Where are all the self-employed women? Push and pull factors influencing female labor market decisions
详细信息 查看全文
- 作者：Carlianne Patrick ; Heather Stephens ; Amanda Weinstein
- 关键词：Female labor force participation ; Self ; employment ; Gender ; Culture ; J22 ; R23 ; J70 ; L26
- 刊名：Small Business Economics
- 出版年：2016
- 出版时间：March 2016
- 年：2016
- 卷：46
- 期：3
- 页码：365-390
- 全文大小：1,627 KB
- 参考文献：Acs, Z. J. (2006). How is entrepreneurship good for economic growth? Innovations, 1(1), 97–107. doi:10.1162/itgg.2006.1.1.97 .CrossRef
Amit, R., & Muller, E. (1995). ‘Push’ and ‘pull’ entrepreneurship. Journal of Small Business and Entrepreneurship, 12(4), 64–80. doi:10.1080/08276331.1995.10600505 .CrossRef
Black, D., Kolesnikova, N., & Taylor, L. (2014). Why do so few women work in New York (and so many in Minneapolis)? Labor supply of married women across US cities. Journal of Urban Economics, 79, 59–71. doi:10.1016/j.jue.2013.03.003 .CrossRef
Blau, D. (1987) A time-series analysis of self-employment in the United States. Journal of Political Economy, 95(3), 445–467. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1831972 .
Blau, F. D., & Kahn, L. M. (1997). Swimming upstream: Trends in the gender wage differential in the 1980s. Journal of Labor Economics, 15(1), 1–42. doi:10.1086/209845 .CrossRef
Blau, F., Kahn, L., Liu, A. Y.-H., & Papps, K. (2013). The transmission of women’s fertility, human capital, and work orientation across immigrant generations. Journal of Population Economics, 26, 405–435. doi:10.3386/w14388 .CrossRef
Boden, R. (1996). Gender and self-employment selection: An empirical assessment. The Journal of Socio-Economics, 25, 671–682. doi:10.1016/S1053-5357(96)90046-3 .CrossRef
Boden, R. (1999). Flexible working hours, family responsibilities, and female self-employment: Gender differences in self-employment selection. American Journal of Economics and Sociology, 58(1), 71–83. doi:10.1111/j.1536-7150.1999.tb03285.x .CrossRef
Booth, A., & van Ours, J. (2013). Part-time jobs: What women want? Journal of Population Economics, 26, 263–283. doi:10.1007/s00148-012-0417-9 .
Borck, R. (2014). Adieu Rabenmutter: Culture, fertility, female labour supply, the gender wage gap and childcare. Journal of Population Economics, 27, 739–765. doi:10.1007/s00148-013-0499-z .CrossRef
Borjas, G., & Bronars, S. (1989). Consumer discrimination and self-employment. Journal of Political Economy, 97, 581–605. doi:10.3386/w2627 .CrossRef
Bruce, D. (1999). Do husbands matter? Married women entering self-employment. Small Business Economics, 13(4), 317–329. doi:10.1023/A:1008179214572 .CrossRef
Budig, M. (2006). Intersections on the road to self-employment: Gender, family, and occupational class. Social Forces, 84(4), 2223–2239. doi:10.1353/sof.2006.0082 .CrossRef
Burke, A. E., Fitzroy, F. R., & Nolan, M. A. (2002). Self-employment wealth and job creation: The roles of gender, non-pecuniary motivation and entrepreneurial ability. Small Business Economics, 19(3), 255–270. doi:10.1023/A:1019698607772 .CrossRef
Carr, D. (1996). Two paths to self-employment? Women’s and men’s self-employment in the United States, 1980. Work and Occupations, 23, 26–53. doi:10.1177/0730888496023001003 .CrossRef
US Census Bureau. Census 2000 SF3.
