参考文献:1. Doherty TM, Asotra K, Fitzpatrick LA, et al.: Calcification in atherosclerosis: bone biology and chronic inflammation at the arterial crossroads. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2003, 100:11201鈥?1206. CrossRef 2. Abedin M, Tintut Y, Demer LL: Vascular calcification: mechanisms and clinical ramifications. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2004, 24:1161鈥?170. CrossRef 3. Virmani R, Burke AP, Farb A, et al.: Pathology of the vulnerable plaque. J Am Coll Cardiol 2006, 47(Suppl 8):C13鈥揅18. CrossRef 4. Huang H, Virmani R, Younis H, et al.: The impact of calcification on the biomechanical stability of atherosclerotic plaques. Circulation 2001, 103:1051鈥?056. 5. Vengrenyuk Y, Carlier S, Xanthos S, et al.: A hypothesis for vulnerable plaque rupture due to stress-induced debonding around cellular microcalcifications in thin fibrous caps. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2006, 103:14678鈥?4683. CrossRef 6. 鈥?Hoshino T, Chow LA, Hsu JJ, et al.: Mechanical stress analysis of a rigid inclusion in distensible material: a model of atherosclerotic calcification and plaque vulnerability. Am J Physiol 2009, 297:H802鈥揌810. / This article demonstrates the role of calcification in plaque rupture. CrossRef 7. 鈥?Vengrenyuk Y, Cardoso L, Weinbaum S: Micro-CT based analysis of a new paradigm for vulnerable plaque rupture: cellular microcalcifications in fibrous caps. Mol Cell Biomech 2008, 5:37鈥?7. / This article demonstrates the role of microcalcifications in thin fibrous cap in plaque vulnerability. 8. 鈥⑩€?Aikawa E, Nahrendorf M, Sosnovik D, et al.: Multimodality molecular imaging identifies proteolytic and osteogenic activities in early aortic valve disease. Circulation 2007, 115:377鈥?86. / This is the first report on molecular imaging of calcific aortic valve disease. CrossRef 9. Cannata-Andia JB, Rodriguez-Garcia M, Carrillo-Lopez N, et al.: Vascular calcifications: pathogenesis, management, and impact on clinical outcomes. J Am Soc Nephrol 2006,17(Suppl 3):S267鈥揝273. CrossRef 10. 鈥⑩€?Otto CM: Calcific aortic stenosis鈥攖ime to look more closely at the valve. N Engl J Med 2008, 359:1395鈥?398. / This landmark review on calcific aortic valve stenosis challenged the conventional view of the disease. CrossRef 11. 鈥?Jaffer FA, Libby P, Weissleder R: Optical and multimodality molecular imaging: insights into atherosclerosis. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2009, 29:1017鈥?024. / This is the most recent review on molecular imaging of atherosclerosis. CrossRef 12. Aikawa M, Libby P: Atherosclerotic plaque inflammation: the final frontier? Can J Cardiol 2004, 20:631鈥?34. 13. Glass CK, Witztum JL: Atherosclerosis. The road ahead. Cell 2001, 104:503鈥?16. CrossRef 14. Sosnovik DE, Nahrendorf M, Deliolanis N, et al.: Fluorescence tomography and magnetic resonance imaging of myocardial macrophage infiltration in infarcted myocardium in vivo. Circulation 2007, 115:1384鈥?391. CrossRef 15. Morishige K, Kacher D, Libby P, et al.: MRI enhanced with magnetic nanoparticles measures inflammatory burden in atherosclerosis in vivo. Circulation 2006, 114:II鈥?37 (abstract). CrossRef 16. Jaffer FA, Nahrendorf M, Sosnovik D, et al.: Cellular imaging of inflammation in atherosclerosis using magnetofluorescent nanomaterials. Mol Imaging 2006, 5:85鈥?2. 17. 鈥⑩€?Aikawa E, Nahrendorf M, Figueiredo JL, et al.: Osteogenesis associates with inflammation in early-stage atherosclerosis evaluated by molecular imaging in vivo. Circulation 2007, 116:2841鈥?850. / This is the first report linking inflammation and osteogenic activity in vivo. This is also the first report utilizing molecular imaging to monitor simultaneously two different biological processes in vivo over time. CrossRef 18. Jaffer FA, Kim DE, Quinti L, et al.: Optical visualization of cathepsin K activity in atherosclerosis with a novel, protease-activatable fluorescence sensor. Circulation 2007, 115:2292鈥?298. CrossRef 19. 鈥⑩€?Aikawa E, Aikawa M, Libby P, et al.: Arterial and aortic valve calcification abolished by elastolytic cathepsin S deficiency in chronic renal disease. Circulation 2009, 119:1785鈥?794. / This is the first report showing an association between arterial and aortic valve calcification in renal failure. CrossRef 20. Hjortnaes J, Gottlieb D, Figueiredo JL, et al.: Intravital molecular imaging of small-diameter tissue-engineered vascular grafts: a feasibility study. Tissue Eng Part C Methods 2009 Sep 14 (Epub ahead of print). 21. Weissleder R, Ntziachristos V: Shedding light onto live molecular targets. Nat Med 2003, 9:123鈥?28. CrossRef 22. Deguchi JO, Aikawa M, Tung CH, et al.: Inflammation in atherosclerosis: visualizing matrix metalloproteinase action in macrophages in vivo. Circulation 2006, 114:55鈥?2. CrossRef 23. 