pdf, visited Aug.13,2008.
① See Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Working Group Ⅱ, Climate change 2001:Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability:Contribution of Working Group Ⅱ to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge.New York:Cambridge University Press,2001, P.83
① See Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Working Group Ⅱ, Climate change 2007:Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability:Contribution of Working Group Ⅱ to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge,New York:Cambridge University Press,2007, pp..188-189.
① See Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Working Group Ⅱ, Climate change 2007:Impacts. Adaptation and Vulnerability:Contribution of Working Group Ⅱ to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge,New York:Cambridge University Press, p.213.
②政府间气候变化专门委员会(IPCC)：《气候变化2007：综合报告》,来源于IPCC官方网,2008年5月
13日浏览,http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/syr/ar4_syr_cn.pdf。
①See Nicholas Stern. The Economics of Climate Change:The Stern Review. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, pp..458-469.
②贾丽虹著：《外部性理论研究——中国环境规制与知识产权保护制度的分析》，人民出版社2007年版,第72页。
③ See Nicholas Stern, The Economics of Climate Change:The Stern Review, Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, p.1.
①茅于轼著：《一个经济学家的独特视角》,吉林出版集团有限责任公司2009年版,第18页。
②(德)阿图尔·考夫曼,温弗里德·哈斯默尔主编：《当代法哲学和法律理论导论》,郑永流译,法律出版社2002年版.第472-473页。
① See Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Working Group Ⅱ. Climate change 2001:Impacts. Adaptation and Vulnerability:Contribution of Working Group Ⅱ to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge.New York:Cambridge University Press.2001, pp..883-884.
② See Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Working Group Ⅱ, Climate change 2001:Impacts. Adaptation and Vulnerability:Contribution of Working Group Ⅱ to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge,New York:Cambridge University Press,2001, pp..891.
③(英)罗伯特·萨格登著：《权利、合作与福利的经济学》,方钦等译,上海财经大学出版社2008年版,第6页。
①(美)詹姆斯·M.布坎南著：《公共物品的需求与供给》，马珺译，上海人民出版社2009年版，第47页：
② See Kaul I., Grunberg I., and Stern M. A., Global Public Goods:Concepts, Policies and Strategies, in United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). Global Public Goods:International cooperation in the 21 Century. New York, Oxford:Oxford University Press.,1999, pp..450-508.
①[美]弗雷德·E.弗尔德瓦里著：《公共物品与私人社区——社会服务的市场供给》,郑秉文译,经济管理出版社2007年版,第6页。
② See Lisa E., Schipper F..(2007), Climate Change Adaptation and Development:exploring the linkages, Tyndall centre for climate change research, working paper 107, July 2007.
①张梓太、张乾红：《国际气候适应制度的滞后性及其发展障碍》，载《法学》2010年第2期，第127-137页。
① See Robert W. Kates.. Cautionary Tales:Adaptation and the Global Poor, Climate Change, Vol.45, No.1.2000,pp..5-17.
③ See Jesse H. Ausubel, Does Climate Still Matter?,Nature, Vol.350, Apr.1991,pp..649-652.
①具体如《联合国气候变化公约》第二条等内容所述,减缓作为气候变化制度措施,而适应则成为其附属之评价项。
② See Robert W. Kates, Cautionary Tales:Adaptation and the Global Poor, Climate Change, Vol.45, No.1.2000,pp..5-17.
③所谓“减缓”气候变化之说实际上至今仍未获得社会之普遍认同,在科学界,“人为活动变暖论”仍受到质疑,一些气候科学家和研究人员认为,限制人类温室气体的排放必须建立在对三个基本事实的证明基础上：“1.温室气体确实显著地增加全球气温，比它们对以前自然气候变暖循环中的气温升高要高得多：2.气候变暖将对人类和生态有害;3.合理的人类活动确实能够抢在这种过度变暖之前来阻止变暖。……目前为止,人为变暖的提倡者还没有能够满足哪怕一点这些最低要求。……没有人能够将自然影响从人为影响中区分出来。”他们认为,气候变暖主要是一种自然现象,是因为气候循环进入了“暖期”,自然和经济社会系统已因此开始一个新的适应过程,气候变化的结果不一定糟糕,即使面对其不利影响,“我们(也)能够利用我们的技术来适应这个变化,比起那些在格陵兰岛被冻僵的维京人所受的折磨,或者玛雅人不得不放弃他们的城市,在干旱袭击的从林地带继续存活下去,现代人在生活上的改变要小得多……粮食产量将会在气候变化中改变,但是我们高产的农业将会保证充足的食物……那些没有被长期干旱所袭击的人们拥有足够的财富来帮助那些受到干早袭击的人们……全球变暖是自然的,永不停歇的”。[美]S.弗雷德·辛格,丹尼斯·T.艾沃利著：全球变暖：毫无来由的恐慌,林文鹏、王臣立译,上海科学技术文献出版社2008年版,第259、263-264页。
① See A. Dan Tarlock. Now, Think Again about Adaptation, Arizona Journal of International and Comparative Law. Vol.9,No.2,1992,pp..169-181.
①See Richard J.T.Klein, Adaptation to Climate Variability and Change:What is Optimal and Appropriate?, in Carlo Giupponi. Mordechai Shechter. Climate Change in the Mediterranean:Socio-economic Perspectives of Impacts, Vulnerability and Adaptation, Gloucester:Edward Elgar Publishing,2003, pp..32-50.
① See Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Working Group Ⅱ, Climate change 2001:Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability:Contribution of Working Group Ⅱ to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge,New York:Cambridge University Press,2001, P.83.
②See E.Lisa F.Schipper, and Emily Boyd, UNFCCC COP11 and COP/MOPI:At Last,Some Hope?, The Journal of Environment & Development, Vol.15, No.1,2006,pp..75-90.
①刘燕华、李秀彬主编：《脆弱生态与可持续发展》,商务印书馆2007年版,第111页。
①See the World Bank:World Development Report 2008:Agriculture for Development.
② See the United Nations Development Programme(UNDP), Human Development Report 2007/2008:Fighting Climate Change:Solidarity in a Divided World.
①See Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Working Group Ⅱ, Climate change 2007:Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability:Contribution of Working Group Ⅱ to the fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge,New York:Cambridge University Press,2007, p.213.
① See F. Gagnon-Lebrun, and S. Agrawala. Progress on Adaptation to Climate Change in Developed Countries: An Analysis of Broad Trends. ENV/EPOC/GSP(2006)I/FINAL, OECD,2006, available at http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/49/18/37178873.pdf, visited May.10,2009.
②按照《京都议定书》,日本承诺2008-2012年将温室气体排放量在1990年基础上减排6%。作为力促《京都议定书》通过的京都会议的东道国,日本在《京都议定书》通过后的第二年就率先制定了以如何履行本国“京都承诺”为主旨的《全球变暖对策促进法》(1998年,2006年修订)。
①潘家华：《国家利益的科学论争与国际政治妥协——IPCC关于减缓气候变化社会经济分析评估报告述评》,载吕学都、王文远编：《全球气候变化研究：进展与展望》(论文集),气象出版社2003年版,第33-39页。
②See Lisa E., Schipper F., Climate Change Adaptation and Development:exploring the linkages, Tyndall centre for climate change research, working paper 107, July 2007.
③ See O'Riordan, T. and A. Jordan:Institutions, Climate Change and Cultural Theory:Towards a Common Analytical Framework. Global Environmental Change, Vol.9. No.2,1999, pp..81-93.
④See Nicholas Stern, The Economics of Climate Change:The Stern Review, Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,p.473-474.
⑤ Id. at pp487-490.
①中国科学院可持续发展战略研究组：《2009中国可持续发展战略报告——探索中国特色的低碳道路》,科学出版社2009年版，第238页。
① See Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Working Group Ⅱ, Climate Change 2001:impacts, adaptation and vulnerability:contribution of Working Group Ⅱ to the third assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge;New York:Cambridge University Press,2001,pp..895-897.
②印度经济学家阿马蒂亚·森(1998年诺贝尔经济学奖得主)曾总结说：定义理性行为的方法主要有两种,一是把理性视为选择的一致性(internal consistency of choice),一是把理性等同于自利最大化(maximization of self-interest)。参见(印)阿马蒂亚·森著：《伦理学与经济学》,王宇等译,商务印书馆2000年版,第18页。
③吴光芸,杨龙：《超越集体行动的困境：社会资本与制度分析》,载《东周学术》2006年第3期，第11-16页。
④ See John Field, Social Capital,2nd edition, London:Routledge,2008, p.1.
⑤ See Murray A. Rudd, Live Long and Prosper:Collective Action, Social Capital and Social Vision, Ecological Economics Vol.34. No.1. pp..131-144.
⑥ Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research at the University of East Anglia, UK.
⑦ See W. Neil. Adger, Social Capital, Collection Action, and Adaptation to Climate Chang, Economic Geograph Vol.79, No.4,2003, pp..387-404.
①See Arun Agrawgl, Common Property Institutions and Sustainable Governance of Resources. World Development, Vol.29, No.10,2001, pp..1649-1672.
①See Michael Woolcock, and Deepa Narayan, Social Capital: Implications for Development Theory, Research and Policy.The World Bank Research Observer, Vol.15, Issue.2,2000, pp..225-249.
②社会连带关系与社会资本理论之间有很深的渊源,两者同属于社会关系问题,只是,前者强调事实与性质的方面,而后者则强调价值及其优化的方面。总体而言,社会连带关系是创造社会资本的社会根源。See Alejandro Portes, Social Capital:Its Origins and Applications in Modern Sociology, Annual Review of Sociology, Vol.24.1998. pp.1-24.
③See Angela Williams, Solidarity, Justice and Climate Change Law; Melbourne Journal of International Law, Vol.10, Issue 2,2009, pp..493-508.
④ See Hauke Brunkhorst, Jeffrey Flynn, Solidarity:From Civic Friendship to a Global Legal Community. Cambridge:The MIT Press,2005,p.2.
⑤ (台)尤召和： 《略论孔德的思想渊源及其实证哲学》,载《淡江史学》2007年第18期,第319-338页。
⑥孙文恺著：《社会学法学》,法律出版社2005年版,第18-19页。
⑦张乃根著：《西方法哲学史纲》,中国政法大学出版社2008年版,第195页。
①孙文恺著：《社会学法学》,法律出版社2005年版,第73页。
②张文显著：《二十世纪西方法哲学思潮研究》，法律出版社2006年版,第100页。
③(法)莱昂·狄骥著：《宪法学教程》,工文利等译,辽海出版社,春风文艺出版社1999年版,第8-9页。
④同上,第10页。
⑤孙文恺著：《社会学法学》,法律出版社2005年版，第99页。
⑥See Arun Agrawgl, Common Property Institutions and Sustainable Governance of Resources, World Development, Vol.29, No.10,2001, pp..1649-1672.
⑦ See Hauke Brunkhorst, Jeffrey Flynn, Solidarity:From Civic Friendship to a Global Legal Community, Cambridge:The MIT Press,2005, pp..5-6.
①See Arun Agrawgl, Common Property Institutions and Sustainable Governance of Resources. World Development, Vol.29, No.10,2001, pp..1649-1672.
②Id.
③ See Nicholas Stern, The Economics of Climate Change:The Stern Review, Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,2007,p.19.
① Id.
② See Stdphane Hallegatte, Strategies to Adapt to an Uncertain Climate Change. Global Environmental Change, Vol.19,2009,PP..240-247.
① See Robin Kundis Craig,'Stationarity is Dead'-Long Live Transformation:Five Principles for Climate Change Adaptation Law, Havard Environmental Law Review, Vol.34, No.1,2010,pp..9-75.
① See Lisa E., Schipper F.. Climate Change Adaptation and Development:Exploring the Linkages, Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research, working paper 107, Jul.2007.
② See Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Working Group Ⅰ, Climate change 2007:the Physical Science Basis:Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge.New York:Cambridge University Press,2007,p.5.
①(美)戴利,弗蕾著：《生态经济学》,徐中民等译，黄河水利出版社2007年版.第15页。
①See FCCC/CP/2007/3/Corr.l, Report of the Global Environment Facility to the Conference of the Parties, CP.13, Bali,2007, available at http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/2007/cop13/eng/03cOl.pdf, visited May.15 2009.
② See CIDSE-Caritas Internationalis, Reducing Vulnerability, Enhancing Resilience:the Importance of Adaptation Technologies for the Post-2012 Climate Agreement, Jun.2009, available at http://www.cidse.org/uploadedFiles/Publications/Publication_repository/report.pdf, visited Aug.3,2009.
①张文显著：《法哲学范畴研究》,中国政法大学出版社2001年版,第61页。
②自然法学者认为：“自我保全的欲求乃是一切正义和道德的唯一根源,那么,基本的道德事实就不是一桩义务.而是一项权利：所有的义务都是从根本的和不可离弃的自我保全的权利中派生出来的。”参见(美)列奥·斯特劳斯著：《自然权利与历史》,彭刚译,三联书店出版社,2006年,第185页。
①(美)贝思·J·辛格著：《可操作的权利》,邵强进等译,上海人民出版社2005年版,第6、27页：
② See Daniel M. Bodansky, The International Climate Change Regime, in Walter Sinnontt-Armstrong, and Richard B. Howarth(2005). Perspectives on Climate Change:Science. Economics, Politics. Ethics, Oxford: Elsevier Ltd, pp..147-180.
①曲建升、孙成权：《全球变化研究中的“科学政治化”倾向——以美国气候政策为例》,载《世界科技研究与发展》2004年第2期,第78-83页。
②陈泉生等著：《科学发展观与法律发展：法学方法论的生态化》,法律出版社2008年版,第26页。
①具体可参见IPCC第二工作小组的历次报告。
② IPCC评估报告基本上是以非洲、亚洲、大洋洲(新西兰与澳大利亚)、欧洲、拉丁美洲、北美洲、极地区域(南北两极)为单位评估气候变化的区域影响的,除此之外,只有小岛屿国家因其明显的特殊性而被单独评估。
③ See Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Working Group Ⅱ, Climate Change 2001:Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability:Contribution of Working Group Ⅱ to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge;New York:Cambridge University Press,2001.P.897.
③ See Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Working Group Ⅰ, Climate Change 2001:the Scientific Basis: Contribution of Working Group Ⅰ to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge; New York:Cambridge University Press,2001, p.3-4.
①(德)康德著：《法的形而上学原理—权利的科学》,沈叔平译,商务印书馆2008年版,第39页。
② See Jack Donnelly, International Human Rights,2nd edition, Corolado:Westview Press,1993, p.20.
③(印)阿马蒂亚·森：《后果评价与实践理性》，应奇等编，东方出版社2006年版,第418页。
④ See United Nation Development Programme(UNDP), Human Development Report 2007/2008:Fighting Climate Change:Human Solidarity in a Divided World, available at http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_20072008_EN_Complete.pdf, visited Dec.17:2009.
⑤ See Male's Declaration on the Human Dimension of Global Climate Change,14 Nov.2007.
① See The United Nations Human Rights Council, "Human rights and climate change". Resolution 7/23,2008.
② See Report of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights on the relationship between climate change and human rights, A/HRC/10/61,15 January 2009.
③ See The United Nations Human Rights Council, "Human rights and climate change", Resolution 10/4,2009.
①See The Negotiating Text for an Outcome of the December Copenhagen Conference. FCCC/AWGLCA/2009/INF.2.15 Sep.2009. available at http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/2009/. visited 12 Nov. 2009.