Clain, S. H. (2000). Gender differences in full-time self-employment. Journal of Economics and Business, 52, 499–513. doi:10.1016/S0148-6195(00)00032-1 .CrossRef
Connelly, R. (1992). Self-employment and providing child care. Demography, 29, 17–29. doi:10.2307/2061360 .CrossRef
Cowling, M., & Hayward, R. (2000). Out of unemployment, research centre for industrial strategy. Birmingham: Birmingham University.
Cowling, M., & Taylor, M. (2001). Entrepreneurial women and men: Two different species? Small Business Economics, 16, 167–175. doi:10.1023/A:1011195516912 .CrossRef
Cramer, J. S., Hartog, J., Jonker, N., & Van Praag, C. M. (2002). Low risk aversion encourages the choice for entrepreneurship: An empirical test of a truism. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 48, 29–36. doi:10.1016/S0167-2681(01)00222-0 .CrossRef
Cristia, J. (2008). The effect of a first child on female labor supply: Evidence from women seeking fertility service. Journal of Human Resources, 43(3), 487–510. doi:10.2307/40057357 .CrossRef
Crompton, R., Brockmann, M., & Lyonette, C. (2005). Attitudes, women’s employment and the domestic division of labour: A cross-national analysis in two waves. Work, Employment & Society, 19, 213–233. doi:10.1177/0950017005053168 .CrossRef
Curl, A. L., Sharpe, D. L., & Noone, J. (2014). Gender differences in self-employment of older workers in the United States and New Zealand. Journal of Sociology and Social Welfare, 16(1), 29–52.
Doms, M., Lewis, E., & Robb, A. (2010). Local labor force education, new business characteristics, and firm performance. Journal of Urban Economics, 67, 61–77. doi:10.1016/j.jue.2009.10.002 .CrossRef
Fairlie, R. (2006). Entrepreneurship among disadvantaged groups: Women, minorities and the less educated. In S. C. Parker, J. Zoltan, & D. R. Audretsch (Eds.), International handbook series on entrepreneurship (Vol. 2, pp. 437–475). New York: Springer. doi:10.1007/978-0-387-32313-8_15 .
Fairlie, R., & Meyer, B. (1996). Ethnic and racial self-employment differences and possible explanations. Journal of Human Resources, 31, 757–793. doi:10.2307/146146 .CrossRef
Fairlie, R. W., & Robb, A. M. (2009). Gender differences in business performance: Evidence from the characteristics of business owners survey. Small Business Economics, 33, 375–395. doi:10.1007/s11187-009-9207-5 .CrossRef
Fernandez, R., & Fogli, A. (2009). Culture: An empirical investigation of beliefs, work, and fertility. American Journal of Economics Macroeconomics, 1, 147–177. doi:10.1257/mac.1.1.146 .CrossRef
Florida, R., & Gates, G. (2001). Technology and tolerance: The importance of diversity to high-tech growth. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution.
Fölster, S. (2000). Do entrepreneurs create jobs? Small Business Economics, 14, 137–148. doi:10.1023/A:1008141516160 .CrossRef
Fossen, F. (2012). Gender differences in entrepreneurial choice and risk aversion: A decomposition based on a microeconometric model. Applied Economics,. doi:10.1080/00036846.2011.554377 .
Georgellis, Y., & Wall, H. J. (2005). Gender differences in self-employment. International Review of Applied Economics, 19(3), 321–342. doi:10.1080/02692170500119854 .CrossRef
General Social Survey. NORC at the University of Chicago. http://www.norc.org/Research/Projects/Pages/general-social-survey.aspx .
Gianelli, G. C. (1996). Women’s transitions in the labor market: A competing risk analysis on German panel data. Journal of Population Economics, 9, 287–300. doi:10.1007/s001480050019 .CrossRef
Glaeser, E., Rosenthal, S., & Strange, W. (2010). Urban economics and entrepreneurship. Journal of Urban Economics, 67, 1–14. doi:10.1016/j.jue.2009.10.005 .CrossRef
Goldin, C. (1990). Understanding the gender gap. New York: Oxford University Press. doi:10.2307/3115857 .