鈥⑩€?Jaffer FA, Vinegoni C, John MC, et al.: Real-time catheter molecular sensing of inflammation in proteolytically active atherosclerosis. Circulation 2008, 118:1802鈥?809. / This is the first report utilizing catheter-based molecular imaging in a large animal model. CrossRef 24. 鈥?Kozloff KM, Quinti L, Patntirapong S, et al.: Non-invasive optical detection of cathepsin K-mediated fluorescence reveals osteoclast activity in vitro and in vivo. Bone 2009, 44:190鈥?98. / This is the latest report on bone molecular imaging. CrossRef 25. Demer LL, Tintut Y: Return to ectopia: stem cells in the artery wall. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2005, 25:1307鈥?308. CrossRef 26. Demer LL, Tintut Y: Vascular calcification: pathobiology of a multifaceted disease. Circulation 2008, 117:2938鈥?948. CrossRef 27. El-Abbadi M, Giachelli CM: Mechanisms of vascular calcification. Adv Chronic Kidney Dis 2007, 14:54鈥?6. CrossRef 28. Nadra I, Mason JC, Philippidis P, et al.: Proinflammatory activation of macrophages by basic calcium phosphate crystals via protein kinase C and MAP kinase pathways: a vicious cycle of inflammation and arterial calcification? Circ Res 2005, 96:1248鈥?256. CrossRef 29. Bostrom K: Proinflammatory vascular calcification. Circ Res 2005, 96:1219鈥?220. CrossRef 30. Rossebo AB, Pedersen TR, Boman K, et al.: Intensive lipid lowering with simvastatin and ezetimibe in aortic stenosis. N Engl J Med 2008, 359:1343鈥?356. CrossRef 31. Amann K, Tyralla K, Gross ML, et al.: Special characteristics of atherosclerosis in chronic renal failure. Clin Nephrol 2003, 60(Suppl 1):S13鈥揝21. 32. Fox CS, Larson MG, Vasan RS, et al.: Cross-sectional association of kidney function with valvular and annular calcification: the Framingham Heart Study. J Am Soc Nephrol 2006, 17:521鈥?27. CrossRef 33. Schiffrin EL, Lipman ML, Mann JF: Chronic kidney disease: effects on the cardiovascular system. Circulation 2007, 116:85鈥?7. CrossRef 34. Jono S, Shioi A, Ikari Y, et al.: Vascular calcification in chronic kidney disease. J Bone Miner Metab 2006, 24:176鈥?81. CrossRef 35. Goodman WG: Vascular calcification in chronic renal failure. Lancet 2001, 358:1115鈥?116. CrossRef 36. Aikawa M, Rabkin E, Okada Y, et al.: Lipid lowering by diet reduces matrix metalloproteinase activity and increases collagen content of rabbit atheroma: a potential mechanism of lesion stabilization. Circulation 1998, 97:2433鈥?444. 37. Aikawa M, Libby P: The vulnerable atherosclerotic plaque: pathogenesis and therapeutic approach. Cardiovasc Pathol 2004, 13:125鈥?38. CrossRef 38. Aikawa E, Whittaker P, Farber M, et al.: Human semilunar cardiac valve remodeling by activated cells from fetus to adult: implications for postnatal adaptation, pathology, and tissue engineering. Circulation 2006, 113:1344鈥?352. CrossRef 39. Rabkin E, Aikawa M, Stone JR, et al.: Activated interstitial myofibroblasts express catabolic enzymes and mediate matrix remodeling in myxomatous heart valves. Circulation 2001, 104:2525鈥?532. CrossRef 40. 鈥?Simionescu A, Simionescu DT, Vyavahare NR: Osteogenic responses in fibroblasts activated by elastin degradation products and transforming growth factor-beta1: role of myofibroblasts in vascular calcification. Am J Pathol 2007, 171:116鈥?23. / This article shows in vitro association of elastin degradation products with calcification. CrossRef 41. Karnik SK, Brooke BS, Bayes-Genis A, et al.: A critical role for elastin signaling in vascular morphogenesis and disease. Development 2003, 130:411鈥?23. CrossRef 42. Bro S, Bentzon JF, Falk E, et al.: Chronic renal failure accelerates atherogenesis in apolipoprotein E-deficient mice. J Am Soc Nephrol 2003, 14:2466鈥?474. CrossRef 43. Reynolds JL, Joannides AJ, Skepper JN, et al.: Human vascular smooth muscle cells undergo vesicle-mediated calcification in response to changes in extracellular calcium and phosphate concentrations: a potential mechanism for accelerated vascular calcification in ESRD. J Am Soc Nephrol 2004,15:2857鈥?867. CrossRef 44. Shanahan CM: Inflammation ushers in calcification: a cycle of damage and protection? Circulation 2007, 116:2782鈥?785. CrossRef 45. Towler DA: Imaging aortic matrix metabolism: mirabile visu! Circulation 2007, 115:297鈥?99. 46. Towler DA: Vascular calcification: a perspective on an imminent disease epidemic. IBMS BoneKEy 2008, 5:41鈥?8. CrossRef
作者单位:Elena Aikawa (1)
1. Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, Brigham and Women鈥檚 Hospital, Harvard Medical School, 77 Ave Louis Pasteur, NRB7, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
文摘
Optical molecular imaging represents an emerging method that can detect pathobiological processes in vivo at the cellular and molecular levels, offering a dynamic link between imaging and biology. This review discusses the impact of molecular imaging methods in atherosclerosis research and preventive medicine and focuses on the inflammation-dependent mechanisms of arterial calcification.