②(美)劳伦斯·M·弗里德曼著：《法律制度—从社会科学角度观察》,中国政法大学出版社2004年版,第322页。
①See International Council on Human Rights Policy(ICHRP). Climate Change and Human Rights:A Rough Guide,2008, available at www.ichrp.org, visited 9 Mar.2009.
② See Report of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights on the relationship between climate change and human rights, A/HRC/10/61,15 January 2009.
① See Nicholas Stern, The Economics of Climate Change:the Stern Review, Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,2007, p.463.
② See Rebecca M.M. Wallace, International Law:a Student Introduction, Sweet & Maxwell Ltd..,1997, p.205.
①沈宗灵著：《现代西方法理学》,北京大学出版1992年版,第285、304页。
① See Report of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights on the relationship between climate change and human rights, A/HRC/10/61,15 January 2009.
① See E.Lisa F.Schipper, Emily Boyd, UNFCCC COP11 and COP/MOP1:At Last,Some Hope?, The Journal of Environment & Development,Vol.15,No.1,2006.pp..75-90.
② See Report of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights on the relationship between climate change and human rights, A/HRC/10/61,15 January 2009.
③ See Human Rights Committee, CCPR General Comment No.12:The right to self-determination of peoples (Art. 1),13/03/84.
①据美国能源信息管理局(Energy Information Administration, EIA)2004年评估预测资料,如果不采取额外措施，美国2025年二氧化碳排放量可能较1990年增长63%左右。See EIA. Annual Energy Outlook 2004 with Projections to 2025, available at http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/archive/aeo04/pdf/trend_5.pdf, visited Nov.13,2008.
② See David G. Victor, Climate Change:Debating America's Policy Options. Council on Foreign Relations Press. 2004, p.150.
①这里主要指2003年《洁净天空法案》(Clear Skies Act of 2003),该法案拟对《清洁空气法》予以补充修改,提出了氮氧化物、二氧化硫、汞排放的控制目标,除一氧化氮外,其它为《京都议定书》所控制的温室气体均被排除在外,因而在美国国内受到很大批评。
② See U.S. Climate Action Report 2002, available at http://www.epa.gov/globalwarming/publications/car/index.html, visited Nov.13,2008.
③See Jennifer Lee.7 States to Sue EPA over Standards on Air Pollution, February 21.2003, available at http://www.nytimes.com/2003/02/21/politics/21ENVI.html?scp=1, visited Nov.13,2008.
④See Jennifer Lee, E.P.A. Says It Lacks Power to Regulate Some Gases, August 29,2003, New York Times, available at http://www.nytimes.com/2003/08/29/politics/29CLIM.html?pagewanted=1, visited Nov.13,2008.
① See The U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit. Massachusetts et al. v. EPA et al., Sep.13. 2005, available at http://ecf.cadc.uscourts.gov/, visited Nov.13,2008.
① See Supreme Court of the United States, Massachusetts et al. v. EPA et al., April 2,2007, available at http://www.supremecourtus.gov/, visited Nov.13 2008.
②因纽特人(Inuit)是传统生活在北极与次北极区域的土著民之一。全世界约有165000因纽特人,主要分布在加拿大、美国(阿拉斯加)、格林兰、德国和俄罗斯等国家的北极、次北极区域。因纽特人管理、居住的区域往往地广人稀。他们在极冷的北极、次北极环境中,利用海冰进行交通、利用极地捕猎获取食物,形成特有的文化、生活方式和经济社会方式。他们适应于相似的极地环境而生存与发展。气候变化趋势中,极地变暖、冰盖融化,威胁因纽特人的传统生活方式、谋生手段与文化特性。不仅如此,海冰融化与海平面上升侵蚀海岸线,使得极区的因纽特人社区被迫迁移。See James D. Ford, Dangerous Climate Change and the Importance of Adaptation for the Arctic's Inuit Population, Environmental Research Letters, Vol.4, No.2,2009,pp..1-9.
③《联合国土著人民权利宣言》(United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples.2007)。在联合国系统中,关于士著民(indigenous people),并无明确统一的定义。引用最多的一个定义出自人权专家马丁涅兹·戈伯(Jose R. Martinez Cobo,防止歧视和保护少数族群小组委员会特派专员)的著名研究报告《反对歧视土著人口问题研究》,戈伯将土著民(土著人口)定义为：在被侵略或被殖民之前即全部或者部分在目前疆域上发展的人口,较之于后来的外来支配者所建立的制度,他们更多遵循并保留其固有的经济社会和文化传统。他们的信仰、习俗、文化与传统,与其所依存的土地紧密结合在一起，对于他们而言,土地不只是生产工具,而且是其特定文化的来源与象征。(Study on the Problem of Discrimination against Indigenous Populations,1972-1986, available from http://www.un.org/esa/socdev/unpfii/en/spdaip.html, visitedNov. 13 2008)。1982年联合国经社理事会设立土著民问题工作组(WGIP),这一定义也被WGIP所接受。但是,考虑到这一定义主要从前殖民时期着眼,难免狭隘,因而,WGIP又做了扩充,使之包含其他被孤立、被边缘化人口。到后来,凡是认为自己是土著的并被土著群体接受为其中的一员的人.都被视为土著民。此外，国际劳工组织和世界银行等相关文件中也对土著民概念做出过相应解释。然而，WGIP所起草的《土著人民权利宣言》中,并未对土著人民进行定义。其中部分原因,正如WGIP主席所言，土著民在历史上因他人所强加的定义而遭受了歧视性对待,因此,将决定其成员关系的权利留于土著民自己。(WGIP.E/CN.4/Sub.2/AC.4/1995/3. Jun.21 1993; Douglas E. Sanders. Indigenous People:Issues of Definition. International Journal of Cultural Property, Vol.8, Issue.1,1999,pp..4-13.)
①See Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Situation of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms of Indigenous People, A/HRC/4/32, Feb.27 2007, available at http://www2.ohchr.org/english/issues/indigenous/, visited Nov.13 2008.
②美洲国家间人权委员会(Inter-American Commission on Human Rights.IACHR)成立于1959年,总部设于华盛顿。目前其主要职责是根据《美洲国家组织宪章》(1948年)、《美洲人的权利和义务宣言》(1948年)、《美洲人权公约》(1969年)三个法律文件的授权,接受并审查美洲地区人权侵害的谴责与指控。美国是《美洲国家组织宪章》的成员国，并参加了《美洲人的权利和义务宣言》，但一直没有加入《美洲人权公约》。
①See Petition to the Inter American Commission on Human Rights Seeking Relief from Violations Resulting From Global Warming Caused by Acts and Omissions of the United States, submitted by Sheila Watt-Cloutier, with the support of the imuit circumpolar conference, on behalf of all Inuit of the Arctic regions of the United States and Canada, Dec.7 2005, available from http://www.inuitcircumpolar.com/, visited Nov.13 2008.
① See Bradford C. Mank, Standing and Global Warming:Is Injury to All Injury to None? Environmental Law. Vol. 35,No.1,2005,pp..1-84.
②Id.
① See The U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit, Massachusetts et al. v. EPA et al., Sep.13, 2005. available at https://ecf.cadc.uscourts.gov/, visited Nov.13,2008.
② See Petition to the Inter American Commission on Human Rights Seeking Relief from Violations Resulting From Global Warming Caused by Acts and Omissions of the United States, submitted by Sheila Watt-Cloutier, with the support of the imuit circumpolar conference, on behalf of all Inuit of the Arctic regions of the United States and Canada, Dec.7 2005, available from http://www.inuitcircumpolar.com/, visited Nov.13 2008.
①See Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Working Group Ⅱ, Climate Change 2007:Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability:Contribution of Working Group Ⅱ to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge; New York:Cambridge University Press,2007,p.188. ①(美)富勒著：《法律的道德性》,郑戈译,商务印书馆2007年版,第268页。
① See Shi-Ling Hsu, A Realistic Evaluation of Climate Change Litigation through the Lens of a Hypothetical Lawsuit, University of Colorado Law Review, Vol.79, Issue 3, Spring 2008,pp..701-766.
① See Supreme Court of the United States, Massachusetts et al. v. EPA et al., April 2,2007, available at http://www.supremecourtus.gov/. visited Nov.13 2008.
② See Petition to the Inter American Commission on Human Rights Seeking Relief from Violations Resulting From Global Warming Caused by Acts and Omissions of the United States, submitted by Sheila Watt-Cloutier, with the support of the imuit circumpolar conference, on behalf of all Inuit of the Arctic regions of the United States and Canada, Dec.7 2005, available from http://www.inuitcircumpolar.com/, visited Nov.13 2008.
① See Daniel A. Farber, and Suzanna Sherry.Telling Stories Out of School:An Essay on Legal Narratives, Standford Law Review, Vol.45, Issue 4,1993, pp..807-855.
② See Supreme Court of the United States, Massachusetts et al. v. EPA et al., April 2,2007, available at http://www.supremecourtus.gov/, visited Nov.13 2008.
③ See Petition to the Inter American Commission on Human Rights Seeking Relief from Violations Resulting From Global Warming Caused by Acts and Omissions of the United States, submitted by Sheila Watt-Cloutier, with the support of the imuit circumpolar conference, on behalf of all Inuit of the Arctic regions of the United States and Canada, Dec.7 2005, available from http://www.inuitcircumpolar.com/, visited Nov.13 2008.
①(印)阿马蒂亚·森：《后果评价与实践理性》,应奇等编,东方出版社2006年版,第422页。②See Hari M. Osofsky, The Geography of Climate Change Litigation Part Ⅱ:Narratives of Massachusetts v EPA, Chicago Journal of International Law, Vol.8, No.2,2008, pp..573-620.
③ See Petition to the Inter American Commission on Human Rights Seeking Relief from Violations Resulting From Global Warming Caused by Acts and Omissions of the United States, submitted by Sheila Watt-Cloutier, with the support of the imuit circumpolar conference, on behalf of all Inuit of the Arctic regions of the United States and Canada, Dec.7 2005, available from http://www.inuitcircumpolar.com/, visited Nov.13 2008.
① See Red Dawn, Blue Thunder, and Purple Rain, Corporate Risk of Liability for Global Climate Change and the SEC Disclosure Dilemma, Georgetown International Environmental Law Review, Vol.17, No.2,2005, pp.,233-251.
① See Richard A. Falk, This Endangered Planet:Prospects and Proposals for Human Survival. New York:Random House,1971,p.353.
① See Lester R. Brown.Redefining National Security, Worldwatch Paper No.14,1977.
② See World Meteorological Organization (WMO), Environment Canada, Conference Proceedings of the Changing Atmosphere:Implications for Global Security, Toronto, Canada,27-30 June 1988,WMO No.710,1989.
① See Nicholas Stem. The Economics of Climate Change:the Stern Review, Cambridge University Press.2007. p.xv.,p.5.
② See Peter Schwartz and Doug Randall, An Abrupt Climate Change Scenario and Its Implications for United States National Security, Washington:US Department of Defence,2003.
① See David A. Baldwin, The Concept of Security, Review of International Studies,Vol.23,1997,pp..5-26.
② See Jon Barnett. W. Neil Adger, Climate Change, Human Security and Violent Conflict. Political Geography Vol.26,2007,PP..639-655.
③苏丹达尔富尔危机”即为典型一例。在这场危机中,气候变化影响(干旱、土地退化)成为政治和军事因素以外的根本性因素之一。See Ban Ki Moon, A Climate Culprit in Darfur. Washington Post. Jun.16,2007. available at http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/06/15/AR2007061501857.html关于此问题的详细分析另可见李岩、王礼茂：《从达尔富尔危机透视气候变化下的生态冲突》，载《西亚非洲》2008年第6期,第5-10页。
①See High Representative and the European Commission to the European Council, Climate Change and International Security. March 2008. available at
http://www.consilium.europa.eu/uedocs/cms_data/docs/pressdata/en/reports/99387.pdf, visited Mar.15,2009.
①See United Nations Development Programme(UNDP),Human Development Report 1994, Oxford:Oxford University Press,1994,pp..24-33.
② Commission on Human Security, Human Security Now,2003.
① See Commission on Human Security. Human Security Now, Washington, DC:Communications Development Incorporated,2003, pp..4-6.
①严格地讲,环境不同于生态,环境安全与生态安全是有所区分的两个概念。蔡守秋教授在其著作《生态安全、环境与贸易法律问题研究》(中信出版社2005年版,第3页)中提出生态安全是环境安全的上位概念,生态安全既包括环境安全,又包括生物安全(人的安全和非人生物的安全)。如果套用这一解释，气候变化首先涉及环境变化和环境安全问题,又进而广泛影响生物安全和生态安全,或者说,从“上游”(气候变化)问题看，气候变化与环境安全相联系，从“下游”(气候变化影响),问题看，气候变化又指向更宽泛的生态安全。
② See United Nations Development Programme(UNDP),Human Development Report 1994, Oxford University Press.1994,pp..28-30.
③ See Daniel Deudney, Environment and Security:Muddled Thinking, in Charles W.Kegley, Jr. and Eugene R. Wittkopf. The Global Agenda:Issues and Perspectives Fourth Edition. New York:McGraw-Hill,1995,pp..446-454.
④See Hans G Brauch.Security and Environment Linkages on the Mediterranean Space:Three Phases of Research on Human and Environmental Security and Peace, in Hans G. Brauch, P. H. Liotta. et.al., Security and Environment in the Mediterranean:Conceptualizing Security and Environmental Conflicts,Berlin:Springer,2003,pp..35-144.
① See Jon Barnett, Michael Webber, et.al., Ten Key Questions about the Human Dimensions of Water in the Yellow River Basin, Environmental Management Vol.38, No.2,2006, pp..179-188.
②据自然保护协会(The Nature Conservancy)披露,世界上70%的珊瑚礁资源将于2050年之前完全退化并消失：
①See Jon Barnett, W. Neil Adger, Climate change, Human Security and Violent Conflict, Political Geography Vol.26.2007.PP.639-655.
② See David A. Baldwin, The Concept of Security, Review of International Studies,Vol.23,1997,pp..5-26.
① See Arnold Wolfers, Discord and Collaboration:Essays on International Politics. Baltimore:Johns Hopkins University Press,1962, p.150.
② See Barry Buzan et al., Security:A New Framework for Analysis, Boulder:Lynne Rienner Pub,1997.p.76.
③ See Nina Graeger, Review Essay:Environmental Security?, Journal of Peace Research, Vol.33, No.1,1996.
① See Stephen M. Gardiner. Ethics and Climate Change:an Introduction, Wiley Interdisciplinary Review:Climate Change, Vol.1, Issue 1,2010,pp..54-56.
② EDCC, The Buenos Aires Declaration on the Ethical Dimensions of Climate Change,2004.
①EDCC, White Paper on the Ethical Dimensions of Climate Change,2006.
② (法)卢梭著：《社会契约论》,商务印书馆2009年版,第25页。
See Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Working Group Ⅱ. Climate Change 2001:impacts, adaptation and vulnerability:contribution of Working Group Ⅱ to the third assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge;New York:Cambridge University Press.2001.p.897.