Hamilton, B. H. (2000). Does entrepreneurship pay? An empirical analysis of the returns to self-employment. Journal of Political Economy, 108(3), 604–631. doi:10.1086/262131 .CrossRef
Hundley, G. (2000). Male/female earnings differences in self-employment: The effects of marriage, children, and the household division of labor. Industrial and Labor Relations Review, 54(1), 95–114. doi:10.1177/001979390005400106 .CrossRef
Juhn, C., & Potter, S. (2006). Changes in labor force participation in the United States. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 20(3), 27–46.CrossRef
Killingsworth, M., & Heckman, J. (1986). Female labor supply: A survey. In O. Ashenfelter & R. Layard (Eds.), Handbook of labor economics (Vol. 1, pp. 103–204). Amsterdam: North-Holland.
Levine, R., & Rubinstein, Y. (2013). Smart and illicit: Who becomes an entrepreneur and does it pay? NBER Working Paper 19276. doi:10.3386/w19276 .
Lombard, K. V. (2001). Female self-employment and demand for flexible, nonstandard work schedules. Economic Inquiry, 39(2), 214–237. doi:10.1111/j.1465-7295.2001.tb00062.x .CrossRef
Loscocco, K. A., & Robinson, J. (1991). Barriers to women’s small-business success in the United States. Gender and Society, 5, 511–532. doi:10.1177/089124391005004005 .CrossRef
Madden, J. F. (1981). Why women work closer to home. Urban Studies, 18(2), 181–194. doi:10.1080/00420988120080341 .CrossRef
Moore, R. L. (1983). Employer discrimination: Evidence from self-employed workers. Review of Economics and Statistics, 65(3), 496–501. doi:10.2307/1924197 .CrossRef
Noseleit, F. (2014). Female self-employment and children. Small Business Economics, 43, 549–569. doi:10.1007/s11187-014-9570-8 .CrossRef
Parker, S. (2008). Entrepreneurship among married couples in the United States: A simultaneous probit approach. Labour Economics, 15, 459–481.CrossRef
Pforr, K. (2014). femlogit-implementation of the multinomial logit model with fixed effects. The Stata Journal, 14(4), 847–862.
Renzulli, L. A., Aldrich, H., & Moody, J. (2000). Family matters: Gender, networks, and entrepreneurial outcomes. Social Forces, 79(2), 523–546. doi:10.1093/sf/79.2.523 .CrossRef
Robbins, K. D., Pantusco, L. J., Parker, D. F., & Fuller, B. K. (2000). An empirical assessment of the contribution of small business employment to US state economic performance. Small Business Economics, 15, 293–302. doi:10.1023/A:1011129728483 .CrossRef
Robinson, P. B., & Sexton, E. A. (1994). The effect of education and experience on self-employment success. Journal of Business Venturing, 9(2), 141–156. doi:10.1016/0883-9026(94)90006-X .CrossRef
Rosa, P., Carter, S., & Hamilton, D. (1996). Gender as a determinant of small business performance: Insights from a british study. Small Business Economics, 8, 463–478. doi:10.1007/BF00390031 .CrossRef
Rosenthal, S. S., & Strange, W. (2012). Female entrepreneurship, agglomeration, and a new spatial mismatch. Review of Economics and Statistics, 94(3), 764–788. doi:10.1162/REST_a_00193 .CrossRef
Sapienza, P., Zingales, L., & Maestripieri, D. (2009). Gender differences in financial risk aversion and career choices are affected by testosterone. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 106(36), 15268–15273. doi:10.1073/pnas.0907352106 .CrossRef
Saxenian, A. (1994). Regional advantage: Culture and competition in silicon valley and route 128. Cambridge: Harvard University. doi:10.1017/S0022050700040924 .