④(古希腊)亚里士多德著：《尼各马可伦理学》,廖申白译注,商务印书馆2008年版,第130页。
①(古希腊)亚里士多德著：《尼各马可伦理学》,廖申白译注,商务印书馆2008年版,第134-138页：
②(美)约翰·罗尔斯：《正义论》,何怀宏、何包钢、廖申白译,中国社会科学出版社1988年版,第60-61页。
③(美)彼得·S·温茨著：《环境正义论》,朱丹琼等译，上海人民出版社2007年版.第313页。
④(美)约翰·罗尔斯：《正义论》,何怀宏、何包钢、廖申白译,中国社会科学出版社1988年版,第88页。
① See Scott Barrett, Environment and Statecraft:the Strategy of Environmental Treaty-making. New York: Oxford University Press,2003,p.386.
① See Stephen Gardiner, Ethics and Global Climate Change, Ethics. Vol.114,2004,pp..550-600.
② See Dale Jamieson, Climate Change and Global Environmental Justice, in Miller, Clark A., Edwards. Paul N.,Changing the Atmosphere:Expert Knowledge and Environmental Governance, Cambridge:MIT Press,2001, pp..287-307.
③ See Benito Muller, Varieties of Distributive Justice in Climate Change:An Editorial Comment, Climatic Change, Vol.48,2001, pp..273-288.
①徐以祥：《气候保护和环境正义——气候保护的国际法律框架和发展中国家的参与模式》,载《现代法学》2008年第1期,第187-193页。
①(美)彼得·辛格著：《一个世界——全球化伦理》,应奇等译,东方出版社2005年版,第33页。
① See W. Neil Adger, Jouni Paavola, and Saleemul Huq, Toward Justice in Adaptation to Climate Change, in W. Neil Adger, Jouni Paavola, Saleemul Huq, and M.J.Mace, Fairness in Adaptation to Climate Change, Cambridge: the MIT Press,2006, pp..2-19.
② See W. Neil Adger, Scales of Governance and Environmental Justice for Adaptation and Mitigation of Climate Change, Journal of International Development Vol.13, Issue 7,2001,pp..921-931.
③ See Edward A. Page, Climate Change, Justice and Future Generations, Massachusetts:Edward Elgar Publishing, Inc.,2006,p.12.
①国内有学者将社会弱势群体译为social vulnerable group,但徐少祥等学者则认为社会弱势群体译为social disadvantage group更为准确;从英文原意看,social vulnerable group包含了social disadvantage group参见徐少祥著：《弱者的权利——社会弱势群体保护的法理研究》,社会科学文献出版社2008年版,第4页;或者余少祥：《法律语境中弱势群体概念构建分析》,载《中国法学》2009年第3期，第64-72页。本文所指脆弱群体中的“脆弱”特指对气候变化影响的脆弱,即易受气候变化不利影响、易受气候变化损害者。
① See Karen L. O'Brien, and Robin M. Leichenko. Double Exposure:Assessing the Impacts of Climate Change within the Context of Economic Globalization, Global Environmental Change, Vol.10,2000. pp..221-232.
①See Jonathan Crowther, Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary of Current English (fifth edition), New York: Oxford University Press,1995, p.1205.
②世界环境与发展委员会著：《我们共同的未来》,王之佳等译,吉林人民出版社1997年版,第52-53页。
① See UK Adapting to Climate Change Programme:Adapting to Climate Change in England:a Framework for Action,2008.
①崔大鹏：《适应性排放的概念分析》,中国气候变化信息网,http://www.ccchina.gov.cn/cn/NewsInfo.asp?NewsId=3958,2003.03.21。
① See Ian Burton. Saleemul Huq,et al.. From Impacts Assessment to Adaptation Priorities:The Shaping of Adaptation Policy, Climate Policy Vol.2,2002.pp..145-159.
② See UNFCCC Decision 29/CP.7 of 2001. Establishment of a Least Developed Countries Expert Group.
③ See Bo Lim, and Erika Spanger-Siegfried, United Nations Development Programme, Adaptation Policy Frameworks for Climate Change:Developing Strategies. Policies and Measures. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,2005, pp.. 1-2.
④See Cecilia Conde, and Kate Lonsdale, Engaging Stakeholders in the Adaptation Process, in Bo Lim & Erika Spanger-Siegfried, United Nations Development Programme, Adaptation Policy Frameworks for Climate Change: Developing Strategies, Policies and Measures, Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,2005,pp..47-66.
① See Mendelsohn R., Efficient Adaptation to Climate Change, Climatic Change Vol.45,2000, pp..583-600.
①气候公约第4.1(e)条等条款下,所有缔约方做出了适应合作的一般性承诺；在公约第4.3、4.4、4.5、4.7、4.8、4.9条等条款下，发达国家缔约方做出了为发展中国家缔约方(尤其是最易受气候变化影响国家)提供资金、技术等援助的承诺。
②See Angela Williams, Solidarity, Justice and Climate Change Law, Melbourne Journal of International Law, Vol.10, No.2,2009, pp..493-508
③ Global Environment Facility(GEF), Instrument for the Establishment of the Restructured Global Environment Facility, 2004, available at http://www.gefweb.org/GEF_Instrument3.pdf, visited May.15,2008.
①以2003年至2006年间GEF气候变化战略重点方案为例,七个重点战略中减缓占了六个,内容覆盖可再生能源、能源效率、清洁技术等多个方面,配给资金5.29亿美元,而适应优先战略试点方案(SPA,2005-2007)所配给资金仅为5000万美元。Report on the Assessment of Funding Necessary to Assist Developing Countries in Fulfilling their Commitments under the Convention Prepared in the Context of the Memorandum of Understanding between the Conference of the Parties and the Council of the Global Environment Facility, FCCC/SBI/2004/18,21 October 2004.
②实际上,公约生效后,由于发达缔约方和发展中缔约方在公约资金机制运作实体问题上的严重分歧,全球环境基金的受托人地位并未立即得到正式确认,直到1998年第四次缔约方会议通过了《布宜诺斯艾利斯行动计划》,全球环境基金才正式成为公约资金机制下的受托人,管理运作用于气候变化方面的全球环境基金信托基金。参见《气候变化框架公约》缔约方会议第3／CP.4号决定。
③ See Operational Guidelines for the Strategic Priority of Piloting and Operational Approach to Adaptation, GEF/C.27/Inf.10.2005.
④按照SCCF的初始设计,它将在四个方面提拱资金支持：①适应；②技术转让；③能源、交通、工业、农业、森林和废水管理；④高度依赖化石燃料的发展中国家缔约方的经济多元化。从这四个方面看,SCCF其实也是一项较综合的基金。但是,在后来的公约第9次缔约方会议上,“适应”被重新明确为最优先领域,“技术转让”次之,而另外两个领域的资金使用一直限于咨询方面,未见更多进展。GEF又随后通过了一个突出适应内容的相应的资金使用计划,从而使SCCF实际上主要被作为一项适应基金予以操作。
① See Programming Paper for Funding the Implementation of NAPAs under the LDC Trust Fund, GEF/C.28/18, 2006.
① eg. International Climate Initiative of Germany(ICI); Adaptation to Climate Change Initiative of Australia; Cool Earth Partnership of Japan; etc..
② eg. Trust Fund on Climate Change of Bangladesh, etc..
① The Global Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Fund,是欧盟于2008年拨款8000万欧元(作为2007-2010年间的启动资金)设立的一个基金,基金目的设定为：促进能源效率、能源节约和可再生能源开发;减少温室气体排放及与之相关风险；改善最贫穷国家可得能源服务,促进发展中国家能源结构多元化。
②The European Strategic Energy Technology Plan,欧盟于2007年通过的一项计划,旨在通过加强能源研究、促进能源创新、实施新的能源措施、改善基本能源设施、加强能耗政策协调等能源行动,以为实现欧盟制定的2020年和2050年减排战略目标服务。
③ See EU COM(2008)16:Proposal for a Directive of the European Parliament and of the Council amending Directive 2003/87/EC so as to improve and extend the greenhouse gas emission allowance trading system of the Community.
① See EU COM(2009)39:Toward a comprehensive climate change agreement in Copenhagen.全球金融基金机制的思想源于2003年英国财政部和英国海外开发署关于设立“国际融资基金”(International Financing Facility, IEF)的提议,该基金通过在资金市场上发行由政府担保的债券募集资金,以为实现“千年发展目标”筹集前期资金。2006年,IEF的构想开始在公共健康领域获得实际应用,英国联合法国、意大利、西班牙、瑞典、挪威、南非等国发起设立了“国际免疫融资基金”(the International Finance Facility for Immunisation, IFFIm),该基金通过全球疫苗免疫联盟(GAVI Alliance)为世界最贫穷的72个加强国家疫苗免疫和健康服务提供资金支持,以减少可用疫苗预防的疾病对5岁以下儿童的生命与健康的影响。2008年世界银行发展委员会会议期间，欧盟官员按照“国际融资基金”思路提出了建立全球金融基金机制的构想。
② See Funding Scheme for Bali Action Plan:A Swiss Proposal for Global Solidarity in Financing Adaptation,2008.
①See Mexico's Proposal within the Framework of the Bali Action Plan:Multinational Climate Change Fund.2008.
② American Clean Energy and Security Act of 2009.
① See Report of the Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee for a Framework Convention on Climate Change on the work of its fourth session, held at Geneva from 9 to 20 December 1991.A/AC.237/15.
① See Roda Verheyen, Climate Change Damage and International Law:Prevention, Duties and State Responsibility, Leiden; Boston:Martinus Nijhoff Publishers.2005, pp..50-52.
② US National Flood Insurance Act of 1968.
① France Cat.Nat System No.82-600,1982.
② Caisse Centrale de Reassurance. See Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development(OECD), Environmental Risks and Insurance:A Comparative Analysis of the Role of Insurance in the Management of Environment Related Risks, OECD Publishing,2003, pp..71-72.
②See Christopher B. Barrett et al., Using Weather Index Insurance to Improve Drought Response for Famine Prevention, American Journal of Agricultural Economics, Vol.89, Issue 5,2007, pp..1262-1268.
①张梓太、张乾红：《我国环境责任保险制度之构建》,载《法学研究》2006年第3期,第84-97页。
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①See Dale Jamieson, The Moral and Political Challenges of Climate Change, in Susanne C. Moser and Lisa. Dilling, Creating a Climate for Change:communicating climate change and facilitating social change, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,2007, pp..475-482.
①联合国开发计划署(UNDP)007／2008人类发展报告以应对气候变化为主题，命名为“应对气候变化：分化世界中的人类团结”(Fighting Climate Change:Human Solidarity in a Divided World)
②陈瑞华著：《论法学研究方法》,北京大学出版社2009年版,第196页。
③(美)布赖恩·H.比克斯著：《牛津法律理论词典》,邱昭继等译,法律出版社2003年版,第40页。
① See Oxford Dictionary of Current English,3rd edition,2001, p.14.
②参见《现代汉语词典》,商务印书馆1994年版,第1054页。
③ See Encyclopaedia Britannica,2008. available at http://library.ebonline.com/eb/article-9003688, visited Jul.16. 2008.
④(美)W.C.丹皮尔著：《科学史及其与哲学和宗教的关系》,李珩译,广西师范大学出版社2009年版,第313页。
①(美)乔治·威廉斯著：《适应与自然选择》,陈蓉霞译,上海科学技术出版社2001年版,第43-44页。
②See Niles Eldredge, Reinventing Darwin:the Great Debate at the High Table of Evolutionary Theory, New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,1995, p.33.
③(美)w.C.丹皮尔著：《科学史及其与哲学和宗教的关系》.李珩译，广西师范大学出版社2009年版.第312-313页。
④ See Andres Roberto Frisancho, Human Adaptation and Accommodation. Michigan:University of Michigan Press,1995, p.8.
①(英)达尔文著：《物种起源》,舒德干等译,北京大学出版社2005年版,第56页。
②(美)乔治·威廉斯著：《适应与自然选择》,陈蓉霞译,上海科学技术出版社2001年版,第55页。
③同上。
④ See Geerat J. Vermeij, Evolution and Escalation:An Ecological History of Life, Princeton:Princeton University Press,1987, p.5.
⑤ Id. at pp..7-8.
① See Peter J. Bowler, Evolution:the History of an Idea,3rd edition, California:University of California Press, 2003, p.10.
② See Robert C. King, William D. Stansfield & Pamela K. Mulligan, A Dictionary of Genetics,7th Edition,2006, p.8
③ See Andres Roberto Frisancho, Human Adaptation and Accommodation, Michigan:University of Michigan Press,1995, p.4.
④ See John A. Endler, Natural Selection in the Wild, Princeton:Princeton University Press,1986, p.43.
⑤ See Robert C. King, William D. Stansfield & Pamela K. Mulligan, A Dictionary of Genetics,7th Edition,2006, p.8
⑥ See Julian Huxley, Evolution:the Modern Synthesis, New York:Harper & Brothers,1943, p.417.
⑦ See Geerat J. Vermeij, Evolution and Escalation:An Ecological History of Life, Princeton:Princeton University Press,1987, p.6.
⑧ See Stephen Jay Gould,and Elisabeth A. Lloyd,Individuality and Adaptation across Levels of Selection:How shall We Name and Generalize the Unit of Darwinism? Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences(PNAS),Vol.96,No.21,Oct.12,1999, pp..11904-11909
① See Andres Roberto Frisancho, Human Adaptation and Accommodation, Michigan University of Michigan Press,1995, p.5.
② See Lorna Grindlay Moore, and Judith G. Regensteiner, Adaptation to High Altitude, Annual Review of Anthropology, Vol.12 1983, pp..285-304.
③ See Andres Roberto Frisancho, Human Adaptation and Accommodation. Michigan:University of Michigan Press,1995, pp.5-6.
④ See Rene Jules Dubos, Man Adapting, New Haven:Yale University Press,1965, p.56.
⑤ See Theodosius G. Dobzhansky, Genetics of the Evolutionary Process, New York:Columbia University Press, 1970, pp..4-6.
① See John A. Endler, Natural Selection in the Wild, Princeton:Princeton University Press,1986, p.47. ① Id.
③ See John A. Endler, Natural Selection in the Wild, Princeton:Princeton University Press,1986, pp..43,45.
④ See Theodosius G. Dobzhansky, Genetics of Natural Populations. ⅩⅩⅤ. Genetic Changes in Populations of Drosophila pseudoobscura and Drosophila Persimilis in some Localities in California, Evolution, Vol.10, No.1,Mar.,1956, pp.82-92.
⑤ See John A. Endler, Natural Selection in the Wild, Princeton:Princeton University Press,1986, p.40.
① See Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Working Group Ⅱ, Climate Change 2001:Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability:Contribution of Working Group Ⅱ to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge;New York:Cambridge University Press,2001,p.982.
② See Andres Roberto Frisancho. Human Adaptation and Accommodation, Michigan:University of Michigan Press.1995, p.8.
③ See John A. Endler, Natural Selection in the Wild, Princeton:Princeton University Press,1986, pp.46-47.
④Id. at p.280.
⑤ See Peter A. Corning. Biological Adaptation in Human Societies. Journal of Bioeconomics, Vol.2, No.1,2000, pp..41-86.
①(美)威廉.A.哈维兰著：《文化人类学》,瞿铁鹏、张钰译，上海社会科学院出版社 2006年版,第36页。
② See Andres Roberto Frisancho, Human Adaptation and Accommodation, Michigan:University of Michigan Press,1995, p.6.
③ See John W. Bennett,The Ecological Transition:Cultural Anthropology and Human Adaptation, New Brunswick:Aldine Transaction Publishers.2005, pp..51-52.
④(日)秋道智弥等编著：《生态人类学》,范广融等译,云南大学出版社2006年版，第27页。
⑤ See Andres Roberto Frisancho, Human Adaptation and Accommodation, Michigan:University of Michigan Press,1995, p.6.
⑥ See Peter A. Corning, Biological Adaptation in Human Societies, Journal of Bioeconomics, Vol.2, No.l,2000. pp..41-86.
①See Bronislaw Malinowski, A Scientific Theory of Culture and Other Essays, London:Routledge,2002, pp..91-119.
② Id.
③ Id.
①Id.
② See Andres Roberto Frisancho, Human Adaptation and Accommodation, Michigan:University of Michigan Press,1995, pp.243,265.
③ See John W. Bennett,The Ecological Transition:Cultural Anthropology and Human Adaptation. New Brunswick:Aldine Transaction Publishers,2005. pp..5-6.
① See Andres Roberto Frisancho, Human Adaptation and Accommodation, Michigan:University of Michigan Press,1995, p.7.
② See John W. Bennett,The Ecological Transition:Cultural Anthropology and Human Adaptation, New Brunswick:Aldine Transaction Publishers,2005, p.243.
③Id. at pp..244-246.
① See Intergovernmental.Panel on Climate Change. Working Group Ⅰ, Climate change 2007:the Physical Science Rasis:Contribution of Working Group Ⅰ to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge,New York:Cambridge University Press,2007, p.942.;(美)约翰.M.华莱士,彼得.V.霍希斯著：《大气科学(第二版)》,何金海等译,科学出版社2008年版,第39-119页。② See Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Working Group Ⅰ, Climate change 2007:the Physical Science Basis:Contribution of Working Group Ⅰ to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge,New York:Cambridge University Press,2007, p.943.在《联合国气候变化框架公约》中," Climate Change"(气候变化)被用于指代人为因素所致的气候变化或者改变,即"Anthropogenic Climate Change" (人为的气候变化),而"Climate Variability" (气候变化)则被用于指代人为因素之外的其它因素(自然因素)引起的气候变化或者变异。“减排”需要对气候变化成因予以一定区分。相较而言,“适应”意义上的“气候变化”一词实际上相对“中性”，对于适应而言，不论何种原因,最重要的是气候变化的事实或者结果。当然,在适应“责任”或者“责任分担”等问题上,还是会不可避免地涉及气候变化原因之争。
③ See United Nations Framework Convention for Climate Change, Article 1.2:"'Climate change' means a change of climate which is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the giobal atmosphere and which is in addition to natural climate variability observed over comparable time per(?)s.
④Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Working Group I, Climate change 2007:the pnysicai science basis:contribution of Working Group Ⅰ to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge,New York:Cambridge University Press,2007,p.944.
①确切地讲,UNFCCC中实际上是使用natural climate variability与人为气候变化相区分,中文中一般多将其译为“自然气候变异”。Climate variability所对应中文翻译较climate change更为丰富，除气候变化、自然气候变化、自然气候变异之外,还可译作气候变率。气候变化与气候变异、气候变率在语义上的细微差别主要表现在统计时间或者持续时间的长短方面,一般气候变化对应的时间跨度比较大。((美)约翰.M.华莱士,彼得.V.霍布斯著：《大气科学(第二版)》，何金海等译,科学出版社2008年版,第434页。)
②(美)约翰.M.华莱士,彼得.V.霍布斯著：《大气科学(第二版)》,何金海等译,科学出版社2008年版,第1页。
③王芳、葛全胜、陈泮勤：《IPCC评估报告气温变化观测数据的不确定性分析》，载《地理学报》,2009年7月第64卷第7期,第828-838页。
④宋连春、李伟：《综合气象观测系统的发展》,载《气象》2008年3月第34卷第3期,第4.11页。
⑤(美)w.C.丹皮尔著：《科学史及其与哲学和宗教的关系》,李珩译,广西师范大学出版社2009年版,第205页。
①政府间气候变化专门委员会(IPCC)：《气候变化2007：综合报告》,来源于IPCC官方网,2008年5月13日浏览,http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/syr/ar4_syr_cn.pdf。当前,主流的气候变化说实际的上就是全球变暖说,但也有科学家对此提出质疑。例如,有观点认为,气候变化的冷暖趋势很难判断。从公元1850年至今的地球气候历史看,1850年至1940年是地球气候变暖期,其中1920年至1940年期间尤甚,但1940年至1975年间,气候变冷,转而,1976年至1978年间,气候突然变暖,1979年以来,“温度计的数据记录显示了相当强的变暖趋势,而卫星和高空气象气球的数据则显示变暖的趋势很微弱”。(参见(美)S.弗雷德·辛格,丹尼斯·T.艾沃利著：《全球变暖：毫无来由的恐慌》,林文鹏等译,上海科学技术文献出版社2008年版,第13页。)也有观点至今仍支持地球变冷说,近年来全球一些区域遭遇的极端低温天气似对此有所印证,但亦有科学家认为,这是全球变暖趋势中的“冷现象”。例如,中国有关气候专家对此解释说“全球变暖将使海洋温度上升,加快冰山融化,使更多的淡水流入海洋,而海洋表面温度的升高及海水盐度的减小可能让温盐环流减缓甚至完全停滞,没有温盐环流,来自赤道的热能将无法被传送到北大西洋地区,即北美东部和西欧会变冷。”(参见新华社记者战艳：《专家：全球变暖可能使地球部分地区“变冷”》,人民网,2006年1月26日,http://env.pepple.com.cn/GB/1074/4065887.html)“目前,我国乃至北半球所遭受的极冷灾害天气与全球变暖并不属同一概念。全球变暖描述的是整体平均概念,例如2009年我国的全年平均气温为9.9℃,比往年升高了1.0℃。而极冷天气属于灾害性天气,是气温振幅的低点,与全球变暖并不矛盾。”(参见张昊：《地球究竟是变热还是变冷了》,中青在线,2010年1月8日,
http://news.cyol.com/content/2010-01/08/content_3028447.htm)又如,韩国有关气候专家认为,北半球一些地区冬季寒流现象与北极变暖相关,2009年至2010年冬季,受地球变暖影响,2009年12月北极平均气温为零下18度左右,比往年同期飙升10至12度,因此,本应停留在极地的冷空气失去凝聚力南下,随着冰冷的西伯利亚高气压流影响北半球相关地区。(参见朝鲜日报记者朴恩镐：《首尔气温创七年最低,“北极变暖”是祸首》,朝鲜日报官方网,2010年1月7日,
http://news.chosun.com/site/data/html_dir/2010/01/06/2010010604006.html)国际气象组织有关专家亦认为,全球变暖整体趋势与极端寒冷天气的出现是不悖的，气候与天气是不同的概念，极端寒冷天气是全球变暖整体趋势中出现的极端灾害性天气之一,极端寒冷天气可部分归因于全球变暖趋势中表层海水不均匀升温所增强的"ENSO现象”(El Nino & Southern Oscillation,即厄尔尼诺与南方涛动).在全球变暖趋势中.各种自然变化复合层替,使全球变暖的具体表象复杂化。(参见World Meteorological Organization(WMO), WMO Newsletter:MeteoWorld, Dec.16.2009,
http://www.wmo.int/pages/publications/meteoworld/archive/feb09/inthenews_en.html)当然,尽管在全球气候变化整体趋势之取向判断方面尚存争议,但是,对于地球气候正在发生可明显感觉的非常态变化,极端气候事件不断增加这一点,因其正显而易见的发生,各方意见高度统一。
①(美)芭芭拉.沃德,勒内.杜博斯著：《只有一个地球——对一个小小行星的关怀和维护》,《国外公害丛书》编委会译校,吉林人民出版社1997年版,第226页。
②同上,第226-227页。
③温室气体(Greenhouse Gases, GHGs)是大气中自然存在或者人为产生的促成温室效应的特定气体成分,它们能够吸收并发射来自地球表面、大气和云层的一定范围波长的红外辐射,从而在地球表面与平流层的大气区间产生温室效应。已识别的地球大气中最主要的温室气体包括水蒸气(H2O)、二氧化碳(CO2)、氧化亚氮(N2O,又称笑气)、甲烷(CH4)和臭氧(O3)。这些温室气体通常自然存在，受各种自然活动的影响,也受人类活动的影响。此外,地球大气中还存在完全由人类活动制造的温室气体,如卤烃和其它含氯、含溴的气体化合物。See Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Working Group Ⅰ, Climate change 2007: the Physical Science Basis:Contribution of Working Group Ⅰ to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge,New York:Cambridge University Press,2007,p.816.
①See Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Working Group Ⅰ, Climate change 2007:the Physical Science Basis:Contribution of Working Group Ⅰ to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge,New York:Cambridge University Press,2007,p.946.
① See Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Working Group Ⅱ, Climate Change 2001:Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability:Contribution of Working Group Ⅱ to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge;New York:Cambridge University Press,2001, p.881.
② See Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Working Group Ⅰ, Climate Change 2001:the Scientific Basis: Contribution of Working Group Ⅰ to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge; New York:Cambridge University Press.2001, p.982;Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Working Group Ⅱ, Climate Change 2007:Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability:Contribution of Working Group Ⅱ to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge:New York:Cambridge University Press,2001,p.869.
① See Francesco Bosello, et al., An Analysis of Adaptation as a Response to Climate Change, Department of Economics, Ca 'Foscari University of Venice, Working Papers,No.26,2009, at http://fixtheclimate.com/uploads/tx_templavoila/AP_Adaptation_Bosello_Carraro_De_Cian_v.3.0.pdf, visited Dec. 16,2009.
① See Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Working Group Ⅱ, Climate Change 2007:Impacts. Adaptation and Vulnerability:Contribution of Working Group Ⅱ to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge; New York:Cambridge University Press.2007,p.275.
②See United Nations Development Programme, Human Development Report 2007/2008:Fighting Climate Change:Human Solidarity in a Divided World. available at http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_20072008_EN_Complete.pdf, visited Dec.17,2009.
① See United Nations Framework Convention for Climate Change. Article 1.1:"'Adverse effects of climate change' means change in the physical environment or biota resulting from climate change which have significant deleterious effects on the composition. resilience or productivity of natural and managed ecosystems or on the operation of socio-economic systems or on human health and welfare.'
①See Roda Verheyen,Climate Change Damage and International Law:Prevention,Duties and State Responsibility,Leiden;Boston:Martinus Nijhoff Publishers,2005,p.36.
②Id.at p.35.
③Id.at p.35.
④Id.at p.35.
⑤See Karen O'Brien,et al.,Why Different Interpretations of Vulnerability Matter in Climate Chang Discourses, Climate Policy Vol.7,2007,pp..73-78.
①丁义明、方福康：《风险概念分析》,载《系统工程学报》,2001年第16卷第5期，第402-406.
② See Thomas E. Downing et al., Climate, Change and Risk, London:Routledge,1999, pp..5-6.
③ Id. at p.5.
④See Piers Blaikie et al.. At Risk:Natural Hazards, People's Vulnerability, and Disasters,2nd edition, London: Routledge. 1994,pp..8-9.
⑤ See Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Working Group 11(2007), Climate change 2007:impacts, adaptation and vulnerability:contribution of Working Group Ⅱ to the fourth assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge,New York:Cambridge University Press, p.883.
①庄贵阳、陈迎著：《国际气候制度与中国》,世界知识出版社2005年版,第152-157页;Hans-Martin Fussel & Richard J. T. Klein. Assessing Vulnerability and Adaptation to Climate Change:An Evolution of Conceptual Thinking. Paper presented at the UNDP Expert Group Meeting on "Integrating Disaster Reduction and Adaptation to Climate Change".Havana, Cuba.17-19 June 2002. available at http://www.pik-potsdam.de/～fuessel/download/undp02_final.pdf, visited Mar.12,2008; Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Working Group Ⅱ, Climate Change 2007:impacts, adaptation and vulnerability:contribution of Working Group Ⅱ to the fourth assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge; New York:Cambridge University Press,2007, p.727.
② See Francesco Bosello, et al.. An Analysis of Adaptation as a Response to Climate Change, Department of Economics, Ca 'Foscari University of Venice, Working Papers,No.26,2009, at http://fixtheclimate.com/uploads/tx_templavoila/AP_Adaptation_Bosello_Carraro_De_Cian_v.3.0.pdf. visited Dec. 16,2009.
① See Hans-Martin Fussel & Richard J. T. Klein. Assessing Vulnerability and Adaptation to Climate Change:An Evolution of Conceptual Thinking, Paper presented at the UNDP Expert Group Meeting on "Integrating Disaster Reduction and Adaptation to Climate Change",Havana, Cuba,17-19 June 2002, available at http://www.pik-potsdam.de/-fuessel/download/undp02_final.pdf, visited Mar.12,2008
③ Id.
①See Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Working Group Ⅱ, Climate Change 2007:Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability:Contribution of Working Group Ⅱ to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge; New York:Cambridge University Press,2007, p.723.
②冯永峰著：《边做环保边撒谎》,世界知识出版社2009年版,第112,114页。
③(荷)斯宾诺莎著：《神学政治论》,温锡增译,商务印书馆1963年版,第213-214页。
①See Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Working Group 11(2007), Climate Change 2007:Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability:Contribution of Working Group Ⅱ to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge; New York:Cambridge University Press,pp..733-736.
① See Thomas E. Downing et al.. Climate. Change and Risk, London:Routledge,1999, p.5. Basis:Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on
② See Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Working Group Ⅰ, Climate change 2007:the Physical Science Climate Change, Cambridge,New York:Cambridge University Press,2007, p.818.
①“CO2在大气中可以存活约10年左右的时间。这反映出海洋生物圈及陆面阔叶林与大气之间的碳循环。……实际上,地球系统中诸多碳汇对碳的吸收所需的时间较人为引起CO2排放的时间要长得多。”(参见(美)约翰.M.华莱士,彼得.V.霍布斯著：《大气科学(第二版)》,何金海等译,科学出版社2008年版,第471页。)IPCC评估认为这一时间可以长达5至200年。除CO2外，按照自然清除进程,长寿命温室气体在大气中都可有几十年、几百年、甚至几千年的存留周期,例如,CH4的平均大气寿命为12年，N2O的平均大气寿命为114年,CF4则可达5000年。See Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Working Group Ⅰ, Climate Change 2001:the Physical Science Basis:Contribution of Working Group Ⅰ to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge,2001,New York:Cambridge University Press, p.38.
② See Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Working Group 1(2007), Climate Change 2007:the Physical Science Basis:Contribution of Working Group Ⅰ to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge.New York:Cambridge University Press, p.820.
③See Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Working Group 1(2007), Climate Change 2007:the Physical Science Basis:Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge,New York:Cambridge University Press, p.820.
①基于马萨诸塞州等诉美国环保署案(Massachusetts v. EPA,549 U.S.497 (2007),详见第四章相关内容)的判决,EPA就温室气体是否属于空气污染物展开相应调查。2009年4月17日是,EPA发布初步研究报告,认为温室气体会引起空气污染,威胁公众健康与福祉。此举也被视为奥巴马政府着手气候变化问题的重要第一步。2009年12月7日,EPA做出最终认定,认为CO2等温室气体的在大气中的当前及预期可达浓度威胁当代人及后代人的健康与福祉,宣布依据《清洁空气法》第202条第(a)(1)条将CO2、CH4、N2O、HFCs、PFCs、SF6等六种温室气体列为大气污染物。详见美国环保署官网http://epa.gov/,2009年12月15日浏览。
① See The Facts:Carbon Dioxide (CO2) is Not Pollution. http://www.puppetgov.com/2009/09/01/the-facts-carbon-dioxide-co2-is-not-pollution/, visited Dec.15.2009.