Shrestha, S. S., Goetz, S. J., & Rupasingha, A. (2007). Proprietorship formations and US job growth. The Review of Regional Studies, 37, 146–168.
Smith, T.W., Marsden, P., Hout, M., & Kim, J. General Social Surveys, 1972–2012 [machine-readable data file]/Principal Investigator, Tom W. Smith; Co-Principal Investigator, Peter V. Marsden; Co-Principal Investigator, Michael Hout; Sponsored by National Science Foundation. –NORC ed.– Chicago: National Opinion Research Center [producer]; Storrs, CT: The Roper Center for Public Opinion Research, University of Connecticut [distributor], 2013. 1 data file (57,061 logical records) + 1 codebook (3,432p.). – (National Data Program for the Social Sciences, No. 21).
Stephens, H. M., Partridge, M. D., & Faggian, A. (2013). Innovation, entrepreneurship and economic growth in lagging regions. Journal of Regional Science,. doi:10.1111/jors.12019 .
Taniguchi, H. (2002). Determinants of women’s entry into self-employment. Social Science Quarterly, 83, 875–893. doi:10.1111/1540-6237.00119 .CrossRef
US Bureau of Labor Statistics. Restricted Access National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979.
Waldfogel, J. (1997). The effect of children on women’s wages. American Sociological Review, 62, 209–17. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2657300 .
Wang, W., & Parker, K. (2014). Record share of Americans have never married as values, economics and gender patterns change. Pew Research Social and Demographic Trends. http://www.pewsocialtrends.org/2014/09/24/record-share-of-americans-have-never-married/ .
Welington, A. (2006). Self-employment: The new solution for balancing family and career? Labour Economics, 13, 357–386. doi:10.1016/j.labeco.2004.10.005 .CrossRef
Wooldridge, J. M. (2010). Econometric analysis of cross section and panel data. Cambridge: MIT Press.
IPUMS-CPS, University of Minnesota, www.ipums.org .
Yao, R., & Hanna, S. (2005). The effect of gender and marital status on financial risk tolerance. Journal of Personal Finance, 4, 66–85.
Zissimopoulos, J. M., & Karoly, L. A. (2007). Transitions to self-employment at older ages: The role of wealth, health, health insurance and other factors. Labour Economics, 14, 269–295. doi:10.1016/j.labeco.2005.08.002 .CrossRef - 作者单位：Carlianne Patrick (1)
Heather Stephens (2)
Amanda Weinstein (3)
1. Department of Economics, Andrew Young School of Policy Studies, Georgia State University, P.O. Box 3992, Atlanta, GA, 30302-3992, USA
2. Agricultural and Resource Economics, West Virginia University, P.O. Box 6108, Morgantown, WV, 26506-6108, USA
3. Economics Department, University of Akron, 290 Buchtel Commons, Akron, OH, 44325-1908, USA - 刊物类别：Business and Economics
- 刊物主题：Economics
Management
Microeconomics
Entrepreneurship
Industrial Organization - 出版者：Springer Netherlands
- ISSN：1573-0913
文摘
Previous research focuses on factors that influence self-employment participation, in part because entrepreneurship has been associated with economic growth. This literature has tended to focus only on men or the comparison of women to men, while ignoring substantial heterogeneity in employment decisions among women. By investigating the impact of individual, household, and local economic and cultural characteristics on the labor market outcomes of different groups of women, we get a more comprehensive picture of their self-employment decision. Recognizing self-employment as one of multiple labor market choices, we use multinomial logit and two confidential, geocoded micro-level datasets to study women`s career choices in urban areas. We find that the effects of various push and pull factors differ between married and unmarried women. In particular, more progressive gender attitudes pull married women into self-employment, while household burdens associated with children push them into self-employment. For unmarried women, the local business climate and individual characteristics have the strongest influence. In both cases, the motivations for women are quite different than men. Keywords Female labor force participation Self-employment Gender Culture