②大气温室气体中,对人体健康而言，水蒸汽毫无毒性可言,CO2等多数温室气体本身亦无毒性,其中C02还是调节呼吸的最重要的化学刺激,只是当浓度超过一定限度会引发窒息，当然，也有一些温室气体(如CH4)本身带有一定毒性。显然,温室气体是否应归为大气污染物,不在于其本身毒性如何,还是得从其促成温室效应这一性质出发予以解释.而这种解释路径是未显示在传统大气污染物认定之中的。
①广为接受的公共物品之经典理论可以追溯到1954年萨缪尔森发表的《公共支出的纯理论》(The Pure Theory of Public Expenditrue)一文,在该文中,萨缪尔森认为,公共物品(集体消费物品)的特点是每个人对这种物品的消费并不减损任何其他人对该物品的消费。之后,“非排他性”和“非竞争性”被概括为公共物品的两个基本特征。“非排他性”是指一人之使用或消费不能阻止他人对该物品或服务的使用或消,费。“非竞争性”是指一人之使用或消费不会对该物品或者服务的质量造成明显影响,不会影响或者明显影响他人对该物品或服务的使用或消费。私人物品由于其排他性,可以有效地建立产权或所有权,由于其竞争性,可以通过市场有效配置资源。而公共物品由于其非排他性和非竞争性特点通常并不能建立有效的市场配置机制,“搭便车现象”和“囚徒困境”常被用来解释这种“市场失灵”。具有完全非排他性和非竞争性的物品一般被称为“纯公共物品”：
② See Todd Sandier, Global and Regional Public Goods:A Prognosis for Collective Action, Fiscal Studies, Vol.19, No.3,pp..211-247.
③See Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Working Group Ⅲ, Climate change 2007:mitigation of climate change:contribution of Working Group Ⅲ to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge,New York:Cambridge University Press,2007, pp..103-105.
① See Ravi Kanbur, Todd Sandier, Kevin Morrison, The Future of Development Assistance:Common Pools and International Public Goods, Overseas Development Council,1999, pp..67-68.
①(美)W.C.丹皮尔著：《科学史及其与哲学和宗教的关系》,李珩译,广西师范大学出版社2009年版,第313页。
①See Thomas E. Downing et al., Climate, Change and Risk, London:Routledge.1999, p.7.
②See Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Working Group Ⅱ, Climate Change 2007:impacts, adaptation and vulnerability:contribution of Working Group Ⅱ to the fourth assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge; New York:Cambridge University Press,2007,p.754.
③ See Roda Verheven. Climate Change Damage and International Law:Prevention. Duties and State Responsibility, Leiden; Boston:MartinusNijhoff Publishers,2005, p.35.
①美国科学家基林(Charles David Keeling)在长期定点检测基础上绘制的大气二氧化碳变化曲线。1958年,加入斯克里普斯海洋研究所(Scripps Institution of Oceanography)后,基林开始负责该研究所的大气二氧化碳碳监测项目,率组在夏威夷冒纳罗亚(Mauna Loa)火山和南级进行大气温室气体定点监测工作。1961年.基林根据所收集数据绘制了表明大气二氧化碳浓度持续上升的基林曲线。自1958年至2008年,基林曲线已从315ppm,上升到了385ppm.基林曲线为证明大气温室气候浓度变化、人为气候变化存在提供了重要科学依据。
② See Roger Revelle, and Hans Suess, Carbon Dioxide Exchange between Atmosphere and Ocean and the Question of an Increase of Atmospheric CO2 during the past Decades." Tellus Ⅸ.1957. pp..18-27.
③ See William W. Kellogg, The World Climate Conference:A Conference of Experts on Climate and Mankind, held in Geneva. Switzerland. during 12-23 February 1979, Environmental Conservation, Vol.6, Issue2,1997, pp..162-162.
①See World Meteorological Organization (WMO), Report of the International Conference on the Assessment of the Role of Carbon Dioxide and of other Greenhouse Gases in Climate Variations and Associated Impacts. Villach. Austria,9-15 October 1985, WMO No.661,1986.
② See Daniel M. Bodansky:The International Climate Change Regime, in Walter Sinnontt-Armstrong & Richard B. Howarth, Perspectives on Climate Change:Science, Economics, Politics, Ethics, Oxford:Elsevier Ltd,2005, pp..147-180.
③ See World Meteorological Organization (WMO), Environment Canada, Conference Proceedings of the Changing Atmosphere:Implications for Global Security, Toronto, Canada,27-30 June 1988,WMO No.710,1989.
① See Daniel M. Bodansky:The International Climate Change Regime, in Walter Sinnontt-Armstrong & Richard B. Howarth. Perspectives on Climate Change:Science, Economics, Politics, Ethics, Oxford:Elsevier Ltd,2005, pp..147-180.
② See United Nations General Assembly, Protection of Global Climate for Present and Future Generations of Mankind. Resolution 43/53, Dec.6,1988.
③ See Hague Declaration on the Environment, Mar.1989, in International Legal Material, Vol.28,1989, p.1308.
④See Ministerial Conference on Atmospheric Pollution & Climatic Change, The Noordwijk Declaration on Climate Change/Atmospheric Pollution and Climatic Change Ministerial Conference held at Noordwijk, the Netherlands, on 6th and 7th November 1989.
⑤ See World Climate Conference, Climate Change:Science, Impacts and Policy:Proceedings of the Second World Climate Conference, held at Geneva, on 29 October to 7 November 1990, New York:Cambridge University Press,1991.
⑥See Daniel M. Bodansky:The International Climate Change Regime, in Walter Sinnontt-Armstrong & Richard B. Howarth, Perspectives on Climate Change:Science. Economics. Politics. Ethics. Oxford:Elsevier Ltd,2005, pp..147-180.
① Id.
② See United Nations General Assembly, Protection of Global Climate for Present and Future Generations of Mankind. Resolution 45/212. Dec.21,1990.
③See Daniel M. Bodansky:The International Climate Change Regime, in Walter Sinnontt-Armstrong & Richard B. Howarth. Perspectives on Climate Change:Science. Economics. Politics. Ethics, Oxford:Elsevier Ltd,2005, pp.,147-180.
④ See UNFCCC Secretariat. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change:The First Ten Years. 2004, available at http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/publications/first_ten_years_en.pdf, visited March 6,2008.
① See E. Lisa, and F. Schipper, Conceptual History of Adaptation in the UNFCCC Process, Review of European Community and International Environmental Law, Vol.15, Issue.1,2006, pp..82-92.
② See Roda Verheyen, Climate Change Damage and International Law:Prevention, Duties and State Responsibility, Leiden; Boston:Martinus Nijhoff Publishers,2005, p.55.
① See Daniel M. Bodansky:The International Climate Change Regime, in Walter Sinnontt-Armstrong & Richard
B. Howarth, Perspectives on Climate Change:Science, Economics, Politics, Ethics, Oxford:Elsevier Ltd,2005, pp..147-180.
② See Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Working Group Ⅰ, Climate Change 2007:the Physical Science
Basis:Contribution of Working Group Ⅰ to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge;New York:Cambridge University Press,2007, p.826.
③ See James Hansen, et al.. Target Atmospheric CO2:Where should Humanity Aim?, The Open Atmospheric Science Journal, Vol.2,2008, pp..217-231.
① See Philippe Sands:Principles of International Environmental Law (Second Edition). Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,2003, p.285.
①秦天宝：《我国环境保护的国际法律问题研究——以气候变化问题为例》，载《世界经济与政治论坛》2006年第2期,第107-113页。
② See Philippe Sands:Principles of International Environmental Law (Second Edition). Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,2003, p.286; 289.
① See Elizabeth Burleson, Climate Change Consensus:Emerging International Law, William and Mary Environmental Law and Policy Review, Vol.34, Issue,2,2009.pp..543-588.
② See Roda Verheyen, Climate Change Damage and International Law:Prevention, Duties and State Responsibility, Leiden; Boston:MartinusNijhoff Publishers,2005, p.69.
③Precautionary principle风险预防原则,可参见王曦编著：《国际环境法》,法律出版社2005年第2版，第
111页：亦有译为谨慎行事原则.可参见徐祥民、孟庆垒等著：《国际环境法基本原则研究》,中国环境科学出版社2008年版,第184页；也可称谨慎原则,可参见杜志华、杜群：《气候变化的国际法发展：从温室效应理论到<联合国气候变化框架公约>》,载《现代法学》2002年第5期,第145-149页。
① Id. at p.74.
② See Chrisina Voigt, Sustainable Development as a Principle of International Law:Resolving Conflicts between Climate Measures and WTO Law; Dordrecht:Martinus Nijhoff Publisher,2009, p.1.
①张梓太、张乾红：《国际气候适应制度的滞后性及其发展障碍》,载《法学》2010年第2期.第127-137页。
② See M.J.Mace,Adaptation under the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change:The International Legal framework, in W.Neil Adger,M.J.Mace,et al.:Fairness in Adaptation to Climate Change, London Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press.2006. pp..53-76.
③ Id.at p.58.
①张梓太、张乾红：《国际气候适应制度的滞后性及其发展障碍》,载《法学》2010年第2期,第127-137页。
②同上。
①See UNFCCC Decision 11/CP.1 of 1995. Initial Guidance on Policies. Programme Priorities and Eligibility Criteria to the Operating Entity or Entities of the Financial Mechanism.
② See UNFCCC Decision 9/CP.2 of 1996. Communications from Parties included in Annex 1 to the Convention: Guidelines, Schedule and Process for Consideration.
③See UNFCCC Decision 10/CP.3 of 1997. Activities Implemented Jointly under the Pilot Phase.
④ See M.J.Mace (2006) Adaptation under the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change:The International Legal framework. in W.Neil Adger.M.J.Mace.et al.:Fairness in Adaptation to Climate Change. London:Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press.2006, pp..53-76.
① See UNFCCC Decision 11/CP.2 of 1996, Guidance to the Global Environment Facility.
②See UNFCCC Decision 2/CP.4 of 1998, Additional Guidance to the Operating Entity of the Financial Mechanism.
③See UNFCCC Decision 3/CP.4 of 1998, Review of the Financial Mechanism.
① See UNFCCC Decision 4/CP.4. of 1998. Development and Transfer of Technologies.
② See UNFCCC Decision 5/CP.4. of 1998, Implementation of Article 4.8 and 4.9 of the Convention.
③由于2000年第六次缔约方会议上发达国家缔约方和发展中国家缔约方之间的严重分歧,事实上,这一工作计划的结点被延后至《马拉喀什协议》(2001年)的出台。
① See UNFCCC Decision7/CP.7 of 2001, Funding under the Convention.
①See M.J.Mace:Adaptation under the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change:The International Legal framework, in W.Neil Adger.M.J.Mace.et al.:Fairness in Adaptation to Climate Change. London:Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press,2006, pp..53-76.
② See UNFCCC Decision 2/CP.7 of 2001, Capacity Building in Developing Countries.
③ See UNFCCC Decision 4/CP.7 of 2001, Development and Transfer of Technologies.
①See UNFCCC Decision 1/CP.10 of 2004, Buenos Aires Programme of Work on Adaptation and Response Measures.
② See UNFCCC Decision 2/CP.11 of 2005:Five-year Programme of Work of the Subsidiarv Body for Scientific and Technological Advice on Impact, Vulnerability and Adaptation to Climate Change.
① See Chukwumerije Okereke, Philip Mann, Henny Osbahr.Benito Muller and Johannes Ebeling, Assessment of key negotiating issues at Nairobi climate COP/MOP and what it means for the future of the climate regime, Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research, Working Paper No.106, June 2007. ② See Hermann E. Ott, et al., The Bali Roadmap:New Horizons for Global Climate Policy, Climate Policy, Vol.8, 2008, pp..91-95.
③2007年2月2口IPCC在法国巴黎发布了第一工作小组报告《自然科学基础》(WGI);4月5日第二工作小组报告《影响、适应与脆弱性》(WGⅡ)在比利时布鲁塞尔发布；5月4日第三工作小组报告《减缓气候变化》(WGⅢ)在泰国曼谷发布：11月17口在西班牙巴伦西亚举行的IPCC第27次会议上.IPCC发布了作为第四次评估报告最后部分的《综合报告》。
① See Raymond Clemencon, The Bali Road Map A First Step on the Difficult Journey to a Post-Kyoto Protocol Agreement, The Journal of Environment & Development, Vol.17, No.1,2008, pp..70-94.
①2008年，在波兹南气候变化会议(CP.14／CMP.4)上,适应基金正式启动投入运作。
② See Nicholas Stern. The Economics of Climate Change:The Stern Review. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,2007, p.563.
① See EU COM(92)226:Proposal for a Council Directive Introducing a Tax on Carbon Dioxide Emissions and Energy, Brussels,30 June 1992.
② See The Council Decision 93/389/EEC of 24 June 1993 for a Monitoring Mechanism of Community CO2 and other Greenhouse Gas Emissions; The Council Decision 93/500/EEC of 13 September 1993 Concerning the Promotion of Renewable Energy Sources in the Community:The Council Directive 93/76/EEC of 13 September 1993 to Limit Carbon Dioxide Emissions by Improving Energy Efficiency (SAVE), etc..
③See EU COM(2000)88:EU policies and measures to reduce greenhouse gas emissions:Towards a European Climate Change Programme (ECCP).
④See Directive 2003/87/EC:Establishing a Scheme for Greenhouse Gas Emission Allowance Trading within the Community and Amending Council Directive 96/61/EC; Directive 2004/101/EC:Amending Directive 2003/87/EC in Respect of the Kyoto Protocol's Project Mechanisms.
①See EU COM/2000/769:Green Paper towards a European Strategy for the Security of the Energy Supply.
②See Directive 92/81/EEC:the Harmonization of the Structures of Excise Duties on Mineral Oils; Directive 92/82/EEC:the Approximation of the Rates of Excise Duties on Mineral Oils.
③ See Directive 2003/96/EC:Restructuring the Community Framework for the Taxation of Energy Products and Electricity.
①The European Advisory Group for Adaptation to Climate Change.
①2003年《能源白皮书》为英国能源政策设定了基本目标，确定了到2050年实现温室气体减排约60%的目标。2000年英国气候变化计划颁布后,除能源政策外,其它各相关部门的政策发展也相当活跃,例如,《交通2010：十年路线》(2002年)；《未来交通白皮书》(2004年)：《汽车动力未来战略》(2002年)；《英国气候变化可能情况》(2002年,UKCIP等机构随之为气候变化影响和适应性评估提供了一系列工具和方法);《未来航空运输白皮书》(2003年)；《热电联产战略》(2004年)；《英国可持续发展战略》(2005年,其中将应对气候变化作为其四项优先行动之一)：《可再生能源承诺》(2002年,英国支持可再生电能生产的主要机制)；《可再生运输燃料承诺》(2005年)：《化石燃料利用减碳技术发展战略》(2005年);等等。
② See Climate Change:the UK Programme,2000.
① See UK Climate Change and Sustainable Energy Act of 2006.
② See UK Climate Change Act of 2008.
①See US National Climate Program Act,Sept.17,1978; Amended, Dec.29,2000.
①The National Assessment Synthesis Team,根据美国《联邦咨询委员会法》(1972)设立的一个联邦咨询机构,协助美国全球变化研究项目的实施。
② See The National Assessment Synthesis Team:Climate Change Impacts on the United States:The Potential Consequences of Climate Variability and Change. A Report of the National Assessment Synthesis Team,US Global Change Research Program. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,2001.
③2007年至2008年间其它立法草案还有《气候管理与创新法》、《全球气候变化安全监督法》、《清洁空气／气候变化法》、《拯救我们的气候法》、《气候变化教育法》、《国际气候合作再接触法》、《能源独立、清洁空气和气候安全法》、《交通能源安全和气候变化减缓法》、《全球变化研究和数据管理法》、《有效控制和管理气候变化成本法》、《能源独立、国家安全和消费者保护新指导法》、《气候管理和经济安全法》、《气候中性发电法》、《通过个人行动应对气候变化法》、《气候投资和保护法》、《美国当前气候行动法》、《气候变化饮用水适应研究法》、《气候变化补贴法》、《北极气候保护法》、《气候变化中心和信息交换所法》、《沿海州气候变化规划法》等等；此外,这《2007年能源独立和安全法》(Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007)等气候变化相关立法完成立法程序开始生效。
①如按照IPCC第二次气候变化评估报告(1995年),如果不采取有效的减缓措施,到2100年,地球表面平均气候将比1990年提高约2℃(在1℃至3.5℃之间)：海平面将在目前水平上平均上升约50厘米(在15厘米至95厘米之间)。要使大气中温室气体浓度保持在两倍于前工业化时代的水平,以目前温室气候排放水平而言,必须削减50%以上。1996年第二次缔约方会议发表的《日内瓦部长宣言》对此予以认同。
②如在1996年第二次缔约方会议上,欧盟提出工业国家“一篮子”(CO2,CH4,N2O)减排方案,建议以1990年排放水平为基准,到2005年减排7.5%,2010年减排15%。日本提出到2010年比1990年减排5%。美国则主张在2008年到2012年间,使温室气体排放量回复到1990年水平,之后,再继续减少其排放：同时美国提出减排须得结合联合履行机制和排放贸易等灵活进行,并认为美国承担减排义务将以主要发展中国家有意义的参与为前提。七十七国集团和中国等发展中国家则提议工业国家根据不同温室气体种类分别设定减排日程表,并坚决反对让发展中国家做出新的承诺的提议。而原先持反对意见的石油输出国集团在经历第二次缔约方会议后修正了其参与战略，不再阻挠议定书的谈判,转而寻求在七十七国集团中获得更多支持,他们提出减排的同时亦应关注对发展中国家的不利影响,建议为此设立补偿基金。此外,与《京都议定书》的实施方式不同,欧盟曾建议在议定书中分设三种效力有别的“政策和措施”：一是强制性政策和措施；二是非强制性、但具有高优先级的政策和措施：三是非强制性、但对特定国家具有优先级的政策和措施,经此扩大实质性减排措施的实施范围、增加政策针对性与力度。
③具体可见第六次缔约方会议及其《波恩协定》、第七次缔约方会议及其《马拉喀什协议》中减排制度的相应调整。经过这些调整,减排义务量化的基准年出现了松动,1990年不再是确定基准排放量的唯一基准年,一些经济转轨国家被允许采用其它年份作为基年,任何附件Ⅰ国家皆被允许以1995年为非CO2的减排基年,从而使一些国家的实际减排义务大为缩减。另外,碳汇额度被有限引入冲抵减排义务。此外,2001年,时为最大温室气体排放国的美国宣布退出《京都议定书》,减排制度的实际效力遭受重大挑战。基年调整、碳汇引入、美国退出等因素弱化了本来的《京都议定书》,原先平均5.2%的减排目标实际上已不存在,即使《京都议定书》得到严格履行,目标排放量较之于1990年仍将会进一步增长(1.7%)。See M.GJ.denElzen,A.P.G. de Moor, Evaluating the Bonn Agreement and Some Key Issues. RIVM Repport 728001016,2001, available at http://www.rivm.nl/bibliotheek/rapporten/728001016.pdf, visited Aug.13,2008.; M.G.J. den Elzen,A.P.G. de Moor, The Bonn Agreement and Marrakech Accords:an updated analysis, RIVM report 728001017,2001, available at http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.119.3111&rep=rep1&type=pdf, visited Aug.13,2008.
① See Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Working Group Ⅱ, Climate change 2001:Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability:Contribution of Working Group Ⅱ to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge.New York:Cambridge University Press,2001, P.83
① See Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Working Group Ⅱ, Climate change 2007:Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability:Contribution of Working Group Ⅱ to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge,New York:Cambridge University Press,2007, pp..188-189.
① See Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Working Group Ⅱ, Climate change 2007:Impacts. Adaptation and Vulnerability:Contribution of Working Group Ⅱ to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge,New York:Cambridge University Press, p.213.
②政府间气候变化专门委员会(IPCC)：《气候变化2007：综合报告》,来源于IPCC官方网,2008年5月
13日浏览,http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/syr/ar4_syr_cn.pdf。
①See Nicholas Stern. The Economics of Climate Change:The Stern Review. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, pp..458-469.
②贾丽虹著：《外部性理论研究——中国环境规制与知识产权保护制度的分析》，人民出版社2007年版,第72页。
③ See Nicholas Stern, The Economics of Climate Change:The Stern Review, Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, p.1.
①茅于轼著：《一个经济学家的独特视角》,吉林出版集团有限责任公司2009年版,第18页。
②(德)阿图尔·考夫曼,温弗里德·哈斯默尔主编：《当代法哲学和法律理论导论》,郑永流译,法律出版社2002年版.第472-473页。
① See Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Working Group Ⅱ. Climate change 2001:Impacts. Adaptation and Vulnerability:Contribution of Working Group Ⅱ to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge.New York:Cambridge University Press.2001, pp..883-884.
② See Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Working Group Ⅱ, Climate change 2001:Impacts. Adaptation and Vulnerability:Contribution of Working Group Ⅱ to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge,New York:Cambridge University Press,2001, pp..891.
③(英)罗伯特·萨格登著：《权利、合作与福利的经济学》,方钦等译,上海财经大学出版社2008年版,第6页。
①(美)詹姆斯·M.布坎南著：《公共物品的需求与供给》，马珺译，上海人民出版社2009年版，第47页：
② See Kaul I., Grunberg I., and Stern M. A., Global Public Goods:Concepts, Policies and Strategies, in United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). Global Public Goods:International cooperation in the 21 Century. New York, Oxford:Oxford University Press.,1999, pp..450-508.
①[美]弗雷德·E.弗尔德瓦里著：《公共物品与私人社区——社会服务的市场供给》,郑秉文译,经济管理出版社2007年版,第6页。
② See Lisa E., Schipper F..(2007), Climate Change Adaptation and Development:exploring the linkages, Tyndall centre for climate change research, working paper 107, July 2007.
①张梓太、张乾红：《国际气候适应制度的滞后性及其发展障碍》，载《法学》2010年第2期，第127-137页。
① See Robert W. Kates.. Cautionary Tales:Adaptation and the Global Poor, Climate Change, Vol.45, No.1.2000,pp..5-17.
③ See Jesse H. Ausubel, Does Climate Still Matter?,Nature, Vol.350, Apr.1991,pp..649-652.
①具体如《联合国气候变化公约》第二条等内容所述,减缓作为气候变化制度措施,而适应则成为其附属之评价项。
② See Robert W. Kates, Cautionary Tales:Adaptation and the Global Poor, Climate Change, Vol.45, No.1.2000,pp..5-17.
③所谓“减缓”气候变化之说实际上至今仍未获得社会之普遍认同,在科学界,“人为活动变暖论”仍受到质疑,一些气候科学家和研究人员认为,限制人类温室气体的排放必须建立在对三个基本事实的证明基础上：“1.温室气体确实显著地增加全球气温，比它们对以前自然气候变暖循环中的气温升高要高得多：2.气候变暖将对人类和生态有害;3.合理的人类活动确实能够抢在这种过度变暖之前来阻止变暖。……目前为止,人为变暖的提倡者还没有能够满足哪怕一点这些最低要求。……没有人能够将自然影响从人为影响中区分出来。”他们认为,气候变暖主要是一种自然现象,是因为气候循环进入了“暖期”,自然和经济社会系统已因此开始一个新的适应过程,气候变化的结果不一定糟糕,即使面对其不利影响,“我们(也)能够利用我们的技术来适应这个变化,比起那些在格陵兰岛被冻僵的维京人所受的折磨,或者玛雅人不得不放弃他们的城市,在干旱袭击的从林地带继续存活下去,现代人在生活上的改变要小得多……粮食产量将会在气候变化中改变,但是我们高产的农业将会保证充足的食物……那些没有被长期干旱所袭击的人们拥有足够的财富来帮助那些受到干早袭击的人们……全球变暖是自然的,永不停歇的”。[美]S.弗雷德·辛格,丹尼斯·T.艾沃利著：全球变暖：毫无来由的恐慌,林文鹏、王臣立译,上海科学技术文献出版社2008年版,第259、263-264页。
① See A. Dan Tarlock. Now, Think Again about Adaptation, Arizona Journal of International and Comparative Law. Vol.9,No.2,1992,pp..169-181.
①See Richard J.T.Klein, Adaptation to Climate Variability and Change:What is Optimal and Appropriate?, in Carlo Giupponi. Mordechai Shechter. Climate Change in the Mediterranean:Socio-economic Perspectives of Impacts, Vulnerability and Adaptation, Gloucester:Edward Elgar Publishing,2003, pp..32-50.
① See Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Working Group Ⅱ, Climate change 2001:Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability:Contribution of Working Group Ⅱ to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge,New York:Cambridge University Press,2001, P.83.
②See E.Lisa F.Schipper, and Emily Boyd, UNFCCC COP11 and COP/MOPI:At Last,Some Hope?, The Journal of Environment & Development, Vol.15, No.1,2006,pp..75-90.
①刘燕华、李秀彬主编：《脆弱生态与可持续发展》,商务印书馆2007年版,第111页。
①See the World Bank:World Development Report 2008:Agriculture for Development.
② See the United Nations Development Programme(UNDP), Human Development Report 2007/2008:Fighting Climate Change:Solidarity in a Divided World.
①See Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Working Group Ⅱ, Climate change 2007:Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability:Contribution of Working Group Ⅱ to the fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge,New York:Cambridge University Press,2007, p.213.
① See F. Gagnon-Lebrun, and S. Agrawala. Progress on Adaptation to Climate Change in Developed Countries: An Analysis of Broad Trends. ENV/EPOC/GSP(2006)I/FINAL, OECD,2006, available at http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/49/18/37178873.pdf, visited May.10,2009.
②按照《京都议定书》,日本承诺2008-2012年将温室气体排放量在1990年基础上减排6%。作为力促《京都议定书》通过的京都会议的东道国,日本在《京都议定书》通过后的第二年就率先制定了以如何履行本国“京都承诺”为主旨的《全球变暖对策促进法》(1998年,2006年修订)。
①潘家华：《国家利益的科学论争与国际政治妥协——IPCC关于减缓气候变化社会经济分析评估报告述评》,载吕学都、王文远编：《全球气候变化研究：进展与展望》(论文集),气象出版社2003年版,第33-39页。
②See Lisa E., Schipper F., Climate Change Adaptation and Development:exploring the linkages, Tyndall centre for climate change research, working paper 107, July 2007.
③ See O'Riordan, T. and A. Jordan:Institutions, Climate Change and Cultural Theory:Towards a Common Analytical Framework. Global Environmental Change, Vol.9. No.2,1999, pp..81-93.
④See Nicholas Stern, The Economics of Climate Change:The Stern Review, Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,p.473-474.
⑤ Id. at pp487-490.
①中国科学院可持续发展战略研究组：《2009中国可持续发展战略报告——探索中国特色的低碳道路》,科学出版社2009年版，第238页。
① See Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Working Group Ⅱ, Climate Change 2001:impacts, adaptation and vulnerability:contribution of Working Group Ⅱ to the third assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge;New York:Cambridge University Press,2001,pp..895-897.
②印度经济学家阿马蒂亚·森(1998年诺贝尔经济学奖得主)曾总结说：定义理性行为的方法主要有两种,一是把理性视为选择的一致性(internal consistency of choice),一是把理性等同于自利最大化(maximization of self-interest)。参见(印)阿马蒂亚·森著：《伦理学与经济学》,王宇等译,商务印书馆2000年版,第18页。
③吴光芸,杨龙：《超越集体行动的困境：社会资本与制度分析》,载《东周学术》2006年第3期，第11-16页。
④ See John Field, Social Capital,2nd edition, London:Routledge,2008, p.1.
⑤ See Murray A. Rudd, Live Long and Prosper:Collective Action, Social Capital and Social Vision, Ecological Economics Vol.34. No.1. pp..131-144.
⑥ Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research at the University of East Anglia, UK.
⑦ See W. Neil. Adger, Social Capital, Collection Action, and Adaptation to Climate Chang, Economic Geograph Vol.79, No.4,2003, pp..387-404.
①See Arun Agrawgl, Common Property Institutions and Sustainable Governance of Resources. World Development, Vol.29, No.10,2001, pp..1649-1672.
①See Michael Woolcock, and Deepa Narayan, Social Capital: Implications for Development Theory, Research and Policy.The World Bank Research Observer, Vol.15, Issue.2,2000, pp..225-249.
②社会连带关系与社会资本理论之间有很深的渊源,两者同属于社会关系问题,只是,前者强调事实与性质的方面,而后者则强调价值及其优化的方面。总体而言,社会连带关系是创造社会资本的社会根源。See Alejandro Portes, Social Capital:Its Origins and Applications in Modern Sociology, Annual Review of Sociology, Vol.24.1998. pp.1-24.
③See Angela Williams, Solidarity, Justice and Climate Change Law; Melbourne Journal of International Law, Vol.10, Issue 2,2009, pp..493-508.
④ See Hauke Brunkhorst, Jeffrey Flynn, Solidarity:From Civic Friendship to a Global Legal Community. Cambridge:The MIT Press,2005,p.2.
⑤ (台)尤召和： 《略论孔德的思想渊源及其实证哲学》,载《淡江史学》2007年第18期,第319-338页。
⑥孙文恺著：《社会学法学》,法律出版社2005年版,第18-19页。
⑦张乃根著：《西方法哲学史纲》,中国政法大学出版社2008年版,第195页。
①孙文恺著：《社会学法学》,法律出版社2005年版,第73页。
②张文显著：《二十世纪西方法哲学思潮研究》，法律出版社2006年版,第100页。
③(法)莱昂·狄骥著：《宪法学教程》,工文利等译,辽海出版社,春风文艺出版社1999年版,第8-9页。
④同上,第10页。
⑤孙文恺著：《社会学法学》,法律出版社2005年版，第99页。
⑥See Arun Agrawgl, Common Property Institutions and Sustainable Governance of Resources, World Development, Vol.29, No.10,2001, pp..1649-1672.
⑦ See Hauke Brunkhorst, Jeffrey Flynn, Solidarity:From Civic Friendship to a Global Legal Community, Cambridge:The MIT Press,2005, pp..5-6.
①See Arun Agrawgl, Common Property Institutions and Sustainable Governance of Resources. World Development, Vol.29, No.10,2001, pp..1649-1672.
②Id.
③ See Nicholas Stern, The Economics of Climate Change:The Stern Review, Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,2007,p.19.
① Id.
② See Stdphane Hallegatte, Strategies to Adapt to an Uncertain Climate Change. Global Environmental Change, Vol.19,2009,PP..240-247.
① See Robin Kundis Craig,'Stationarity is Dead'-Long Live Transformation:Five Principles for Climate Change Adaptation Law, Havard Environmental Law Review, Vol.34, No.1,2010,pp..9-75.
① See Lisa E., Schipper F.. Climate Change Adaptation and Development:Exploring the Linkages, Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research, working paper 107, Jul.2007.
② See Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Working Group Ⅰ, Climate change 2007:the Physical Science Basis:Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge.New York:Cambridge University Press,2007,p.5.
①(美)戴利,弗蕾著：《生态经济学》,徐中民等译，黄河水利出版社2007年版.第15页。
①See FCCC/CP/2007/3/Corr.l, Report of the Global Environment Facility to the Conference of the Parties, CP.13, Bali,2007, available at http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/2007/cop13/eng/03cOl.pdf, visited May.15 2009.
② See CIDSE-Caritas Internationalis, Reducing Vulnerability, Enhancing Resilience:the Importance of Adaptation Technologies for the Post-2012 Climate Agreement, Jun.2009, available at http://www.cidse.org/uploadedFiles/Publications/Publication_repository/report.pdf, visited Aug.3,2009.
①张文显著：《法哲学范畴研究》,中国政法大学出版社2001年版,第61页。
②自然法学者认为：“自我保全的欲求乃是一切正义和道德的唯一根源,那么,基本的道德事实就不是一桩义务.而是一项权利：所有的义务都是从根本的和不可离弃的自我保全的权利中派生出来的。”参见(美)列奥·斯特劳斯著：《自然权利与历史》,彭刚译,三联书店出版社,2006年,第185页。
①(美)贝思·J·辛格著：《可操作的权利》,邵强进等译,上海人民出版社2005年版,第6、27页：
② See Daniel M. Bodansky, The International Climate Change Regime, in Walter Sinnontt-Armstrong, and Richard B. Howarth(2005). Perspectives on Climate Change:Science. Economics, Politics. Ethics, Oxford: Elsevier Ltd, pp..147-180.
①曲建升、孙成权：《全球变化研究中的“科学政治化”倾向——以美国气候政策为例》,载《世界科技研究与发展》2004年第2期,第78-83页。
②陈泉生等著：《科学发展观与法律发展：法学方法论的生态化》,法律出版社2008年版,第26页。
①具体可参见IPCC第二工作小组的历次报告。
② IPCC评估报告基本上是以非洲、亚洲、大洋洲(新西兰与澳大利亚)、欧洲、拉丁美洲、北美洲、极地区域(南北两极)为单位评估气候变化的区域影响的,除此之外,只有小岛屿国家因其明显的特殊性而被单独评估。
③ See Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Working Group Ⅱ, Climate Change 2001:Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability:Contribution of Working Group Ⅱ to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge;New York:Cambridge University Press,2001.P.897.
③ See Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Working Group Ⅰ, Climate Change 2001:the Scientific Basis: Contribution of Working Group Ⅰ to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge; New York:Cambridge University Press,2001, p.3-4.
①(德)康德著：《法的形而上学原理—权利的科学》,沈叔平译,商务印书馆2008年版,第39页。
② See Jack Donnelly, International Human Rights,2nd edition, Corolado:Westview Press,1993, p.20.
③(印)阿马蒂亚·森：《后果评价与实践理性》，应奇等编，东方出版社2006年版,第418页。
④ See United Nation Development Programme(UNDP), Human Development Report 2007/2008:Fighting Climate Change:Human Solidarity in a Divided World, available at http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_20072008_EN_Complete.pdf, visited Dec.17:2009.
⑤ See Male's Declaration on the Human Dimension of Global Climate Change,14 Nov.2007.
① See The United Nations Human Rights Council, "Human rights and climate change". Resolution 7/23,2008.
② See Report of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights on the relationship between climate change and human rights, A/HRC/10/61,15 January 2009.
③ See The United Nations Human Rights Council, "Human rights and climate change", Resolution 10/4,2009.
①See The Negotiating Text for an Outcome of the December Copenhagen Conference. FCCC/AWGLCA/2009/INF.2.15 Sep.2009. available at http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/2009/. visited 12 Nov. 2009.
②(美)劳伦斯·M·弗里德曼著：《法律制度—从社会科学角度观察》,中国政法大学出版社2004年版,第322页。
①See International Council on Human Rights Policy(ICHRP). Climate Change and Human Rights:A Rough Guide,2008, available at www.ichrp.org, visited 9 Mar.2009.
② See Report of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights on the relationship between climate change and human rights, A/HRC/10/61,15 January 2009.
① See Nicholas Stern, The Economics of Climate Change:the Stern Review, Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,2007, p.463.
② See Rebecca M.M. Wallace, International Law:a Student Introduction, Sweet & Maxwell Ltd..,1997, p.205.
①沈宗灵著：《现代西方法理学》,北京大学出版1992年版,第285、304页。
① See Report of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights on the relationship between climate change and human rights, A/HRC/10/61,15 January 2009.
① See E.Lisa F.Schipper, Emily Boyd, UNFCCC COP11 and COP/MOP1:At Last,Some Hope?, The Journal of Environment & Development,Vol.15,No.1,2006.pp..75-90.
② See Report of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights on the relationship between climate change and human rights, A/HRC/10/61,15 January 2009.
③ See Human Rights Committee, CCPR General Comment No.12:The right to self-determination of peoples (Art. 1),13/03/84.
①据美国能源信息管理局(Energy Information Administration, EIA)2004年评估预测资料,如果不采取额外措施，美国2025年二氧化碳排放量可能较1990年增长63%左右。See EIA. Annual Energy Outlook 2004 with Projections to 2025, available at http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/archive/aeo04/pdf/trend_5.pdf, visited Nov.13,2008.
② See David G. Victor, Climate Change:Debating America's Policy Options. Council on Foreign Relations Press. 2004, p.150.
①这里主要指2003年《洁净天空法案》(Clear Skies Act of 2003),该法案拟对《清洁空气法》予以补充修改,提出了氮氧化物、二氧化硫、汞排放的控制目标,除一氧化氮外,其它为《京都议定书》所控制的温室气体均被排除在外,因而在美国国内受到很大批评。
② See U.S. Climate Action Report 2002, available at http://www.epa.gov/globalwarming/publications/car/index.html, visited Nov.13,2008.
③See Jennifer Lee.7 States to Sue EPA over Standards on Air Pollution, February 21.2003, available at http://www.nytimes.com/2003/02/21/politics/21ENVI.html?scp=1, visited Nov.13,2008.
④See Jennifer Lee, E.P.A. Says It Lacks Power to Regulate Some Gases, August 29,2003, New York Times, available at http://www.nytimes.com/2003/08/29/politics/29CLIM.html?pagewanted=1, visited Nov.13,2008.
① See The U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit. Massachusetts et al. v. EPA et al., Sep.13. 2005, available at http://ecf.cadc.uscourts.gov/, visited Nov.13,2008.
① See Supreme Court of the United States, Massachusetts et al. v. EPA et al., April 2,2007, available at http://www.supremecourtus.gov/, visited Nov.13 2008.
②因纽特人(Inuit)是传统生活在北极与次北极区域的土著民之一。全世界约有165000因纽特人,主要分布在加拿大、美国(阿拉斯加)、格林兰、德国和俄罗斯等国家的北极、次北极区域。因纽特人管理、居住的区域往往地广人稀。他们在极冷的北极、次北极环境中,利用海冰进行交通、利用极地捕猎获取食物,形成特有的文化、生活方式和经济社会方式。他们适应于相似的极地环境而生存与发展。气候变化趋势中,极地变暖、冰盖融化,威胁因纽特人的传统生活方式、谋生手段与文化特性。不仅如此,海冰融化与海平面上升侵蚀海岸线,使得极区的因纽特人社区被迫迁移。See James D. Ford, Dangerous Climate Change and the Importance of Adaptation for the Arctic's Inuit Population, Environmental Research Letters, Vol.4, No.2,2009,pp..1-9.
③《联合国土著人民权利宣言》(United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples.2007)。在联合国系统中,关于士著民(indigenous people),并无明确统一的定义。引用最多的一个定义出自人权专家马丁涅兹·戈伯(Jose R. Martinez Cobo,防止歧视和保护少数族群小组委员会特派专员)的著名研究报告《反对歧视土著人口问题研究》,戈伯将土著民(土著人口)定义为：在被侵略或被殖民之前即全部或者部分在目前疆域上发展的人口,较之于后来的外来支配者所建立的制度,他们更多遵循并保留其固有的经济社会和文化传统。他们的信仰、习俗、文化与传统,与其所依存的土地紧密结合在一起，对于他们而言,土地不只是生产工具,而且是其特定文化的来源与象征。(Study on the Problem of Discrimination against Indigenous Populations,1972-1986, available from http://www.un.org/esa/socdev/unpfii/en/spdaip.html, visitedNov. 13 2008)。1982年联合国经社理事会设立土著民问题工作组(WGIP),这一定义也被WGIP所接受。但是,考虑到这一定义主要从前殖民时期着眼,难免狭隘,因而,WGIP又做了扩充,使之包含其他被孤立、被边缘化人口。到后来,凡是认为自己是土著的并被土著群体接受为其中的一员的人.都被视为土著民。此外，国际劳工组织和世界银行等相关文件中也对土著民概念做出过相应解释。然而，WGIP所起草的《土著人民权利宣言》中,并未对土著人民进行定义。其中部分原因,正如WGIP主席所言，土著民在历史上因他人所强加的定义而遭受了歧视性对待,因此,将决定其成员关系的权利留于土著民自己。(WGIP.E/CN.4/Sub.2/AC.4/1995/3. Jun.21 1993; Douglas E. Sanders. Indigenous People:Issues of Definition. International Journal of Cultural Property, Vol.8, Issue.1,1999,pp..4-13.)
①See Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Situation of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms of Indigenous People, A/HRC/4/32, Feb.27 2007, available at http://www2.ohchr.org/english/issues/indigenous/, visited Nov.13 2008.
②美洲国家间人权委员会(Inter-American Commission on Human Rights.IACHR)成立于1959年,总部设于华盛顿。目前其主要职责是根据《美洲国家组织宪章》(1948年)、《美洲人的权利和义务宣言》(1948年)、《美洲人权公约》(1969年)三个法律文件的授权,接受并审查美洲地区人权侵害的谴责与指控。美国是《美洲国家组织宪章》的成员国，并参加了《美洲人的权利和义务宣言》，但一直没有加入《美洲人权公约》。
①See Petition to the Inter American Commission on Human Rights Seeking Relief from Violations Resulting From Global Warming Caused by Acts and Omissions of the United States, submitted by Sheila Watt-Cloutier, with the support of the imuit circumpolar conference, on behalf of all Inuit of the Arctic regions of the United States and Canada, Dec.7 2005, available from http://www.inuitcircumpolar.com/, visited Nov.13 2008.
① See Bradford C. Mank, Standing and Global Warming:Is Injury to All Injury to None? Environmental Law. Vol. 35,No.1,2005,pp..1-84.
②Id.
① See The U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit, Massachusetts et al. v. EPA et al., Sep.13, 2005. available at https://ecf.cadc.uscourts.gov/, visited Nov.13,2008.
② See Petition to the Inter American Commission on Human Rights Seeking Relief from Violations Resulting From Global Warming Caused by Acts and Omissions of the United States, submitted by Sheila Watt-Cloutier, with the support of the imuit circumpolar conference, on behalf of all Inuit of the Arctic regions of the United States and Canada, Dec.7 2005, available from http://www.inuitcircumpolar.com/, visited Nov.13 2008.
①See Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Working Group Ⅱ, Climate Change 2007:Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability:Contribution of Working Group Ⅱ to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge; New York:Cambridge University Press,2007,p.188. ①(美)富勒著：《法律的道德性》,郑戈译,商务印书馆2007年版,第268页。
① See Shi-Ling Hsu, A Realistic Evaluation of Climate Change Litigation through the Lens of a Hypothetical Lawsuit, University of Colorado Law Review, Vol.79, Issue 3, Spring 2008,pp..701-766.
① See Supreme Court of the United States, Massachusetts et al. v. EPA et al., April 2,2007, available at http://www.supremecourtus.gov/. visited Nov.13 2008.
② See Petition to the Inter American Commission on Human Rights Seeking Relief from Violations Resulting From Global Warming Caused by Acts and Omissions of the United States, submitted by Sheila Watt-Cloutier, with the support of the imuit circumpolar conference, on behalf of all Inuit of the Arctic regions of the United States and Canada, Dec.7 2005, available from http://www.inuitcircumpolar.com/, visited Nov.13 2008.
① See Daniel A. Farber, and Suzanna Sherry.Telling Stories Out of School:An Essay on Legal Narratives, Standford Law Review, Vol.45, Issue 4,1993, pp..807-855.
② See Supreme Court of the United States, Massachusetts et al. v. EPA et al., April 2,2007, available at http://www.supremecourtus.gov/, visited Nov.13 2008.
③ See Petition to the Inter American Commission on Human Rights Seeking Relief from Violations Resulting From Global Warming Caused by Acts and Omissions of the United States, submitted by Sheila Watt-Cloutier, with the support of the imuit circumpolar conference, on behalf of all Inuit of the Arctic regions of the United States and Canada, Dec.7 2005, available from http://www.inuitcircumpolar.com/, visited Nov.13 2008.
①(印)阿马蒂亚·森：《后果评价与实践理性》,应奇等编,东方出版社2006年版,第422页。②See Hari M. Osofsky, The Geography of Climate Change Litigation Part Ⅱ:Narratives of Massachusetts v EPA, Chicago Journal of International Law, Vol.8, No.2,2008, pp..573-620.
③ See Petition to the Inter American Commission on Human Rights Seeking Relief from Violations Resulting From Global Warming Caused by Acts and Omissions of the United States, submitted by Sheila Watt-Cloutier, with the support of the imuit circumpolar conference, on behalf of all Inuit of the Arctic regions of the United States and Canada, Dec.7 2005, available from http://www.inuitcircumpolar.com/, visited Nov.13 2008.
① See Red Dawn, Blue Thunder, and Purple Rain, Corporate Risk of Liability for Global Climate Change and the SEC Disclosure Dilemma, Georgetown International Environmental Law Review, Vol.17, No.2,2005, pp.,233-251.
① See Richard A. Falk, This Endangered Planet:Prospects and Proposals for Human Survival. New York:Random House,1971,p.353.
① See Lester R. Brown.Redefining National Security, Worldwatch Paper No.14,1977.
② See World Meteorological Organization (WMO), Environment Canada, Conference Proceedings of the Changing Atmosphere:Implications for Global Security, Toronto, Canada,27-30 June 1988,WMO No.710,1989.
① See Nicholas Stem. The Economics of Climate Change:the Stern Review, Cambridge University Press.2007. p.xv.,p.5.
② See Peter Schwartz and Doug Randall, An Abrupt Climate Change Scenario and Its Implications for United States National Security, Washington:US Department of Defence,2003.
① See David A. Baldwin, The Concept of Security, Review of International Studies,Vol.23,1997,pp..5-26.
② See Jon Barnett. W. Neil Adger, Climate Change, Human Security and Violent Conflict. Political Geography Vol.26,2007,PP..639-655.
③苏丹达尔富尔危机”即为典型一例。在这场危机中,气候变化影响(干旱、土地退化)成为政治和军事因素以外的根本性因素之一。See Ban Ki Moon, A Climate Culprit in Darfur. Washington Post. Jun.16,2007. available at http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/06/15/AR2007061501857.html关于此问题的详细分析另可见李岩、王礼茂：《从达尔富尔危机透视气候变化下的生态冲突》，载《西亚非洲》2008年第6期,第5-10页。
①See High Representative and the European Commission to the European Council, Climate Change and International Security. March 2008. available at
http://www.consilium.europa.eu/uedocs/cms_data/docs/pressdata/en/reports/99387.pdf, visited Mar.15,2009.
①See United Nations Development Programme(UNDP),Human Development Report 1994, Oxford:Oxford University Press,1994,pp..24-33.
② Commission on Human Security, Human Security Now,2003.
① See Commission on Human Security. Human Security Now, Washington, DC:Communications Development Incorporated,2003, pp..4-6.
①严格地讲,环境不同于生态,环境安全与生态安全是有所区分的两个概念。蔡守秋教授在其著作《生态安全、环境与贸易法律问题研究》(中信出版社2005年版,第3页)中提出生态安全是环境安全的上位概念,生态安全既包括环境安全,又包括生物安全(人的安全和非人生物的安全)。如果套用这一解释，气候变化首先涉及环境变化和环境安全问题,又进而广泛影响生物安全和生态安全,或者说,从“上游”(气候变化)问题看，气候变化与环境安全相联系，从“下游”(气候变化影响),问题看，气候变化又指向更宽泛的生态安全。
② See United Nations Development Programme(UNDP),Human Development Report 1994, Oxford University Press.1994,pp..28-30.
③ See Daniel Deudney, Environment and Security:Muddled Thinking, in Charles W.Kegley, Jr. and Eugene R. Wittkopf. The Global Agenda:Issues and Perspectives Fourth Edition. New York:McGraw-Hill,1995,pp..446-454.
④See Hans G Brauch.Security and Environment Linkages on the Mediterranean Space:Three Phases of Research on Human and Environmental Security and Peace, in Hans G. Brauch, P. H. Liotta. et.al., Security and Environment in the Mediterranean:Conceptualizing Security and Environmental Conflicts,Berlin:Springer,2003,pp..35-144.
① See Jon Barnett, Michael Webber, et.al., Ten Key Questions about the Human Dimensions of Water in the Yellow River Basin, Environmental Management Vol.38, No.2,2006, pp..179-188.
②据自然保护协会(The Nature Conservancy)披露,世界上70%的珊瑚礁资源将于2050年之前完全退化并消失：
①See Jon Barnett, W. Neil Adger, Climate change, Human Security and Violent Conflict, Political Geography Vol.26.2007.PP.639-655.
② See David A. Baldwin, The Concept of Security, Review of International Studies,Vol.23,1997,pp..5-26.
① See Arnold Wolfers, Discord and Collaboration:Essays on International Politics. Baltimore:Johns Hopkins University Press,1962, p.150.
② See Barry Buzan et al., Security:A New Framework for Analysis, Boulder:Lynne Rienner Pub,1997.p.76.
③ See Nina Graeger, Review Essay:Environmental Security?, Journal of Peace Research, Vol.33, No.1,1996.
① See Stephen M. Gardiner. Ethics and Climate Change:an Introduction, Wiley Interdisciplinary Review:Climate Change, Vol.1, Issue 1,2010,pp..54-56.
② EDCC, The Buenos Aires Declaration on the Ethical Dimensions of Climate Change,2004.
①EDCC, White Paper on the Ethical Dimensions of Climate Change,2006.
② (法)卢梭著：《社会契约论》,商务印书馆2009年版,第25页。
See Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Working Group Ⅱ. Climate Change 2001:impacts, adaptation and vulnerability:contribution of Working Group Ⅱ to the third assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge;New York:Cambridge University Press.2001.p.897.
④(古希腊)亚里士多德著：《尼各马可伦理学》,廖申白译注,商务印书馆2008年版,第130页。
①(古希腊)亚里士多德著：《尼各马可伦理学》,廖申白译注,商务印书馆2008年版,第134-138页：
②(美)约翰·罗尔斯：《正义论》,何怀宏、何包钢、廖申白译,中国社会科学出版社1988年版,第60-61页。
③(美)彼得·S·温茨著：《环境正义论》,朱丹琼等译，上海人民出版社2007年版.第313页。
④(美)约翰·罗尔斯：《正义论》,何怀宏、何包钢、廖申白译,中国社会科学出版社1988年版,第88页。
① See Scott Barrett, Environment and Statecraft:the Strategy of Environmental Treaty-making. New York: Oxford University Press,2003,p.386.
① See Stephen Gardiner, Ethics and Global Climate Change, Ethics. Vol.114,2004,pp..550-600.
② See Dale Jamieson, Climate Change and Global Environmental Justice, in Miller, Clark A., Edwards. Paul N.,Changing the Atmosphere:Expert Knowledge and Environmental Governance, Cambridge:MIT Press,2001, pp..287-307.
③ See Benito Muller, Varieties of Distributive Justice in Climate Change:An Editorial Comment, Climatic Change, Vol.48,2001, pp..273-288.
①徐以祥：《气候保护和环境正义——气候保护的国际法律框架和发展中国家的参与模式》,载《现代法学》2008年第1期,第187-193页。
①(美)彼得·辛格著：《一个世界——全球化伦理》,应奇等译,东方出版社2005年版,第33页。
① See W. Neil Adger, Jouni Paavola, and Saleemul Huq, Toward Justice in Adaptation to Climate Change, in W. Neil Adger, Jouni Paavola, Saleemul Huq, and M.J.Mace, Fairness in Adaptation to Climate Change, Cambridge: the MIT Press,2006, pp..2-19.
② See W. Neil Adger, Scales of Governance and Environmental Justice for Adaptation and Mitigation of Climate Change, Journal of International Development Vol.13, Issue 7,2001,pp..921-931.
③ See Edward A. Page, Climate Change, Justice and Future Generations, Massachusetts:Edward Elgar Publishing, Inc.,2006,p.12.
①国内有学者将社会弱势群体译为social vulnerable group,但徐少祥等学者则认为社会弱势群体译为social disadvantage group更为准确;从英文原意看,social vulnerable group包含了social disadvantage group参见徐少祥著：《弱者的权利——社会弱势群体保护的法理研究》,社会科学文献出版社2008年版,第4页;或者余少祥：《法律语境中弱势群体概念构建分析》,载《中国法学》2009年第3期，第64-72页。本文所指脆弱群体中的“脆弱”特指对气候变化影响的脆弱,即易受气候变化不利影响、易受气候变化损害者。
① See Karen L. O'Brien, and Robin M. Leichenko. Double Exposure:Assessing the Impacts of Climate Change within the Context of Economic Globalization, Global Environmental Change, Vol.10,2000. pp..221-232.
①See Jonathan Crowther, Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary of Current English (fifth edition), New York: Oxford University Press,1995, p.1205.
②世界环境与发展委员会著：《我们共同的未来》,王之佳等译,吉林人民出版社1997年版,第52-53页。
① See UK Adapting to Climate Change Programme:Adapting to Climate Change in England:a Framework for Action,2008.
①崔大鹏：《适应性排放的概念分析》,中国气候变化信息网,http://www.ccchina.gov.cn/cn/NewsInfo.asp?NewsId=3958,2003.03.21。
① See Ian Burton. Saleemul Huq,et al.. From Impacts Assessment to Adaptation Priorities:The Shaping of Adaptation Policy, Climate Policy Vol.2,2002.pp..145-159.
② See UNFCCC Decision 29/CP.7 of 2001. Establishment of a Least Developed Countries Expert Group.
③ See Bo Lim, and Erika Spanger-Siegfried, United Nations Development Programme, Adaptation Policy Frameworks for Climate Change:Developing Strategies. Policies and Measures. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,2005, pp.. 1-2.
④See Cecilia Conde, and Kate Lonsdale, Engaging Stakeholders in the Adaptation Process, in Bo Lim & Erika Spanger-Siegfried, United Nations Development Programme, Adaptation Policy Frameworks for Climate Change: Developing Strategies, Policies and Measures, Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,2005,pp..47-66.
① See Mendelsohn R., Efficient Adaptation to Climate Change, Climatic Change Vol.45,2000, pp..583-600.
①气候公约第4.1(e)条等条款下,所有缔约方做出了适应合作的一般性承诺；在公约第4.3、4.4、4.5、4.7、4.8、4.9条等条款下，发达国家缔约方做出了为发展中国家缔约方(尤其是最易受气候变化影响国家)提供资金、技术等援助的承诺。
②See Angela Williams, Solidarity, Justice and Climate Change Law, Melbourne Journal of International Law, Vol.10, No.2,2009, pp..493-508
③ Global Environment Facility(GEF), Instrument for the Establishment of the Restructured Global Environment Facility, 2004, available at http://www.gefweb.org/GEF_Instrument3.pdf, visited May.15,2008.
①以2003年至2006年间GEF气候变化战略重点方案为例,七个重点战略中减缓占了六个,内容覆盖可再生能源、能源效率、清洁技术等多个方面,配给资金5.29亿美元,而适应优先战略试点方案(SPA,2005-2007)所配给资金仅为5000万美元。Report on the Assessment of Funding Necessary to Assist Developing Countries in Fulfilling their Commitments under the Convention Prepared in the Context of the Memorandum of Understanding between the Conference of the Parties and the Council of the Global Environment Facility, FCCC/SBI/2004/18,21 October 2004.
②实际上,公约生效后,由于发达缔约方和发展中缔约方在公约资金机制运作实体问题上的严重分歧,全球环境基金的受托人地位并未立即得到正式确认,直到1998年第四次缔约方会议通过了《布宜诺斯艾利斯行动计划》,全球环境基金才正式成为公约资金机制下的受托人,管理运作用于气候变化方面的全球环境基金信托基金。参见《气候变化框架公约》缔约方会议第3／CP.4号决定。
③ See Operational Guidelines for the Strategic Priority of Piloting and Operational Approach to Adaptation, GEF/C.27/Inf.10.2005.
④按照SCCF的初始设计,它将在四个方面提拱资金支持：①适应；②技术转让；③能源、交通、工业、农业、森林和废水管理；④高度依赖化石燃料的发展中国家缔约方的经济多元化。从这四个方面看,SCCF其实也是一项较综合的基金。但是,在后来的公约第9次缔约方会议上,“适应”被重新明确为最优先领域,“技术转让”次之,而另外两个领域的资金使用一直限于咨询方面,未见更多进展。GEF又随后通过了一个突出适应内容的相应的资金使用计划,从而使SCCF实际上主要被作为一项适应基金予以操作。
① See Programming Paper for Funding the Implementation of NAPAs under the LDC Trust Fund, GEF/C.28/18, 2006.
① eg. International Climate Initiative of Germany(ICI); Adaptation to Climate Change Initiative of Australia; Cool Earth Partnership of Japan; etc..
② eg. Trust Fund on Climate Change of Bangladesh, etc..
① The Global Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Fund,是欧盟于2008年拨款8000万欧元(作为2007-2010年间的启动资金)设立的一个基金,基金目的设定为：促进能源效率、能源节约和可再生能源开发;减少温室气体排放及与之相关风险；改善最贫穷国家可得能源服务,促进发展中国家能源结构多元化。
②The European Strategic Energy Technology Plan,欧盟于2007年通过的一项计划,旨在通过加强能源研究、促进能源创新、实施新的能源措施、改善基本能源设施、加强能耗政策协调等能源行动,以为实现欧盟制定的2020年和2050年减排战略目标服务。
③ See EU COM(2008)16:Proposal for a Directive of the European Parliament and of the Council amending Directive 2003/87/EC so as to improve and extend the greenhouse gas emission allowance trading system of the Community.
① See EU COM(2009)39:Toward a comprehensive climate change agreement in Copenhagen.全球金融基金机制的思想源于2003年英国财政部和英国海外开发署关于设立“国际融资基金”(International Financing Facility, IEF)的提议,该基金通过在资金市场上发行由政府担保的债券募集资金,以为实现“千年发展目标”筹集前期资金。2006年,IEF的构想开始在公共健康领域获得实际应用,英国联合法国、意大利、西班牙、瑞典、挪威、南非等国发起设立了“国际免疫融资基金”(the International Finance Facility for Immunisation, IFFIm),该基金通过全球疫苗免疫联盟(GAVI Alliance)为世界最贫穷的72个加强国家疫苗免疫和健康服务提供资金支持,以减少可用疫苗预防的疾病对5岁以下儿童的生命与健康的影响。2008年世界银行发展委员会会议期间，欧盟官员按照“国际融资基金”思路提出了建立全球金融基金机制的构想。
② See Funding Scheme for Bali Action Plan:A Swiss Proposal for Global Solidarity in Financing Adaptation,2008.
①See Mexico's Proposal within the Framework of the Bali Action Plan:Multinational Climate Change Fund.2008.
② American Clean Energy and Security Act of 2009.
① See Report of the Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee for a Framework Convention on Climate Change on the work of its fourth session, held at Geneva from 9 to 20 December 1991.A/AC.237/15.
① See Roda Verheyen, Climate Change Damage and International Law:Prevention, Duties and State Responsibility, Leiden; Boston:Martinus Nijhoff Publishers.2005, pp..50-52.
② US National Flood Insurance Act of 1968.
① France Cat.Nat System No.82-600,1982.
② Caisse Centrale de Reassurance. See Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development(OECD), Environmental Risks and Insurance:A Comparative Analysis of the Role of Insurance in the Management of Environment Related Risks, OECD Publishing,2003, pp..71-72.
②See Christopher B. Barrett et al., Using Weather Index Insurance to Improve Drought Response for Famine Prevention, American Journal of Agricultural Economics, Vol.89, Issue 5,2007, pp..1262-1268.
①张梓太、张乾红：《我国环境责任保险制度之构建》,载《法学研究》2006年第3期,第84-97页。
① See Allianz Group and WWF, Climate Change and Insurance:An Agenda for Action in the United States, October 2006. available at http://www.pewclimate.org/docUploads/Allianz%20WWF%20report.pdf, visited Aug, 13,2008.
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13.(台)尤召和：《略论孔德的思想渊源及其实证哲学》,载《淡江史学》2007年第18期,第319-338页。
14.余少祥：《法律语境中弱势群体概念构建分析》,载《中国法学》2009年第3期,第64-72页。
15.张梓太、张乾红：《我国环境责任保险制度之构建》,载《法学研究》2006年第3期,第84-97页。
16.张梓太、张乾红：《国际气候适应制度的滞后性及其发展障碍》,载《法学》
2010年第2期,第127-137页。
17.中国社会科学院可持续发展研究中心、中国社会科学院世界经济与政治研究所《研究快讯》第19期,2003年5月13日。
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